Cable Fault Prototype

15 kV class underground cable fault tester
by Clair Karl Nystrom

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in
Electrical Engineering
Montana State University
© Copyright by Clair Karl Nystrom (1999)
Abstract:
Utility power companies which service residential customers with 7200 VAC underground cable
circuits (15 kV Class Cable) that fault (circuit interrupter activated) are faced with determining circuit
integrity prior to energizing the circuit. Current testing techniques involve energizing the circuit with a
new fuse. If the fuse holds, the faulted circuit is cleared. If fused, however, the circuit is systematically
sectionalized until the faulted section is localized and isolated. This sectional troubleshooting process
produces line surges on adjacent customer circuits, causing such inconveniences as the necessity of
rebooting computers, and stresses on the power system, lighting, and appliances.
Power cable testing equipment presently exists which could be used to pretest the circuit, however, the
equipment may not be economically feasible or convenient to use. The object of this study is to
investigate an economically feasible, portable tester which can pretest a faulted circuit and report the
approximate distance to a detected fault.
A review of applicable literature; power industry products; cable and connected transformer
characteristics; circuit simulation and fault analysis is included.
A micro-controlled prototype using a TDR time-to-digital technique to determine cable/fault distance,
coupled with a high-voltage impulse generator (thumper) is designed and demonstrated. Modular
circuit design, implementation, test results, and parts lists are outlined. The test results reported are for
various cable circuit conditions: open circuit, short circuit, high-impedance fault, minimum resistive
termination that results in a nofault detection, maximum resistive termination that causes a detected
fault, high-impedance fault with a transformer, minimum resistive termination that results in a nofault
detection with a transformer, and maximum resistive termination that causes a detected fault with a
transformer.
This thesis concludes with a brief summary of the study, conclusions drawn from the prototype results,
and resulting recommendations.
15 kV CLASS UNDERGROUND
CABLE FAULT TESTER
by
Clair Karl Nystrom
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree
of
Master of Science
in
Electrical Engineering
MONTANA STATE UNTVERSITY-BOZEMAN

Bozeman, Montana
April 1999
© COPYRIGHT
by
Clair Karl Nystrom
1999
All Rights Reserved

APPROVAL
Of a thesis submitted by
Clair Karl Nystrom
This thesis has been read by each member of the thesis committee and has been
found to be satisfactory regarding content, English usage, format, citations, bibliographic
style, and consistency, and is ready for submission to the College of Graduate Studies.
Baldev Thapar, Committee Chair

(Signature)
Approved for the Department of Electrical Engineering
John P. Hanton, E.C.E., Dept. Head

Date
Approved for the College of Graduate Studies
Bruce R. McLeod, E.C.E., Dean

(Signature) y Date
STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE
In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a master's
degree at Montana State University-Bozeman, I agree that the Library shall make it
available to borrowers under rules of the Library.
If have indicated my intention to copyright this thesis by including a copyright
notice page, copying is allowable only for scholarly purposes, consistent with "fair use"
as prescribed in the U.S. Copyright Law. Requests for permission for extended quotation
from or reproduction of this thesis in whole or in parts may be granted only by the
copyright holder.
Signature
Date A-p/QA Z r j / ? ? ?
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1. INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................I
Purpose................................................................ I
ts> to
Assumptions And Limitations......................
Summary OfThe Remainder OfThis Thesis
2. LITERATURE AND INDUSTRY REVIEW ................. ......................................... 3
Introduction..............................................................................................................3
Patents......................................................................................................................3
Technical Journals...................................................................................................4
Industry Publications.............................................................................................. 7
Product Advertisements.........................................................................................7
Product Literature...................................................................................................8
3. METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................................9
Introduction...................................................................................................... 9
System Component Characteristics..................... 9
Testing T echnique...................................... .....................................j....................11
Fault Location Process...........................................................................................12
Power Supply................ 15
4. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA...............................................16
Cable Testing Issues..............................................................................................16
Cable Characteristics............................... 16
Cable Required Charging Energy................................. 20
Cable Simulation.......................................................................................... 20
Residential Pad Mounted Transformer............. 21
Embedded Controller................................................................................... 27
TDR Supply Module............................................. 28
TDR Transmitter Module.............................................................................34
TDR Receiver/D elector Module....,........ .....................................................39
Time-to-Digital Converter............................................................................43
High-Voltage Supply Controls and Voltage Monitor Buffers..................... 49
High-Voltage Test Section.....................................................................................52
HV Capacitor.......................................................... !............................................54
Discharge Resistor.................................................................................................54
High-voltage Switch..............................................................................................55
ARM Filter.............................................................................................................59
TABLE OF CONTENTS—Continued
Page
TDR Coupler..........................................................................................................64
EM/ES Noise Control............................................................................................67
Battery Supply.......................................................................................................67
Battery Charger......................................... 68
Low-Voltage Supplies...........................................................................................68
Project Test Results.............................................................. 70
Project Demonstration Anomalies.........................................................................92
5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS................ 93
Summary........................................................................................ 93
Conclusions............................................................................................................94
Recommendations..................................................................................................95
REFERENCES..................................................................................................................97
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................... 99
APPENDICES................................................................................................................. 101
Appendix A—Underground Coaxial Cable Ratings.................................. :............ 102
Appendix B—Residential Pad-Mounted 60Hz Single

Phase Transformer Ratings................................... 104
Appendix C—Parts Lists 106

LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table I . Cable Tester Manufacturer - Supplier List...................................................... 7

2. Cable Fault Locators................................................................................. 8
3. Cable Fault Tracers................. 8
4. Cable 'Thumper's.................................................. 8
5. Cable Testing Issues........................................................................................10
6. Testing Technique Design Requirement Issues...............................................15
7. Power Supply Issues........................................................................................15
8. Embedded Controller Input-Output Requirements......................................... 27
9. TDR Supply Inductor Characteristics............................................................. 29
10. MTP10N40 TMOS FET Selected Characteristics.......................................... 31
11. MURS140T3 Ultrafast Power Rectifier Selected Characteristics.................. 31
12. TL598 Pulse-Width-Modulator Control Selected Characteristics..........:......32
13. VP0650N3 Selected Characteristics............................................................... 35
14.. VN0650N3 Selected Characteristics........................................ 37
15. EPM70-32LC44-7 Selected Timing delays........................................... 45
16. MT .2350 Programmable 8-bit D/A Converter Selected Characteristics........ 49
17. LM2904 Dual Operational Amplifier Selected Characteristics...................... 50
18. Pros and Cons of IGBTs and MOSFETs........................................................ 56
19. Pros and Cons of Thyristors and GTOs.......................................................... 57
20. Pros and Cons of Spark Gaps...................................... 58
21. Pros and Cons of High-voltage Relays.................................................. 59
22. Toroid Core Specifications.................. 61
23. Cable Circuit Tests...........................................................................................70
24. Cable Test Model - RG59U Characteristics................................................... 71
25. T est#I Operator Display LV Results........... ....... 74
26. Test #2 Operator Display LV Results............................................................. 75
27. Test #3 Operator Display LV Results............................................................. 76
28. Test #3 Operator Display HV Results............................................................ 77
29. Test #4 LV Operator Display Results............................................................. 78
30. Test #4 HV Operator Display Results...................................... 79
31. Test #5 HV Operator Display Results........................................................... 80
33. Test #6 HV Operator Display Results............................................................ 82
34. Test #7 LV Operator Display Results....................................... 83
36. Test #8 LV Operator Display Results................. ,......................................... 85
vii
LIST OF TABLES—Continued
Page
40. Test #10 LV Operator Display Results............................................................89

41. Test #10 HV Operator Display Results.......................................................... 90
42. Test #11 HV Operator Display Results ...........................................................91
43. Parts List Cost Summary......................... 94
44. Underground Coaxial Cable Ratings.............................................................103
45. Residential Pad-mounted 60Hz Single Phase Transformer Ratings............. 105
46. HV Section Parts List.................................................................................... 107
47. Main Board Parts List..................................... 107
48. TDR Supply Parts List...................................................................................109
49. TDR Transmitter Parts List............................................... 109
50. TDR Coupler Parts L ist............................................................. *................ 110
51. TDR Receiver Detector Parts L ist............................................................... HO
52. Main Power Parts List................................................................................. . IH
vin
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure I . Operator Panel and Embedded Controller Block Diagram............................. 11

2. TDR Block Diagram......................................................................................-IS
3. High-voltage Block Diagram...........................................................................14
4. Coaxial Cable Distributed Parameter Model.................................................. 16
5. Coaxial Cable Pictorial....................... .......................................................... • 16
6. Distributed Model Transfer Function..............................................................18
7. Cable Impulse Response..................................................................................19
8. Unfaulted Cable Simulation Model................................................................ 23
9. Unfaulted Cable Simulation Results............................................................... 24
10. Faulted Cable Simulation Model.................................................................... 25
11. Faulted Cable Simulation Results........................................... 26
12. TDR Supply Inductor Current....................................... 30
13. TDR Supply Schematic....................................................................................33
14. TDR Supply Response.....................................................................................34
15. TDR Transmitter Schematic............................................................................36
16. TDR Receiver/D elector Schematic...... ...........................................................41
17. TDR Receiver/Detector................................................................................... 43
18. Time-to-Digital Converter Logic Diagram.................................................... 47
19. Time-to-Digital Converter Output Logic Diagram........................................ 48
20. High-Voltage Supply Controls and Voltage Monitor Buffers Schematic..... 51
21. High-voltage Storage and Control Schematic..................................... *..........53
22. ARM Filter Schematic....................................................................................59
23. TDR Coupler Schematic..................................................................................64
24. TDR Coupler Analysis Model........................................... 64
25. TDR Coupler Analysis Magnitude vs Frequency Plot...... .............................66
26. TDR Coupler Anaylsis Angular vs Frequency Plot........................................ 66
27. Main Power Schematic....................................................................................69
28. Test Set-up and Node Monitor Points............................................................ Vl
29. Lowest No-fault Resistance Test Model........................................................ 72
30. Test Cable Model Impulse Response vs Distance Plot.................................. 72
31. Highest Fault Resistance Test M odel............................................................ 73
32. High Impedance Breakdown Test Model................................ ......................73
33. Pad-Mount Utility Transformer Test Model.................................................. 73
34. Test #1 LV Probed Results........................ 74
35. Test #2 LV Probed Results............................................................................ 75
36. Test #3 LV Probed Results............................................................................ 76
37. Test #3 HV Probed Results............................................................................ 77
38. Test #4 LV Probed Results.............. 78
IX
TTST OF FTGTTRES-Continued
Page
39. Test #4 HV Probed Results... ....79

40. Test #5 HV Probed Results... ....80
41. Test #6 LV Probed Results... .... 81
42. Test #6 HV Probed Results... .... 82
44 Test #7 HV Probed Results... .... 84
46. Test #8 HV Probed Results... .... 86
47. Test #9 LV Probed Results.. .... 87
48. Test #9 HV Probed Results.. ....88
49. Test #10 LV Probed Results .... 89
, 50. Test #10 HV Probed Results ....90
51. Test #11 HV Probed Results ....91
ABSTRACT
Utility power companies which service residential customers with 7200 VAC
underground cable circuits (15 kV Class Cable) that fault (circuit interrupter activated)
are faced with determining circuit integrity prior to energizing the circuit. Current testing
techniques involve energizing the circuit with a new fuse. If the fuse holds, the faulted
circuit is cleared. If fused, however, the circuit is systematically sectionalized until the
faulted section is localized and isolated. This sectional troubleshooting process produces
line surges on adjacent customer circuits, causing such inconveniences as the necessity of
rebooting computers, and stresses on the power system, lighting, and appliances.
Power cable testing equipment presently exists which could be used to pretest the
circuit, however, the equipment may not be economically feasible or convenient to use.
The object of this study is to investigate an economically feasible, portable tester which
can pretest a faulted circuit and report the approximate distance to a detected fault.
A review of applicable literature; power industry products; cable and connected
transformer characteristics; circuit simulation and fault analysis is included.
A micro-controlled prototype using a TDR time-to-digital technique to determine
cable/fault distance, coupled with a high-voltage impulse generator (thumper) is designed
and demonstrated. Modular circuit design, implementation, test results, and parts lists are
outlined. The test results reported are for various cable circuit conditions: open circuit,
short circuit, high-impedance fault, minimum resistive termination that results in a no
fault detection, maximum resistive termination that causes a detected fault, high-
impedance fault with a transformer, minimum resistive termination that results in a no
fault detection with a transformer, and maximum resistive termination that causes a
detected fault with a transformer.
This thesis concludes with a brief summary of the study, conclusions drawn from
the prototype results, and resulting recommendations.
I
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Utility power companies which service residential customers with 7200 VAC
underground cable circuits (15 kV Class Cable) that experience a fault condition (circuit
breaker activated) are faced with determining circuit integrity prior to energizing the
circuit. The testing technique currently used by most power companies to evaluate a
faulted circuit involves energizing the circuit with a new fuse and, if the fuse holds, then
the circuit fault is cleared. However, if fused, the circuit is systematically sectionalized,
re-fused and re-energized until the faulted section is localized and isolated. This
sectional troubleshooting process causes undesirable stress on the power system, and line
surges on adjacent customer circuits, resulting in added stresses to motors, lighting, and
appliances, and often necessitating rebooting of computers.
Utility power company service personnel need a portable device that can be
quickly connected to any de-energized residential circuit to determine if a fault exists. If
a fault is detected, the approximate distance from the testing location to the fault needs to
be determined.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the feasibility of developing an
economical and conveniently portable underground cable tester which has the ability to
i
2
determine fault/no-fault conditions (with estimated distances to detected faults) of de
energized circuits, thus eliminating the risk to customers' property which is inherent in
the commonly used sectional troubleshooting process.
Assumptions And Limitations
For convenient portability, it is assumed the cable tester to be under 1.0 cubic foot
in size and less than 50 pounds in weight. For cost considerations, a market value of less
than $3000 is assumed to be feasible. For normal/fault test reliability, 80% or better is
assumed. For fault location, accuracy of within 5 feet (ft) is assumed.
Summary OfThe Remainder OfThis Thesis
Chapter 2 discusses a limited literature review of patents, technical journals,
power industry publications, periodical product advertisements and manufacturer’s
product literature which address underground cable fault detection processes and
equipment. Chapter 3 identifies system characteristics that need to be addressed,
including which process to use when performing a cable test; which instrumentation
technique to use for sensing a fault; and, the fault location process and portable power
requirements. Chapter 4 presents analytical data on system component characteristics, a
summary of high-voltage (HV) switch devices, instrumentation concerns, a fault location
process, portable power requirements and prototype results. Chapter 5 summarizes this
study, states conclusions to the data reported in Chapter 4, and makes recommendations
for future study.

3
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE AND INDUSTRY REVIEW
Introduction
A literature search was performed to determine what technological and/or
industrial techniques were available or being used to meet this need of power companies
as outlined in the previous chapter. The search was limited to appropriate US. patents
listed in the last five years; technical journals (IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and
Measurement, IEEE Transactions' on Circuits and Systems, and IEEE Transactions oh
Power Delivery); indices to power industry publications; periodical product
advertisements over the past seven years; and manufacturer's product literature.
Patents
Of the 25 related patents found, No. 5,210,498 is the most applicable to this
project. Titled "Detector for Locating Underground Cable and Faults Therein Using
High-Powered Electromagnet", it describes a method for above-ground fault location by
transmitting an inducted signal into the cable and monitoring the signal on the surface.
4
Technical Journals
Pintelon [1] proposes that a Gaussian, frequency-domain, maximum likelihood
estimator can determine the transfer function of a linear, continuous-time, two-port
system with time delay. The estimator can be used to locate a discontinuity in a cable.
Fault location was based on the Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) principle. The cable
was stimulated with a short duration pulse. The stimulus and first reflection were
sampled and the first F spectral line determined by the fast Fourier transform (FFT) is
sent to the estimation algorithm. The propagation velocity of the cable was required to
determine the final location of the fault. A simplified analytical model reported by
Abullma'atti [2] involves the modeling of a resistively or capacitively (RC) loaded line
based on finding the approximate poles of the transfer function. This transfer model
claims to make it easier to implement a computer-aided analysis, however, it is not as
accurate as other published techniques.
A transient propagation analysis through nonuni form structures and uniform lines
was reported by Schutt-Aine [3]. The analysis uses a scattering parameter formulation in
the time domain to establish closed-form algorithms for current and voltage variables in
the line. The technique was applied to microstrips, uniform, and tapered lines.
A digital signal process (DSP) algorithm was developed to estimate the location
of a fault by a line parameter estimation technique. Van Biesen [4], This process was
applied to sampled TDR data of a known unfaulted cable for calibration of line
parameters and compared with a faulted line to locate the discontinuity. The technique
5
requires the knowledge of the propagation speed for accuracy. The process is reported to
resolve accuracy’s of 30 cm, using a 20 MHz-8 bit sampler.
Makoto [5] reports a nonlinearity measuring method using two frequencies to
determine electrical circuit components. Two currents of different frequencies were
introduced into a device which selectively measured the multi-order of nonlinearity
distortion from the harmonics present. The technique was applied to passive devices to
demonstrate the results.
Fiber optic technology has been applied to locate cable faults, Kawai [6]. This
technique requires a fiber optic distributed temperature sensor (FODT) composite cable.
The premise is that a temperature rise occurs from the arc at a ground fault location.
Detection of the temperature rise is based on the Raman backscattering light which is
temperature-dependent and composed of Stokes light and anti-Stokes light (incident).
Accuracy was reported to be one meter (m) within a maximum measuring distance of ten
kilometers (km).
A continuous monitoring location system was developed for a 66 kilovolt (kV)
underground cable using an optical-to-electrical (O/E) converter and a fast, 16
megasamples per second (Msps), analog-to-digital converter (ADC), frioue [7], The
system topology includes a 1000 m segmented cable section with fast, I MHz bandwidth,
optical current transformers (CT) mounted at each end. Optical fiber interconnects the
CTs to the O/E converter, ADC, and CPU. When a ground fault happens the surge
current flows from the point of the fault to both ends of the cable. The system monitors
6
the time delay of the surge current from each end and determines the fault location. The
reported location error of the system is less than 10 meters in a 1000 meter cable length.
The characterization of fault-generated traveling waves and properties was
empirically determined for underground residential distribution (UED) cable systems,
Wiggins [8], Some of the characteristics of the fault wave are reported as a damped
square, sinusoid, or alternating pulse waveform. A wave peak amplitude of 10 kV / 300
Amps(A) near the fault, and 20 kV /1 0 A near the open end was measured for a 15 kV
tree-retardant cross-linked polyethylene (TRXLP) primary cable with a surge impedance
of approximately 34 ohms (Q). The waveform risetime of 20 nanoseconds (ns) at the
open end (no transformer) was measured to be 60 ns at 1,100 ft from the fault, 100 ns at
1847 ft from the fault, and 20 ns at the open end, 90 ft from the fault. The maximum
frequency component is 50 MHz near the fault. The fault duration ranged between a
maximum of 80 microseconds (ps) and a minimum of 4 ps. The cable propagation
velocity varies from 440 ft/ps to 570 ft/ps for URD cables and 503 ft/ps for TRXLP. A
U.S. patent (No. 5,206,595) has been issued for digital circuitry of a calculator-sized fault
locator unit intended to be installed at the padmount.
There is an automated fault locating system which implements a two-step
procedure, Steiner [9]. The first step determines the fault between two transformers and
the second step pinpoints the fault. The process for the first step involves the operator
entering estimated distances between all connected transformers into the testing device,
and performing a TDR test. The automated testing device determines the fault location
between two transformers. The second step involves the operator isolating the cable
7
section and reconnecting the test device at one end of the section. Another TDR test is
generated to estimate the fault location within 2% accuracy. An antenna is then placed
on both sides of the suspected fault location and another TDR test is generated. The test
device calculates the relative distance to the fault from the antenna. This process
determines the fault within 250 centimeters (cm). The defense for this process is that the
wave propagation rate is not predictable enough to get precise accuracy's in finding the
location. The demonstration site was at Purdue University. Details of the antenna design
and some empirical data are reported by Weeks [10].
Industry Publications
Power industry periodical/s: ELECTRICAL WORLD
Product Advertisements
Searching the last five years of ELECTRICAL WORLD for related advertised
fault locators revealed the manufacturer/suppliers listed in Table I .
Table I . Cable Tester Manufacturer - Supplier List

AVO International Hipotronics, Inc. HDW Electronics, Inc
Biddle Instruments PO Box 414 5897 Colony Drive
510 Township Line Road Bethlehem, PA 18017 800-727-4476
Route 22 North 215-837-9803
Blue Bell, PA 19422-2795 . Brewster, NY 10509-0414
800-366-5543
8
Product Literature
Manufacturer's product literature was reviewed for the equipment detailed in
Table 2, Table 3, and Table 4.
Table 2. Cable Fau t Locators

SOURCE MFG/MODEL DESCRIPTION COST
HDW Electronics W204/M501 VLF Cable Test Set. 0.1 Hz $ 56,100
bipolar pulse wave.
HDW Electronics T3000/M219-SW Digital Time Domain $ 16,440
Reflectometer / Arc Reflection
Filter. Requires 'thumper'.
Accuracy 1% of range.
Hipotronics M602 HV Reflecting Pulse fault locator $ 14,750 ,
Requires 'thumper'. Accuracy 1%
of range.
HDW Electronics System 1000 Analog Time Domain $ 10,800
Reflectometer with Arc Reflection
Filter. Requires 'thumper'.
Accuracy 2% of range.
Table 3. Cable Fau t Tracers

AVO Biddle / SFL-2000 Dual purpose locator and tracer. $ 4,450
International Uses 11.11 Hz for locating and
7776.4 Hz for tracing.
HDW Electronics Tl 6/9 Digiphone. Acoustic / electro $ 3,100
magnetic pickup for pinpoint fault
location.
Hipotronics FD202C Acoustic/electro-magnetic pickup ■ $2,800
for pinpoint fault location.
Table 4. Cable 'Thumper's

HDW Electronics Tl 9.1 7.5/15 kV, 800 J $ 10,500
Hipotronics CF30/15-8C 900 J $ 7,400
Of the products listed in Table I, none meet the industry's need for hand
portability, size, weight, and overall cost.

9
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the feasibility of developing a small hand-
portable, underground cable tester which can determine fault/no-fault conditions of de
energized circuits and estimates the distance to the fault while residential transformers are
connected, and which also meets portability (size under 1.0 cubic feet), weight (under 50
pounds) and cost (under $3000) constraints.
System Component Characteristics
The first design issue addressed is which parameter(s) (voltage, current,
resistance, impedance, etc.) in the cable circuit to instrument such that faulted and normal
conditions can be discriminated. Since the objective is to determine the integrity of the
power circuit while de-energized, low DC voltage and low current measurements could
be used to calculate the resistance of the circuit, with a predetermined low resistance
value being an indicator of a fault. However, this testing technique is limited to low-
voltage breakdown faults and to direct short-circuits due to the primary resistance of the
attached transformers being of the order of one ohm (see Appendix A.) It is evident,
from the literature review, that the more difficult and frequent fault condition is the high-
10
resistance breakdown in which the circuit faults only when the nominal operating
voltage, 7200 VAC (10.2 kV peak), is applied. This fault condition is most frequently
caused by an inter-electrode insulation compromise (aging process, absorption of water,
mechanical deformation, etc.). In order to test the cable under these conditions, a high-
voltage needs to be applied to the cable in such a manner as to not have adverse effects to
equipment or appliances on the customer’s side of the transformer. It is proposed that a
measurable “fast” (>600 Hz) energy pulse can be used to charge a cable to near peak
voltage while having minimal effect on power customer’s equipment. In light of the
above, several cable testing issues posed in Table 5 are evaluated by use of published
component electrical characteristics, analytical analysis, cable model simulation
(PSPICE), and prototype results in the Chapter 4.
Table 5. Cable Testing Issues

CABLE ISSUES
I What are thelSkV Class Underground Cable electrical characteristics?
2 What are the energy requirements to fully charge the cable to near peak voltage?
3 What are the normal and faulted cable energy impulse responses?
4 What are the residential pad-mounted transformer characteristics relative to a
‘fast’ energy pulse response?
5 What is the effect of an energy pulse on the customer’s side of the transformer?
A testing technique is next examined.

11
Testing Technique
An embedded controller is used to interface the user and testing components, as
shown in Figure I.
HVOn 4-
MONHV - -L C D E N -
HVReIay 4- — LCDRW- 20x1 Character LCD DISPLAY
BIeedReIay 4- — LCD R S-
TDRDrvrHV 4- -DATA — * Battery^
Low Fault • TEST
— LEDBatLo — a Charger VOLTAGE
Q
CC
— LEDFauIt — NoFauIt •
UJ
On
Q g — LEDNoFauIt- a Main [0 ]U p
TDRStartTest 4- Q 0 — LEDReady — Power Velocity [o]
TDRDetStart —
UJ
DD 1 Factor I unitsJ [ o ] Dn
-VFU pS W —
TDRDetNoFauIt — O o n [o ] [o ]U p • Ready
O -VFDnSW —
TDRDetFauIt —
-UnitsSW — OFF [o] [ o ] Dn
[^ st
HVTest 4-
TDRDetRS 4- -TVUpSW —
TDRDetEN 4- -TVDnSW — OPERATOR PANEL
TDR DATA 4— TestSW ------
HVREF 4- DAC J — Beep----------
CLOCK RESET
Figure I . Operator Panel and Embedded Controller Block Diagram
The operator panel includes functional groupings of status and control switches.
In the primary power group, Main Power On is indicated by a green LED and controlled
by the ON and OFF switches. A yellow LED indicates when the charger is connected
(Charger On) and a red LED lights when the battery condition is too low to continue. In
the velocity factor group, two switches, Up and Dn, are used to select a velocity factor
between 50% and 100%. A Units switch is used to select between displayed distances in
feet or meters. In the Test group, two switches, Up and Dn, are used to select the high-
voltage (HV) test voltage and a yellow LED, Ready, indicates when the HV Test switch
12
can be pressed. Two LEDs, a red Fault and a green No Fault, are used to indicate the
results of low or high-voltage cable tests. The LCD display shows the velocity factor,
distance, and HV textual values and a graphical display indicates a relative battery
charge condition. A beeper is provided as user feedback to switch selections.
Fault Location Process
Literature review revealed that Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) is a popular
technique used to determine fault distance. This technique works on the principle that
I
energy traveling in a medium, cable in this case, takes an increment of time to traverse
distance and continues until a discontinuity, change in impedance, of the medium is
encountered. When the discontinuity is an open ended cable the energy reflects in the
same polarity and traverses the medium in the opposite direction. If the discontinuity is a
short-circuit, however, the energy reflects in the opposite polarity (energy conservation
met for boundary conditions in both cases). If the instrumentation point in the system is
at the cable tester, then time variations in the reflected energy could determine if the
cable is faulted (reverse polarity) as well as the approximate distance to the fault (one-
half the time between start of the test pulse to the detected reflection).
The TDR process, depicted in Figure 2, connects to the test cable through the
TDR CONNECTOR and is used to determine the test cable’s low-voltage response. The
TDR TRANSMITTER produces test pulses with sufficient energy supplied from the
TDR SUPPLY to transverse the cable circuit in both directions and be detected by the
TDR RECEIVER/DETECTOR. The output of the TDR RECEIVER/DETECTOR

13
produces a HI signal for the test pulse and its unfaulted reflection or a LO signal when a
fault is detected in the cable circuit. The TIME-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTER latches the
state of the reflected pulse (HI or LO) and measures time by counting clock ticks between
the test pulse and the reflected pulse. The TDR DATA is presented to the processor for
scaling and displaying to the user. For high-voltage testing, a Thumper is added.
TDR
TDRDrvrHV
SU PPLY
TDR
CONNECTOR TDR
TDRStartTest
TRANSMITTER
TDRDetStart
TDRDetNoFauIt
TDRDetFauIt
Tl ME-TO-D IGITAL
R E C E IV E R / HVReIay
CONVERTER
DETECTOR TDRDetRS
TDRDetEN
TDR DATA
TD C
CLOCK
Figure 2. TDR Block Diagram
A Thumper is a device used by the power industry to assist service personnel in
locating the position of a faulted cable. The Thumper presents high-voltage pulses which
create a "thump" sound at the site of a breakdown in an isolated cable circuit. Thumpers
are also used to “bum” the fault location to such an extent that physical destruction
occurs, aiding in locating the position. Thumpers are generally large, heavy, and
14
expensive, so one intention of this study is to design a scaled down Thumper for use in
this proposed testing technique.
The concept of a Thumper to perform the high-voltage cable test is used (see the
HV Storage/Control box in Figure 3) in which a parallel circuit capacitor is charged to a
desired energy level and selectively switched via the HVRelay control into the TEST
CABLE circuit. The BleedRelay control in this circuit is used to decrease the stored
energy when the user selects a lower test voltage or turns the primary power off.
TEST CABLE
LV S U P P L Y ■
HVOn ■
HVREF ■
MONHV
Figure 3. High-voltage Block Diagram
There is an incompatibility for direct interconnection between the high-voltage
test (Thumper) and the low-voltage TDR test circuit described above. Since there is only
a need for the high-voltage test to charge the cable only to a level that activates a high-
impedance fault, the high-voltage pulse can be conditioned so its dominate frequency
component is much lower than the TDR's operating frequency range. The ARM (Arc
Reflection Method) FILTER functions as the high-voltage test pulse conditioner and is
designed so the test pulse frequency component is at least an order of magnitude above
the nominal 60 Hertz (Hz) operating frequency of the test cable circuit. The TDR
COUPLER circuit is a bi-directional high-pass circuit, with its cut-off frequency set to be
15
at least an order of magnitude above the response frequency of the HV STORAGE-ARM
FILTER. The design considerations regarding the above testing technique are listed in
Table 6 and are addressed in Chapter 4.
Table 6. Testing Technique Design Requirement Issues

What are the requirements of the:
I Embedded controller
2 TDR SUPPLY
3 TDR TRANSMITTER
4 TDR RECEIVER/DETECTOR
5 TlME-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTER,
6 HV SUPPLY used to charge the capacitor
7 HV STORAGE
8 High-voltage switches used to control the voltage test pulse and the discharge
circuit
9 Discharge circuit
10 ARM FILTER
11 TDR COUPLER
Power Supply
After determining the circuitry needed to perform the cable testing, the last issue
of concern is how to power the system such that it will be convenient for the user.
System power requirements issues are listed in Table 7 and addressed in Chapter 4.
Table 7. Power Supply Issues

POWER ISSUES
I What are the total power requirements for the system?
2 What are the battery requirements, size, weight, and cost to operate the tester on
a stand-alone basis during a 6-8 hour work period?
3 What are the requirements of a charger for the battery?
16
CHAPTER 4
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
Cable Testing Issues
Cable Characteristics
Cable parameters considered in the analysis for the cable tester include the per
unit length values of Resistance (R), Inductance (L), Capacitance (C), and Conductance
(G) as illustrated in Figure 4.
RÂ Lâ
GtÂ-=
Figure 4. Coaxial Cable Distributed Parameter Model
Standard cable cross-section dimensions are d = 8.242 mm and D = 17.13 mm, as
illustrated in Figure 5, for a 15 kV class coaxial power cable with aluminum wire and
cross-linked Polyethylene (XLPE) dielectric insulation with sr=2.9 (see Appendix B.)
17
Using free space parameters, aluminum conductivity, and XLPE loss [11] of
<7a = 35.4 M /Llo= l251 /li-

meter meter
F
S0 = 8.854 p- iXLPE Sf-
meter " ' meter
the per unit length cable parameters for resistance (DC and 10 MHz), inductance,
capacitance, conductance, characteristic impedance, phase velocity, and velocity constant
are as follows:
4
<yA7td"
530 //
meter ''IOMHz -LId- S L 30.2 m- ^
v2#/ D meter
/do
:146 n- C=I ^ =2 2 1 ^
Vu / meter meter
G J l n a ^ _ 43y —_ k„ = ■ = 0.587
f T \\
meter meters
299.8 M
sec
Zo —J — = 26 Q 1 I 76M l L I
4lc sec
18
The distributed model is used for wave transmission analysis and the lumped
parameter model is used for energy analysis. The lumped parameters for a maximum
cable length of 5000 meters are:
R-DCmax 2.65 O,
Lmax = 730 pH, and
Cmax = 1.10 pp.
The transfer function for the distributed model is
-z
T F (/) = 20 log
2nfRC + i(4n2f 2L C - \) ;
The frequency response of this model, plotted in Figure 6, exhibits a flat response
up to 10 MHz, a 60 dB peak at 28 MHz, and a -40 dB/decade at 40 MHz. This response
indicates that the cable acts like a low pass filter with a cutoff frequency around 40 MHz
(25ns). An analysis assumption is made that the cable characteristics are uniformly
distributed.
R e ( T F t f ) ) 30
1 * 106 1 * 107 1 * 10 ®
£
Figure 6. Distributed Model Transfer Function

19
The time impulse response of the transfer function is
X Z
f-1 R I 1 J r 2C - A L
impulse (0 exp sinh
J r 2C2 - alc / <2 ^ y X2 JUc
in which the exponential term is the decay portion and the sinh term is the oscillatory
portion. The oscillatory portion matches the peak displayed in Figure 6, at 28 MHz
(t=35.7 ns). The decay expression is plotted in Figure 7 and shows that for a 50 ns TDR
test pulse width, R iomhz, the amplitude is down 80% at 10 ps, a distance of approximately
2000 ft where a 500 ns TDR test pulse, R imhz, is down 80% around 32 ps, a distance of
approximately 6000 ft.
o io ; 30 40
------ R(IMHz) T im e , (us)
------ R( I OMHz)
Figure 7. Cable Impulse Response
20
The circuit’s decay time constant at 10 MHz is
L 146 tiH
TC 4.83 ps .
Rw MHz 30.2 mQ.
Cable Required Charging Energy
The energy required to charge the cable to 10 kV without loss is
E charge _y
~ ^
2s-i
C ' ^ m ax
55 J
and the energy used to sustain a characteristic impedance breakdown for 2 ps is I Joule
(J), resulting in a total required energy of 56 J to test the cable.
Cable Simulation
A PSPICE cable simulation of an unfaulted two-section cable circuit (Figure 8)
includes models for: a high-voltage supply (Cpso, Rpso2, Rpso3, CpsoI, and RpsoI); a
current limit resistor (Rol); an energy storage capacitor (Col); a 2000:1 instrumentation
voltage divider (Ro2, Ro3); a low pass filter (Rio4, Cmo2); two lengths of cable (T l, T2);
shunt leakage's (Ro5, Ro6); and a representative cable connector Bushing capacitance
(Co3, Co4). The PSPICE per unit lossy cable model includes a shunt dielectric loss
conductance. A default conductance value of IpS is used in the simulation.
The simulation result is illustrated in Figure 9, using an initial condition of 10 kV
on the energy storage capacitor, a run time of 160 ps, and first cable length of 1000 m
and 5000 m for the second cable value (Lval). The cable’s velocity factor is
21
2 * 6000 meters
= 0.583.
meters
(68.715 H 299.8 M
< sec
A factor of two is used in the above calculation to account for the actual wave travel
distance to and from the reflection point. The simulation result indicates that 57% of the
initial voltage is still in the cable when the maximum cable length, 6000 m, is reflected..
A PSPICE cable simulation of a faulted two-section cable circuit with all the
same parameters as the unfaulted simulation, except for the end terminated resistance of
resistance 25 Q placed at the end of the second section, is shown in Figure 10.
The simulation results depicted in Figure 11 show that for either length of the
second section, 1100 or 6000 m, the plot decays with the same rate through the
simulation time; less than 20% of the initial voltage is in the cable at 160 ps.
Residential Pad Mounted Transformer
Published specifications relating to pulse or high-frequency characteristics of
residential pad mounted transformers were not found. However, after careful review of
the literature, study, and discussions with professors in the power industry, it was
determined that the primary component affecting high-frequency responses is the
bushing’s capacitance (between 100 pF and 1000 pF). The simulations in Figure 8 and
Figure 10, include a chosen 500 pF shunt capacitance in each cable section to account for
bushing capacitances.
22
Steiner reports [9] that a 10 kV impulse in a cable system with pad-mounted
transformers measured only 70 V peak on the secondary to ground, posing no risk to
customer’s equipment.
The primary side of the transformers effect can be seen in its low frequency
response. An early project exercise demonstrated that for higher voltage tests (above 5
kV), a transformer connected to a test circuit responded with enough energy to
catastrophically break down an unprotected HV power supply. This experience greatly
increased the project cost and development time. . 1

WV P o w e r S u p p l y
E q u iv a le n t I m p e d a n c e
R p so 3 R p so 2
I-jWV-T-WV ----1I-------- 1
-ir; ) r— ;
I OOk
_r '
LEN-(Lval)
_ Co3 !> RoS to

SOOpF<^ 100K R o6
U>
{Avail}
% PA RA M ETERS:
I M eg
I000
Figure 8. Unfaulted Cable Simulation Model

6.0V-
UNFAULTED C IR C U IT MODEL
■ MULTIPLE CABLE SECTION - IMPULSE RESPONSE
(1 2 .8 6 6 u ,4 .6 2 4 5 )
(25.. 2 5 0 u , 4 . 7 0 1 8 )
L v a l =5000
2.0U-!
CKN - 2 /2 4 /9 6
Os 40us 80us 12 Ous 160us

□ » U (M onI)
Time
Figure 9. Unfaulted Cable Simulation Results

WV P o w e r S u p p l y
E q u iv a le n t I m p e d a n c e
RpsO a R p s2 a R sl
r-A/W -A/VV- -A/W-

I OOk
Rs2
I OOMeg
L E N - I 000
M on2
-L C psl a R s4 O K)
LA
C p s2 a R psl — C sl
R s6
----- SSOpF
250pF 2uF '-A W -" {Rval2}
2 5 OMeg I OkV l00
RsO Cs2
I SOk I nF
X PARAMETERS:
R val2 25
Figure 10. Faulted Cable Simulation Model

ll 6 .BU-
O FAULTED C IR C U IT MODEL
L M ULTIPLE CABLE SECTION - IMPULSE RESPONSE
T
S
U-BUjl
Ni
Os
L v a l= IO O
2 . BU J
CKN - 2 / 2 4 / 9 6
BU H------------------------------------------- 1------------------------------------------T------------------------------------------ 1------------------------------------------- 1
Bs UBus 8 Bus 12 Bus 16 Bus
□ » U(Mon2)
Time
Figure 11. Faulted Cable Simulation Results

27
Embedded Controller
Table 8 lists the input-output requirements of an embedded controller used to
interface the operator panel and testing components.
Table 8. Embedded Controller Input-Output Requirements
Sixteen digital output lines Three 8-bit bus devices

I Beep I LCD display
2 BleedRelay 2 Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)
3 DAC 3 Time-to-Digital Converter (TDC)
4 HVOn
■5 HVRelay Nine digital input lines
6 LCDRS I VFUpSW
7 LCDRW 2 VFDnSW
8 LCDEN 3 UnitsSW
9 LEDNoFault 4 TVUpSW
10 LEDBatLo 5 ' TVDnSW
11 LEDFault 6 TestSW
12 LEDReady 7 TDRDetStart
13 TDRDrvrHV 8 TDRDetNoFault
14 TDRDetRS 9 TDRDetFault
15 TDRDetEN
16 TDRStartTest Two O- 5V analog input lines
I MON24
2 MONHV
Since the TDR detection and conversion is handled with high speed devices, the
embedded controller’s processing speed is not critical to this application. However, the
calculation of the distance to the fault, from the data created in the Time-to-Digital
Converter (TDC) requires floating point operations.
A Motorola MCU, MC68HC711E9VEN2 is chosen to meet the requirements of
the embedded controller.

28
TDR Supply Module
The TDR supply module provides enough energy for a detectable test pulse to
traverse the cable in both directions. The determining relationship is
in which the decay constant is
T _ R-l.SMHz 51712 sec

2L
and the maximum time of interest, tmax, the worst case for a full cable length, and a
velocity factor of 50% is
t_ .= = 66.7//sec.
meters
0.5 *299.8 M
sec
Solving the expression to find the initial voltage required for a detectable one-volt final
voltage, gives
n„,M= ^ r = 31.5.
A value of 100 V is chosen for Vjnitiai to meet unaccounted losses in the cable circuit, the
TDR transmitter, and TDR receiver signal scaling.
The TDR boost converter, shown in Figure 13, is designed to operate the inductor
in a discontinuous current mode and a constant duty cycle of approximately 50%. The
characteristics of the inductor are listed in Table 9, and include a chosen operating
frequency, f0, of 3.7 kHz. Rg and Ci set the operating frequency and are determined by
selecting Ci=I 0 nF, and solving for R5.

29
R5 = — = 27 AQ
The duty-cycle, D, is controlled by setting the input voltage level on the DTC pin
4 of Ui between 0 and 3.3 Vdc (see Table 12) to get an on duty-cycle between -100% to
-0%. The chosen 50% duty-cycle is set by the following expression using R2=6.8 kO
and Ri=I 5 kO
{ R2 ' 6.8 k
( 5)
15 A+ 6.8 Ay
(52%fo47%)
(3.0 3.3) (3 or 3.3)
Table 9. TDR Supply Inductor Characteristics

ITEM DESCRIPTION SYMBOL VALUE UNIT
I Inductance Li 1.5 mH
2 O 80
3 Test Frequency fo 252 kHz
4 DC Resistance R li 11.0 O
5 Rated Maximum DC Current Imax 50 mA
6 SelfResonant Frequency fr 1.8 MHz
The following analysis applies the "volt-second applied = volt-second released"
relationship from Faraday’s Law, which essentially states that the average voltage across
an inductor over a complete period is zero. The Off duty-cycle, Di, inductor current
shown in Figure 12, is determined by the following expression using Vc=12, D=0.50, and
V0Ut- IOO
VcD _ (12X0.50)
VcD ~ tyouT ~ Vc )D\ ->■A 0.0682
f o u r - P c ) " (100-12)
and the Off-time is

30
M = DxT = (0.0682)(270/zs) = XSAfjs .
The change in the inductor current, I, during the On-time is determined by
VcDT (12X18.4/Z?)
M = 1.08 A
A 1.5 rnH
and the voltage, Vy, across the inductor is found by
1.08 A
(1.5 mH 88 r .
18.4
# —►
Figure 12. TDR Supply Inductor Current
The total filter capacitance, C4 and C5, shown in Figure 13, is determined by
choosing a maximum voltage droop of I volt when the TDR transmitter pulse, of 50 ns, is
activated, giving
-t -5 0 ns
C TOTAL 99.5 n F .
99
Am, l n ( - m
inital
50lntW
Two parallel connected 100 nF / 200 V film capacitors are chosen. Since the inductor’s
current rating is 50 mA, a current-limiting resistor is required and a chosen value of 100
Q is determined using Vds(on)=6.6 (see Table 10) and Rli=I I Q

31
/
V
v C
- Vy DS(ON) 12 6.6
-
-R8 97 Q .
/n 50 m
Table 10. MTP10N40 TMOS FET Selected Characteristics

I Drain-Source V o l t a g e MAX V dss 400 Vdc
2 Drain C urrentM A X Id 10 Adc
3 Gate Threshold Voltage VcSfth) 2.0-4.0 Vdc
4 Static Drain-to-Source On-Resistance R d s (ON) 0.4-0.55 Q
5 Drain-to-Source On-Voltage V d SCON) 6 . 6 max Vdc
6 Rise-Time tr 37 ns
7 Fall Time tf 31 ns !
Both error amplifiers in the controller are used to cut off the output drive when the output
voltage is up to 100 V. Since the error amp is referenced to Vref=5, the 100 V output
must be scaled through a voltage divider to match Vref. The value of Rg is chosen to be I ;
MO and the value of Rio is determined by
R 10 I" Ip f 5 )
LlOO-5J I M = 52.6 K l .
—
Iv g —
A value of 47 kO is chosen to raise the output voltage slightly. The inline diode, D%, is
chosen for its characteristics of high speed, low forward voltage drop, and a fast recovery
time (see Table 11.)
Table I . . MURS140T3 Ultrafast Power Rectifier Selected Characteristics

ITEM DESCRIPTION SYMBOL , VALUE : UNIT
I Peak Repetive Reverse Voltage V rrm 400 Vdc
2 Average Forward Current Ip(AVG) I A
3 Nonrepetitive Peak Surge Current IpSM 40 A
4 Maximum Tnstantanious Forward Voltage Vp 1.0 V
5 Maximum Reverse Recovery Time trr 50 ns
6 Maximum Forward Recovery Time tfr 35 ns
32
Table 12. TL598 Pulse-Width-Modulator Control Selected Characteristics

I Supply Voltoge Vcc 7-40 V
2 Reference Output Voltage Vref 4.95-5.05 V
3 Oscillator Frequency, Cfosc=(RSCS)"1) fosc 1-300 kHz
4 Error Amp Common-Mode Input Voltage Vcm O-Vcc-2 V
5 Dead-Time Control Input Threshold Vncth 0-3.3 V
Voltage Range 100-0%
V c
u>
U)
Figure 13. TDR Supply Schematic

34
The TDR supply output response to a TDR transmit pulse is shown in Figure 14.
The top trace is the TDR Supply output voltage and the bottom trace is the TDRStartTest
control signal. Three things are noted: (I) There is an approximate 150 ns delay between
the initiation of the TDRStartTest and the response in the supply; (2) there is an
instantaneous 5 V drop on the -112 V supply at the leading edge of the TDR pulse; and,
(3) there is a coupled response on the control line.
11201 D O K m ziN S CecnLLOSCOPE <eXP>: 4 . 1 > d i9 :4 .2 >dsy : 4 . 0>

d a te : 2 8 _ m R _ ^ tin e : 1 4 :4 6 :2 0 I r S tr x r > e r ,t ID # B010136
T ttk 4 » G unnn Hndcul DrfHfn
............... •*!..................
7.5V
SBnn^dlv 451 na
/IB
■rfB
IvnV.....
....
.....;
tl- 1 5 0 . Bnn
tS - 1 3 5 . Sn=
Paired &t- 4 5 . 50ns Cureor 2
Dote IfA t- 21.51MHz:
Figure 14. TDR Supply Response
TDR Transmitter Module
The objective of the TDR transmitter module is to generate the test pulse which
meets the requirements discussed in the TDR Supply Module section. The design goal is
to efficiently switch the TDR supply output, 100 V, onto the cable circuit utilizing
35
appropriate drivers. A VP0650N3 P-charmel Enhancement-mode Vertical DMOS PET,
M2 in Figure 15, is chosen for the high-side switch and some of its characteristics are
listed in Table 13
Table 13. VP0650N3 Selected Characteristics

ITEM DESCRIPTION LABEL VALUE UNIT
I Drain-to-Source Breakdown Voltage B V dss -500 V
2 Gate Threshold Voltage Vosfth) ' -4 V
3 ON-State Drain Current Lxon) -200 mA
4 Static Drain-to-Source ON-State B-DS(ON) 30 O
Resistance
5 Risetime tr 10 ns
6 Fall Time tf 15 ns
7 Input Capacitance (max) Ciss 130 PF
8 Common Source Output Capacitance Coss 75 pF
9 Forward Transconductance G fs 125 rriS
The value of 68 O for Re is chosen to be near the output coaxial cable impedance
of 50 Q, and Re,. The duty cycle for M2 is approximately 5 cycles of 50 ns On-time per
second, giving a power dissipation of
( 7 2)(A0 (1002)(250 ns)

■M l 25.5 //IF
R-ON + R-6 30 + 68
which is well below the I Watt rating of the TO-92 package.

T D R S t a r tT e s t +12V D C + 1 OOVDC
DZ2
1N 4745
M2
V P0650
270pF
RS V cc
R2 M1
150k V N 0650
LM C 555
TDR R E C E I V E R
GND
119ns 39.7ns 6.7us 9.2ns 15.7ns 20ns 34.7ns
45ns/83V 48 ns/5.5V
Figure 15. TDR Transmitter Schematic

37
The high-side switch driver circuit includes DZ2, R5, R4, C3, and Mi. DZ2 is a
15V zener diode used as gate protection during power-up and power-down times. Mi is a
VN0650N3 N-channel Enhancement-mode Vertical DMOS FET; some of its
characteristics are listed in Table 14.
Table D . VN0650N3 Selected Characteristics

ITEM DESCRIPTION LABEL VALUE UNIT
I Drain-to-Source Breakdown Voltage B V dss 500 V
2 Gate Threshold Voltage VosrtM 4 V
3 ON-State Drain Current I d (ON) LI A
4 Static Drain-to-Source ON-State R d s (on ) 16 . O
Resistance
5 Risetime tr 10 ns
6 Fall Time tf, 10 ns
7 Input Capacitance Ciss 130 ■ PF
8 Common Source Output Capacitance Coss 75 ' pF
9 Forward Transconductance G fs 125 mS
To achieve an on-state current of 10 mA, an On resistance value of ~110 ,.with a
V qs of 10 V, is chosen from the data sheet and the value of 10 kQ for R4 is determined by
= 100_E _ 11Q = 9g89Q

4 10 mA
A value of 22 Q is chosen for R5 so that the time constant, TC, of the input capacitance
and R5 are close to the 10 ns risetime, tr, of M2. This means R5 must be
t. 10 n s
R' = 180.
130 + 50^(0.125X68)
The On voltage transition of Mi is coupled to the M2 gate through C3. The On-time
resistance across C3 is
R C3 R5+R M lDS(O A r) = 22 + 11 = 33 0 .
38
Choosing a time constant, TC, for the coupling of C3 and its parallel equivalent
resistance to closely match the 10 ns risetime, tr, of Mi. A value of 270 pF is chosen by
C 10 ns
303 p F .
Rc3 33 Q
Ui, LMC555 CMOS Timer, is configured as an astable oscillator when the
TDRStartTest is high. The output is high for the duration of the timing cycle and is
forced low whenever TDRStartTest goes low, if not timed out. Di forces the charging
path to begin from the supply and go through Ri and Cl. An approximate On-time is
tj « OUdR1C1 = 7.6 jjs.
The discharge path begins with Ci and goes through Rz and Ui pin 7. An approximate
Off-time is
t2 w O.dPSR^ C1 =1.04 ms .
The period, T, is
T = tx+t2 =1.047 ms ,
or an oscillation frequency of 955 Hz..
Ry and Rg form a voltage divider circuit to scale the TDR signal from the
expected 100 Vpk to 8 Vmaxpk with a total resistance much higher than the characteristic
impedance of the TDR output circuit. A value of 2.2 kO is chosen for Rg and the input
resistance of the receiver is R rxin -15 kO (Ri, Figure 16.) The chosen value of 22 kO for
Ry is found by
Fm \ fioo >
R1 = (-K8I-r JWW Vout = 1919 • 1 ‘ I 22.06 h£l.
/ I 8 )
39
Actual measurements and waveforms are shown at the bottom of Figure 15 for
various circuit responses (cable unconnected) and with the TDRStartTest signal being
generated by the embedded controller. It is noted that the risetimes are close to the
assumptions made in the above analysis.
TDR Receiver/Detector Module
The objective of the TDR Receiver/Detector Module is to convert the TDR analog
signal into a precision digital signal. This is accomplished by impedance matching the
«1919 Q input TDR signal from the TDR Transmitter Module and driving a relatively
low input impedance, «50 O, window detector. The chosen wide-hand, 120 MHz @
Gain=!, current-feedback operational amplifier (op-amp) AD811, Ui in Figure 16,
functions as an impedance matching non-inverting op-amp. The value of Ri, 15 kQ, is
chosen to be much larger than the output impedance of the TDRSig to provide
termination of the input to the op-amp in the event the module is not externally
terminated. The application notes of the AD811 state the device uses a current feedback
architecture which is dependant on the closed-loop bandwidth and gain. The desired
closed-loop gain and bandwidth are realized by adjusting the feedback resistor, Ra, for
bandwidth and adjusting resistor, Rn, value for gain. A table in the application notes of
the data sheets, titled "-3dB Bandwidth vs. Closed-Loop Gain and Resistance Values"
shows a value of 560 Q being used for both Ra and Ri when a +/-5 VDC supply is used,
giving a closed loop gain of +2 and bandwidth of 80 MHz. The final value of 360 O for
the feedback resistor, Ra, is determined after fabricating the module board and adjusting
the value to give a full representative output signal. This procedure is required because
40
of unaccounted parasitic capacitances and inductances associated with the parts layout
and resistor types used. Since the AD811 is designed to drive coaxial cables, a value of
51 Q is chosen for the output load resistor, R3.

O
I L M 4 0 4 0 C IM 3 - 5 .0
Figure 16. TDR Receiver/Detector Schematic

42
The window detector is formed by using two ultrafast TTL-compatible voltage
comparators AD9696, U2 and U3. These comparators exhibit a 4.5 ns propagation delay,
risetime of 1.85 ns, and fall time of 1.36 ns. Precautions required for successful
application and prevention of destructive oscillation include keeping the inputs of each
comparator from becoming equal for any period (e.g. slow slew rate) and ensuring the
input signal overdrives the comparator logic. The detection window is set to ±1.17 V by
the voltage divider networks OfR4-R5 and Rg-Rg (I kQ and 3.3 kQ each, respectively.)
The complementary outputs of the comparators are terminated with I kQ resistors, Re,
R7, Rio, and Rn. The labeled H output is the result of detecting the starting TDR pulse
and any reflected positive pulse when there is no fault, and the labeled L output is the
result of detecting any negative reflected pulse when there is a fault.
DZi, LM4040-5.0, with a dynamic range of 60 pA to 15 mA, is used to set the -5
V reference for U3 and negative supply for Ui and U3. The total current load is 2.5 mA
for U3, 14.5mA for Ui, and 1.16 mA for the divider = 18.2 mA. Setting a ImA static
current through DZi gives a total current of 19.2 mA through R^. The value OfRi2 is
R12 O1 2 +5L 3 6 0 Q,
19.2 mA
Figure 17 shows measured results of the above design in which it can be see that
the input waveform. A, follows closely the output of the op-amp, B, and that the window
detector outputs, C and D, are 604 ns apart for an end shorted 190 ft (57.9 m) coaxial
43
cable. This length of time matches the calculation for the cable length with a velocity
factor of 64%:
{!Length)
t 604
k (299.8 M
r\ sec J
11261 DIKmziNe cecoi I OSCCFE <eXP:4. 1,di9:4.2 >dsy :4. 0>

date: IS-MAR-'y) tir e : 1:25:00 IrS trv e n t HB B010136
1 .4 /
>•• •• •••••• #*•• ••*•••••.
...I..... !
v l - JdTTBrV T l- 3 . ID fT H
Type v2- 1 0 , BBrV t Zm 6 0 3 . SnH
5p I Lt fi, v - 3 1 2 , BnV A t - 6 0 3 , Snn
Dotu I ' ' A t - 1 , 657MHz
Rrnovc
Nfn 3
Cl
BaLn
Figure 17. TDR Receiver/Detector
Time-to-Digital Converter
The purpose of the TDC illustrated in Figure 2, is to start a high-speed clocked
12-bit counter when the TDR test pulse, H, starts, and stop the counter when the
reflection, H or L, happens. Each counter value, starting from zero, is the number of
clock cycles between the test pulse and the reflection. This functionality is represented
by the logic diagram shown in Figure 18, with input signals: HSClk, the high-speed
I
44
clock; H, the detected high signal; L, the detected low signal fault; HVRelayn, the control
used for the high-voltage test; and TDRStartTest, the control used to start a TDR test.
The TDRDetStart output is a latched state indicating that the start pulse is detected. The
TDRDetNoFault output is a latched no fault reflection. The TDRDetFault output is a
latched fault reflection. The initial deactivated state is HVRelayn high and TDRStartTest
Low forcing all data flip-flops (DFFx) to a cleared state and the counter gated off.
The sequential operation of this converter for a low-voltage TDR test is:
1. The TDRStartTest line, the same control sent to the TDR Transmitter, goes
High, disabling the forced deactivated state. /
2. The first expected detected signal is the starting of the TDR test pulse coming
in as a high on the H line which is ANDed ,Al, with HSClk causing DFFi to
latch high on the rising edge of the clock. The output of DFFi enables the
counter to count with the clock, sets the level for TDRDetStart, and enables
DFFz to detect the falling edge of H from A 3 .
3. Upon the falling edge of the H line, DFFz latches its output high enabling, A4
to be ready to detect the rising edge of either H or L.
4. Because the transmitted TDR pulse sometimes exhibits undershoot, the L
signal is locked out from detection for the first 12 counts of the counter.
5. Either the H line or L line goes high latching the EndDetected, DFF3, high
causing the counter to stop and the respective TDRDetNoFault, DFF4, and
TDRDetFault, DFF5, latches to capture their H and L levels.

45
When performing a high-voltage test, the high-voltage pulse is activated with the
HVRelayn control and is used to disable the TDRStartTest control from restarting the
converter when any fault is captured. In operation, there is an approximate 9ms relay
activation delay between the start of HVRelayn and the first detection of H. For the next
900 (as, the controller toggles the TDRStartTest control as fast as possible, ~40 (as cycle
time, to reset the counter. If a fault is detected at any time during the 900 jas detection
window, the counter is locked and any further toggles of the TDRStartTest are disabled.
Note, since the time period of Ui, TDR transmitter driver, is ~1 ms it generates only one
TDR pulse during the test window. This means that the detection is completely from the
high energy pulse response.
Digital multiplexing of the 12 bits to the embedded controller is shown in Figure
19. TDRDetRS is used to select A0-A7, the low byte or A7-A11, the high byte, and
TDRDetEN controls the tri-state output drivers.
An issue of concern for this converter design is the accuracy of the control of the
counter, which affects the results. The design is implemented in a programmable-logic-
device (PLD) (EPM7032LC44-7) Its characteristics are listed in Table 15.
Table 15. EPM70-32LC44-7 Selected Timing delays

ITEM DESCRIPTION LABEL VALUE
I Register delay Ir d LOns
2 Combinational delay tcOMB LOns
The path of the H, start test pulse, is from Ai(Ins) to DFFi(Ins) to Al. The worst case
start timing includes 1A the clock period, as expressed by
tSiarlMax - 2 *HSClk +^ td ~ 2* 100 MH ^ 2 n s - 1 ns

46
The end pulse path includes H or L to Oi(Ins), to A4(Ins), to DFF3(Ins), to INV(Ins) to
A3 and L includes Ag(Ins). The worst case ending time includes 1Z2 the clock period,
tStopMax ~ 2 *HCSClk +^-jtd ~ 2*100 M Hz+ 5 775 “ 10 ns
The maximum deviation of the counter value is
KCountrmx = (v tzs + 10 n s^l00 MHz^2) = 1.7 or ± I

LPM COUNTER
H S C l k I---------- >
Ftr 1 1
E n d D e te c te d
-I---------- > T D R D e t S t a r t
T D R D e tN o F a u It
CUtM 4^
H C Z >
^-----------> T D R D e t F a u I t
H V R e Ia y n I >
T D R S ta rtT e s t I >
Figure 18. Time-to-Digital Converter Logic Diagram

48
TDRDetEN
TDRDetRS
Figure 19. Time-to-Digital Converter Output Logic Diagram

49
High-Voltage Supply Controls and Voltage Monitor Buffers
The high-voltage supply output, used to charge the high-voltage capacitor, is
controlled by the HVOn line, P2 pin I, shown in Figure 20 . The output voltage ranges
between 0 and 10 kV and is set by an analog voltage ranging between 0 and 10 VDC on
the HVREF line, P2 pin 5. The digital-to-analog converter (DAC) chosen to set the high-
voltage level is an ML2350 Single Supply Programmable 8-bit D/A Converter, U3, from
Micro Linear which have characteristics listed in Table 16. Jumping GAINq to GAINi
and VRin to VR0ut, Vout outputs 0 V for a 0x00 binary input and 10 V for a OxFF binary
input. This DAC is set by the micro controller under software control.
Table 16. ML2350 Programmable 8-bit D/A Converter Selected Characteristics

I Supply Voltage (operating) Vcc 4.5-13.2 V
2 Integral Linearity Error ±1/2 LSB
3 Differental Linearity Error ±1/2 LSB
4 Offset Error ±20 mV
5 Output gain control GAIN %,1/2,1,2
6 Reference Voltage V ref 5.0±0.05 V
7 Analog Output Voltage Swing V qut 0 to V
Vcc-0.01
8 Analog Output Current I out 10 mA
9 Power Supply Rejection Ratio V rr -60 dB
10 Maximum Step Output Settling Time ■ts 5 ps
The high-voltage supply provides an output monitor voltage scaled 1000 to I on
the HVMON line, P2 pin 6, with an output impedance of approximately 500 kO. An op-
amp, LM2904 with selected characteristics listed in Table 17, is chosen to buffer this
monitor line and allow further voltage scaling, 2 to I, to meet the 0 to 5 V input range of
the ADC in the micro-controller. Rt4 and Ri5, each I kQ, resistors form the final 2 to I
50
voltage divider network for the HVMON signal. This monitor line requires low-pass
filtering, C21, to remove some of the high-frequency switching component of the supply.
Table 17. LM2904 Dual Operational Amplifier Selected Characteristics

I Supply Voltage, maximum Vcc 26 V
2 Supply Current, maximum Icc 2 mA
3 Input Offset Voltage, maximum Voc 7 mV
4 Input Bias Current, maximum 250 nA
5 Input Offset Current, maximum Ioc 50 nA
6 Input Common-Mode Voltage Range 0 to V
V-1.5
I Common-Mode Rejection Ratio CMRR 70 dB
8 Power Supply Rejection Ratio 100 dB
The 24 VDC supply is monitored by a voltage divider, R l 2 and Rl 3, to scale a
maximum supply voltage of 29 V to 5 V which is then buffered and sent to the micro
controller’s ADC.
H V O n O
-12
O
-V C C
OO O -
D1 O - D B I
02
HV S U P P L Y
O - D B 2
03 O - D B 3
04 O - D B -4
D S O - D B S
DS O - D B E
DT O - D B T V R ln
V R o u t
X F E R
Q A IN O
V za
O A I N I
D O N D A O N D
Figure 20. High-Voltage Supply Controls and Voltage Monitor Buffers Schematic
52
High-Voltage Test Section
The problem of generating the test pulse was given much consideration because
of the high-voltage requirements. Early in the research process an idea surfaced to use
the 7200 VAC utility line to supply the needed test pulse. In the process of researching
solid state switches for this project, Dr. Giri Venkataramanan, Asst. Professor, E.E.,
Montana State University, was contacted several times in discussion of various potential
concepts. Recommendation was made to contact Chris Jensen, Electrical Engineer with
Fermi National Accelerator Lab, who has experience in the design of high-voltage solid
state switches. In conversations with Chris, he stated it would cost between $5000 and,
$10000 to develop a solid state switch to pulse a 7200 VAC line to generate the test
pulse.
When considering the typical fault test sequence, it became obvious that the 7200
VAC would not be available at the loop circuit transformers beyond the first transformer,
if the fault existed beyond the first transformer. The test sequence would require field
service personnel going to the next transformer, disconnecting its feed, then returning,
and testing that section before energizing it. This would result in an additional trip
between transformers to clear the section. The solution was to design the test unit with
the necessary parts to generate the test pulse without the need of external power. This
would facilitate field service personnel going to any de-energized transformer or
distribution location and testing both feed and load cables, resulting in a quick
determination of fault direction. Randy Sullivan, Branch Manager, Montana Power

53
Company, was contacted about this issue and he indicated that their present
sectionalizing procedure uses more than one person; one person stays at the energizing
point and another opens the loop along the circuit until the faulted section is found.
After considering the possibilities of a battery operated test unit as well as
alternative methods of generating the energy pulse, discussion was initiated with John
Paul, a transformer applications engineer with Scientific Conversion, Novato, CA.. The
discussion centered on the practicality of using a pulse transformer for this application.
He indicated that the practical limit of the turns ratio of any pulse transformer is not more
than 5 to I. This means that an interstage voltage boost would be needed for this
application. He also stated that realizable pulse widths are between 200 ns and 2 ps. The
primary issue, of whether enough energy could be feasibly and economically packed into
the pulse, was not investigated.
R b r S W te s t
-AAAr LU
a
CL
D
s
Ll
W
£ X S W b r
<
4l
<7
O
Figure 21. High-voltage Storage and Control Schematic
After considering the above information, the high-voltage and control circuit
shown in Figure 21, is determined to be the most economical and feasible for a portable
cable tester. A review of the circuit components follows.

54
HV Capacitor
The value of the HV capacitor, C, charged to 10 kV, storing 56 J, is
c J 2 K ^ =j( 5 6 L =1
V2 IOOOO2
A value of 2 pF is chosen for the capacitor, to cover the approximation of the
breakdown impedance, voltage, and 10% capacitance tolerance,. This capacitor has a
rated working voltage of 10 kV and a temperature operating range of -55 0C to +85 °C.
Plastic Capacitors, Inc. supplies a 2 pF 10 kV discharge capacitor, LKl00-205,
measuring 4.56”x3.75”x7.5” and weighing 8 lbs. The capacitor received for the
prototype is LK125-205NA rated to 12.5 kV and weighs 15 lbs (the desired value not in
stock at the time).
Discharge Resistor
A bleeder resistance, Rbr, is required for safety and for discharging the capacitor
when the charged voltage is higher than the user has selected. The limiting factor for a
discharge cycle is the current rating of the series connected switch, SWbr- The relay
selected (Crydom 24HV1B100) has a maximum contact rating of 50 W and current rating
of 3 A. A maximum current of 25 mA is chosen to minimize contact stress and maximize
the expected life of the relay. Because of corona problems experienced while using the
above relay, it is decided to limit the upper HV test voltage to 7.5 kV. The bleeder
resistance calculates to be
55
I . SkV
R br = SQQk.
25 mA
The bleeder resistor is implemented as three series-connected, 100 k£2 / 10 W, carbon
resistors.
The discharge time from 7.5 kV to 100 V calculates to be
100 V '
t { (3 0 0 iX 2 /iF )X ln ) = 2.59 sec, I
V
7.5 ^
and -56 J of energy dissipated.
High-voltage Switch
The HV switch, SWt6St, must hold-off a 10 kV working voltage and pass a peak
current of 400 A in I ms. The following is a review of the pros and cons of each possible
switch type that could be realized.
IGBTs and MOSFETs that easily exceed the current requirements of this HV
switch are available, however, single unit devices meeting the voltage requirements are
not available. Multiple devices are required to be series-connected to meet the voltage
requirement. The design problem with series connections of these devices is that upon
transition from "off to "on", each device must be made to "see" no more than its share
of the total voltage or the reverse hold-off voltage will be exceeded. Techniques are
developed to solve this problem by adding R and RC snubbers on the power side of each
device. Another solution to this problem would be to individually control the gate drive
in a closed-loop fashion, monitoring the voltage drop across the device and adjusting the
56
drive accordingly [12] [13]. This solution is very effective, however, the control circuitry
is not trivial. Table 18 lists the pros and Cons for IGBTs and MOSFETs.
Table 18. Pros and Cons of IGBTs and MOSFETs

PROS CONS
I solid state device in control I I OkV on output through equalizing network
2 long life 2 size of unit (est'd < 72 cubic inches)
3 cost (est'd < $800 with control)
4 complexity of assembly (number of parts)
THYRISTORs and GTOs are available in single units that easily exceed the
current requirements of the HV switch, but single units which meet the voltage
requirements are not available. High power thyristor switches have been developed
which handle 250 kV and 4 kA, but they are prohibitive in size (more than 50 feet high)
[14]. These switches consist of a matrix of small devices connected in series to withstand
the voltage and many series units connected in parallel to pass the current.
For this project to meet the 10 kV hold-off voltage, a minimum of ten ($13 each)
1200 V / 35 A devices connected in series are required. In order to operate these
thyristors in series, each device in the string has to match, otherwise when triggered to
turn on, the slowest device would easily exceed its maximum breakdown voltage. This
problem can be minimized by using an equalizing network [15]. To achieve static
equalization, each thyristor has a parallel resistance, Rs, added. The dynamic equalizing
network is chosen to limit the voltage buildup on the fastest thyristor, allowing the
slowest device to recover.

57
The trigger control for the string must be applied to each device simultaneously.
This poses a design problem because each device is not referenced to the same point,
therefore, galvanic isolation is required.
Simultaneous triggering techniques have been developed [15] using either a pulse
transformer, where each device is assigned a secondary winding of the control
transformer, or using light control of a photo thyristor in the gate circuit. Table 19 lists
the Pros and Cons of using Thyristors and GTOs as switches for this project.
Table 19. Pros and Cons of Thyristors and GTOs

PROS CONS
I solid state device in control I I OkV on output through equalizing network
2 long life 2 unit size (est'd < 72 cubic inches)
3 cost (est'd < $500 with control)
4 complexity of assembly (number of parts)
SPARK GAPs are available with voltage and current ratings easily meeting the
switch parameters of the switch. The concept behind the spark gap is that two electrodes
are mounted in an evacuated or gas filled chamber. The hold-off voltage is high but will
break down (ionize) at a set potential, or it can be triggered into conduction by using a
high-voltage (< 10 kV) electric field external to the chamber. The characteristics of the
spark gap are such that once conduction is started it does not shut off until the current
stops, much like thyristors. Table 20 lists the Pros and Cons of using Spark Gaps for this
project.
58
Table 20. Pros and Cons of Spark Gaps

PROS CONS
I Fast operation (<10 ns) I cost (est'd < $1000 with trigger
transformer)
2 Can be controlled for initiation 2 size (esfd < 45 cubic inches +
transformer)
3 life may be under 10,000 shots
HIGH-VOLTAGE RELAYS are available that meet both the voltage and current
requirements of this switch. The four basic types of relays are in-air, in-oil, in-vacuum,
or in-gas. In-air HV relays are larger in size than the vacuum or gas filled types because
atmospheric gasses have a lower breakdown voltage. The operation of a HV relay differs
from a low-voltage relay only in size and cycle time.
Ross Engineering supplies both in-air and in-oil, single-pole, double-throw relays.
Their in-air relay is 27 inches high, 11.4 inches wide, 7.25 inches deep, and costs $4000.
Their in-oil relay is 9.03 inches high, 3.5 inches wide, 4.38 inches deep, and costs $668.
Kilovac Corporation supplies vacuum and gas HV relays. Their gas filled relay
claims to be the best choice for power switching of capacitive discharge applications by
having a bounce free characteristic and the lowest leakage current. Their HV relay which
meets the requirements of the switch measures 1.37 inches in diameter, 2.26 inches high,
weighs 3 ounces, is rated for a million mechanical cycles, and costs $463. This relay is
chosen to meet the requirements of the switch. Table 21 lists the Pros and Cons of using
HV Relays for this project.

59
Table 21. Pros and Cons of High-voltage Relays

PROS CONS
I size I cost($463)
2 life 2 somewhat fragile
3 ease of control 3 operation time (15ms)
4 minimum parts count
5 minimal assembly
ARM Filter
The purpose of the Arc Reflection Method (ARM) filter is to frequency-limit the
high-voltage pulse to the vicinity of an order of magnitude or more above the 60 Hz
nominal power frequency so that the high frequency fault pulses can be easily separated
for detection.
Ls
O /"V 'nT'y'X i --------O in

0
1
O
e
UJ
Z
Z
iu O
CD U
<
ce y
o
<
U
5 b
r
Figure 22. ARM Filter Schematic
The ARM filter, Figure 22, forms a low-pass filter, Ls and a shunt snubbing filter,
Cp, Rp, and Lp. The value of Ls is chosen to be as small as possible so that it can be
60
realizable considering the high-voltage involved. Choosing a natural frequency, f0, of
1125 Hz, the calculated value of Ls (using C=2 jj.F) is
The maximum current in the inductor occurs when the output is shorted and the
circuit is under damped. The current in the inductor is expressed as
iLit) = e~at [-B1cos(c7rft)+ B2 sin(GTrft)]
where
a = — = 200
2L
md = ^( g/ q2 - a 2) = 7068
B1 = iL(o ) = 0, and
B2 ^ = 141.5.
The maximum current, 30.3 A, is found around t = 4.45 ms.
The design of this inductor posed difficulties because of the high voltage, limited
space, and weight requirements. Dale Nickol of Micrometals, Inc was contacted for
assistance in meeting the requirements of this inductor. This inductor is composed of ten
hand-wound series connected toroid inductors stacked into two modules, each containing
five series-connected toroids stacked into a 2” diameter by 5” long schedule 40 PVC pipe
61
and end-capped with two cut and flattened pipe sections. The specification of each I mH
inductor is follows.
The stored energy is
E LI |( l A)2 = 459 mJ
2
The toroid core specifications are listed in Table 22.
Table 22. Toroid Core Specifications

ITEM DESCRIPTION LABEL VALUE
I Part number T175-2 T175-2
2 Inside diameter ID 1.070"
3 Outside diameter OD 1.750"
4 Height Ht 0.650"
5 Mean magnetic path length I 11.2cm
6 Cross-sectional area . A 1.34cm2
7 Magnetic volume V 15.Ocm3 -■
8 Inductance per turns2 Al 15.OnHZN2
9 Mean length turn MLT 6.58cm (0.216 ft)
The core material, (“-2 ” of the part number) is chosen for its saturation and high
frequency characteristics. Using item 8 above, the number of required turns is
r L V/2
N= = 258 turns.
\A lj
Wire with a fusing Current rating of 82.4 A (18 AWG) is chosen, and using the MLT
(item 9 above) the length is calculated.
■ength ■N{MLT) = 55.7 f t .
It was determined, however, that 50 ft of wire “closely” packed gives the required turns.
The DC resistance of the inductor is

62
Rc = 6 .384-^ (50 ft) = 128 mQ
and the worst case instantaneous power loss is
Ploss = I 2R = 30.32(128 mti) = 117.5 r .
Since this inductor is used in an ‘intermittent’ test pulse application, power loss (heat
dissipation) is not considered an issue of concern. The maximum magnetizing force is
g = ( 4 j g ) = M 258X 30.3)L
I 11.2
and the peak flux density is
[(5 0 0 )(l0 , )1
B pk = 32140 G .
(AANf) [(4X1.34X258X1125)]
These values are well off the saturation charts of the material for analysis, however.
Dale’s information is that these cores have been used in similar applications and the low
permeability of the material assists in high-saturation density applications.
The snubbing section of the ARM filter contains Cp, Rp, and Lp and is included to
dampen the natural frequency (-3.3 kHz) oscillations caused when the cable is unfaulted
or open circuit conditions exist, and to further frequency limit the high-voltage pulse but
not impede the high frequency test responses. The chosen cut-off frequency, f0, of this
second-order filter is 15 kHz. Choosing a value for Cp = 250 nF, with a 10 kV working
voltage, a value of 470 pH for the inductor is chosen, based on
i
LP = 450 p H .
N J c ,
63
The design of this inductor follows the same analysis as discussed above, but uses a
smaller, T l57-2 core, with 183 turns using 41 ft of 18 AWG wire. The DC resistance of
the inductor is 262 mG and the reactance of the inductor at the cut-off frequency is
X l = Zjtf0L = 44.3 f2.
The Q of the inductor is
e = ^ = 169.
Rl
The natural frequency of the circuit is now changed by adding the snubbing circuit (for
open cable conditions), and the total inductance is
L t ={Ls +Lp) = 10.47 m H ,
the total capacitance is
I
a = 222 n F .
I I
(C j C
and the new natural frequency is
3.3 kHz.
{2xW & )
A circuit is considered critically damped when the damping factor is equivalent to the
natural frequency, which allows the determination of the damping resistor value to be
a= 2 ^ , ^ ^ = 2 ^ ( 2 4 ) = 4320.
The value of Rp = I kO is chosen for the damping resistance.

64
TDR Coupler
The purpose of the TDR coupler is to interface the high voltage test section with
the low voltage TDR transmitter/receiver such that TDR pulses can traverse in both
directions without appreciable losses and can impede the high voltage. The TDR coupler
schematic, shown in Figure 23, is a fifth-order high pass filter.
BN C 2 2 n F /1 2 .5 k V
LI L2
470 1 OOuH 1 OOuH
G ND
Figure 23. TDR Coupler Schematic
This filter is analyzed using a general impedance model shown in Figure 24 in which Zt
represents the TDR Transmitter/Receiver output impedance and Z6 represents the total
load impedance, for this analysis the ARM Filter snubber circuit.
Figure 24. TDR Coupler Analysis Model
Using mesh analysis on this model, the KCL for loop I, is

65
l , ( z , + Z j - I 2(Z2)=V, ^ I, ^ Zl+ F '

Z1+ Z 2
and for the h loop is
~ A (^z) +^ 2(^2 + Z 3 + Z 4) - I 3(Z4) = O,
and for the I3 loop is
- h (z4 )+/,(z4 +z5 +ze)=o=>/2=V, Z’ + Z >+ Z ‘

Z1Z6
The output voltage expression is
V0 = I 2Z 9 ^ i 2 =I z l .
Solving simultaneously for T, I2, and I3 in terms of V0ZVi gives the following transfer
function
K ______________ Z 2Z 4Z 6_________________________
Vi (z, +Z2 Xz1 +z, +z6 Xz,)+[(z, + Z 5 +Z6 Xz2 M z 5 +zJzJKz,)+
(z5 +z6 )z,z2
Applying equivalent high-pass component frequency-dependant impedance
expressions for: Zi=Rs+(sCi)"1 Z2=sL i +Rli, Z3=(SC2)'1, Z4=sL2+RL2, Z5=(SC3)'1, and
Zg=(sCp)'1+Rp+sLp, where Cp, Rp and Lp are the ARM Filter snubbing circuit shown in
Figure 22 gives a frequency dependant transfer function. Assigning component values of
R s= R tdro IIR i = I 17||470=94 O, C i= 2 2 0 nF, Li=L2=IOO pH, R Li = R l 2 = 0 .2 8 Q, C3=22 nF /
10 kV, Cp=250 nF, Rp=I kO and Lp=470 pH; and running a frequency sweep simulation
between I kHz and 10 MHz on the transfer function, gives the magnitude and angular
plots shown in Figure 25 and Figure 26. The angular plot folds over at -180 degrees to
66
+180 and continues to 0 degrees (-360 degrees actually). The magnitude plot peak around
22 kHz is caused by the undamped inductors.
TDR Coupler Magnetude Response

o
/
-jO
/
/
/■
8 /
/
-100 /
/
/
-150
1000 I-IO4 I-IO5 VlO5 VlO7
Fhqujmcyj (Hz)
Figure 25. TDR Coupler Analysis Magnitude vs Frequency Plot
TDR Coupler Angular Response

iso
\
X
90
-90
N V
-iso
1000 I-IO4 I-IO5 1 -1 ? I-IO7
Fteqoency-(Hz)
Figure 26. TDR Coupler Anaylsis Angular vs Frequency Plot

67
EM/ES Noise Control
The instrumentation circuit for this application is very sensitive to the
electromagnetic and electrostatic fields generated during a high-voltage test sequence.
The effects of these fields are minimized by careful placement of all the HV components,
(i.e. using the shortest possible interconnections), using lead shielding for all low-voltage
circuitry and separating the HV circuitry grounding from the low-voltage grounding, (i.e.
having only one common physical point between the two).
Battery Supply
The battery supply is chosen to allow extended use, with an estimated utilization
factor of 40% (the unit being on and requiring total voltage not more than 40% of the
time). The Main Board supply measures a draw of 350 mA on the 24 VDC supply. The
HV supply draws a maximum of I A during charging and less than ImA to regulate a
high-voltage setting. Using worst case values, the total current requirement is 1.35 A
from the 24 VDC supply, resulting in a 32.4 Watt (W) power rating. Applying the
utilization factor gives 13 W. Two series connected 12 VDC 7Amp-hour (Ah) batteries
are chosen for the 24 VDC supply. These produce 6.65 Ah x 23 Vavg = 153 Watt-hour
(Wh) of energy (using battery specs). The estimated run duration for fully charged new
batteries is 153 Wh / 13 W or 11.8 hrs. As the batteries age, the expected usable time
will decrease 30-50% over a 3 year period if they are recharged after each use without
being allowed to fully discharge.

68
Battery Charger
A universal supply is chosen as an on-board battery charger capable of running
the tester with or without batteries. This supply is a 40 W, single, adjustable output, with
a universal input of 85-264 VAC, measuring 4.55”L x 2.55”W x 1.25”H.
Low-Voltage Supplies
Power to all analog, digital, and control circuitry is supplied by the Main Power
Board, see Figure 27. This board is designed to isolate the control of the HV relays using
opto-isolation and to be the only point of mixing of the high-voltage and low-voltage
grounds. The series lamp, Li, functions as a current limiting resistor, allowing the
charger to be connected to the batteries when discharged without over-loading the
charger supply. Each of the supply lines leaving this board are fused for over-current
protection.
VZ
BATTERY BOX
J1 -1 J 3-1
C O N T R O L PANEL
J3 -1
R 1 -3
J3 -1
J 3 - Tx
CHARGER
R 6K E 33A
OSL O n /O f f
C om
ZSJVIn = S V o u t
JZ -1
HV R E L A Y B L E E D E R R E L A Y
Os
SO
J3 -1
R 6K E33A
JE--I
R SK E33A
J 5- 3
SUPPLY
P S Z SDZ--4
---- O -24
2A
Figure 27. Main Power Schematic

70
Project Test Results
The project results are based on modeling several circuit variation tests as listed in
Table 23. Low-voltage, LV, tests are the results of the running TDR and the high-voltage
tests, HV, are the results from the thumper.
Table 23. Cable Circuit Tests

TEST DESCRIPTION LV TEST HV TEST
I Broken cable interconductor or shield at or near the V —
tester.
2 Short circuit cable at or very near the tester. V —
3 Unterminated cable. V V ■
4 Short circuit cable end. v ■ V
5 Unterminated cable with a high-impedance fault —
V
6 Cable terminated with the minimum resistance that V V
causes a no-fault result.
I Cable terminated with the maximum resistance that V •v
causes a fault result.
8 Cable terminated with a transformer. V V
9 Cable terminated with a transformer and the V V
minimum resistance that causes a no-fault result.
10 Cable terminated with a transformer and the V V
maximum resistance that causes a fault result.
11 Cable terminated with a transformer and high- —
V
impedance breakdown fault.
The system test set-up and monitored nodes are shown in Figure 28 with the Rx node
located at the output of the receiver’s amplifier, Figure 16, Ifr, pin 6; the H and L nodes
located at the output of the detected high (no-fault) and low (fault) TDR signals, Uz and
U 3 , pin 7 respectively; the LT node located at the test cable connector; the HT node
located at the mid-point junction of the divide by 10 voltage divider. All monitored
71
nodes are connected to an oscilloscope with I Ox, 300 MHz probes which report vertical
units 1/10 of the actual value except for the HT node which is 1/100.
TDR
Coupler
XFM R
Snuhber
Figure 28. Test Set-up and Node Monitor Points
Two lengths, 150 ft and 300 ft, of RG-59U cable are used for modeling the 15 kV Class
cable with characteristics listed in Table 24. The impulse response vs distance of the test
cable is shown in Figure 30 for three TDR pulse widths, 50 ns (10 MHz), 500 ns (I
MHz), and 5000 ns (100 kHz), as related to the high-frequency effect in the cable’s series
resistance, R.
Table 2^ . Cable Test Model - RG59U Characteristics

I Capacitance per unit length C 21 pF/ft
2 Inductance per unit length L 112 nH/ft
3 Resistance per unit length, (#22 AWG cu) R 16.1 mO/ft
5 Characteristic impedance, Z0=(L/C)1/2 Z0 73 O
6 Phase velocity, Up=(LC)"1/2 Up 692 Mft/sec
7 Velocity factor, Vf=Up/983.6 Mft/sec Vf 66 ———
8 Inter-conductor diameter a 0.026 inch

9 Outer- dielectric diameter b 0.142 inch
10 Dielectric strength Ds 508 kV/inch
11 Air Dielectic strength Da 76.2 kV/inch
12 Internal Max Voltage, Ejmax=(l/2)(b-a)Ds Ejmax 29.4 kV
13 External Max Voltage, Eemax=(l/2)(b-a)Da Eemax 4.4 kV
72
The lowest terminated cable resistance test model which gives a no-fault test result is
shown in Figure 29.
Wirewound
246 n
Figure 29. Lowest No-fault Resistance Test Model
Input V oltage Decay vs D istance
O 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 45005000

------ R (IOOkHz) Distance,(feet)
------ R(IMHz)
------ R(IOMHz)
Figure 30. Test Cable Model Impulse Response vs Distance Plot
The highest terminated cable resistance test model which gives a fault test result is shown
in Figure 31.
73
IRC 5 W
io n
CaAon
Figure 31. Highest Fault Resistance Test Model
The cable terminated high-impedance breakdown test model is shown in Figure 32.
MEPCO
CO5DK101 v IM n
/^ Z N R M-18
-%>"85VAC 0.05%
Figure 32. High Impedance Breakdown Test Model
The pad-mount utility power transformer test model is shown in Figure 33.
Y705TC (N)
115 VAC IKW Rating
Domestic Microwave Transformer
Figure 33. Pad-Mount Utility Transformer Test Model

74
Test #1, a broken cable center conductor or axial shield at or near the tester, results are
shown in Table 25 and Figure 34. It is noted that there are no reflected TDR signals.
Table 25. Test #1 Operator Display LV Results

ITEM DISPLAY DESCRIPTION START END
I V f- LCD message 65 65
2 Distance - LCD message Of Of
3 Test Voltage - LCD message 38 38
4 No-Fault - Green LED Off Off
5 Fault - Red LED Off Off
6 Ready - Yellow LED Off Off
14201 DdHmziNe Q5C3LU03C0FE :4 . 1 ,d i9 :4 .2 ,dsy :4 . 0>

d ate: 28_MPR_99 tin e : 2:25:49 InZtr-JTent ID* 5010136
T ttk < ► C in m Hnduul DrfHfii
BV ;
............ ........... i.............:.............I.............:.............:.............I.............!.............I.............!
V e r tic a l d o r lr o n ta l Upper V e r t B l z e i LI
De b c De b c E r a t L c u Le IVd Lv
LI Ma i n L in ear V e r t O f f s e t ; LI
Faat IlB ZiB ntn __________ I V ____________
Impedance C n u p L Lp b BH L im it
AL I KIf mB
Btatue
Figure 34. Test #1 LV Probed Results

75
Test #2, a shorted cable at or very near the tester, results are shown in Table 26 and
Figure 35.

2 Distance - LCD message 41f 41f
5 Fault - Red LED On On
6 Ready - Yellow LED On On
11201 D IG IT IZ IN G ijSCTl I C G Q IFg (e X P : 4 . 1 , d i 9 : 4 .2 , d s y :4 . 0 >

d a te : 28_MFR_99 t i n e : 2 : 35:43 I r S t ^ L n c n t ID * B 010136
T tlk "4 * C in m Mndrul DrfMfii
..... :......... :......... :......... :......... :......... :.........:......... :......... :......
—"'r‘
EBBna^dLv I , B B 4 j» b
DrfHfn
-ISE na E B B n a ^ d Lv 11 BB4j“ b
V e r t Lea.L Her L r o n t a l R equire Upper HaLn E i r e
De b c De b c Deac G r a t L c u Le E B B n a ^ d Lv
LI Ma i n ContLnuoua L in ear HaLn P oa
Faat S I BE4B o t a - ZZI B n B
Inprdance C o u p L Lng BN L ln lt PaBC Reno ve Pan<r
to N fn I Eoon
I HD DC 4BBHHr RLL N f i i a LI o ff
BtatU B Ma I n

76
Test #3, unterminated cable low-voltage test, results are shown in Table 27 and Figure
36.

4 No-Fault - Green LED On On

77
Test #3, unterminated cable high-voltage test, results are shown in Table 28 and Figure
37.
Table 28. Test #3 Operator Display HV Results

11201 QieiTIZlNG Q3C1LLQ320PE tex* :4 . 1 >di9:4.2 >dsy :4 . 0>

d a te : 28_MFR_99 tin e : 3:45:47 I ra trL re n t ID# 6010136
T tik 4 > Cincn Unddu] DrfHfh
IBV
-500rV .
100j<Hrd Iv g0E>-H
T rIgger Source Leve I TLne M ain S iz e
S e le c t Denc H old off 1 0 0 * n /y Iv
M ain LI 4 . EV I^n M ain Pon
-110*n
Mode C o u p I Lng S lop e N lndou Renove P an/1
I o ld o ff Md N fn I Zoon
M ornal DC ■h HO; none LI o ff
F r L B ; MaL n Ma L n
Figure 37. Test #3 HV Probed Results

78
Test #4, a short circuit cable low-voltage test, results are shown in Table 29 and Figure
38.
Table 29. Test #4 LV Operator Display Results

I V f - LCD message 65 65

79
Test #4, short circuit cable high-voltage test, results are shown in Table 30 and Figure 39.
Table 30. Test #4 HV Operator Display Results

11201 C d B m z tN G CedLLrr=I-CFE <e>0= :4 . 1 , d i 9 :4 .2 ,d s y :4 . 0>

d a t e : 2S_MFF_V9 tin e - : 3 :5 4 :3 9 I n s t r u m e n t ID # B010136
TBk Ci n cm Hndml DrfHfii
SBBrI I L
Lv
HTY
m a th
tnltfti
jr
n
- Z 't
- 490>in SBBfBfd Lv 4 , Slnn
DrfHfn
SBBn'i r
I 0 0n' 1
fd Lv
Rf
I
JW
M
-SBBr|V
- 490j»n SBB^nrd Lv 4 . Slnn
Vr r t LcnL Hnr Lznnt nl RcquLrr Upper Vr r t S i z e ; LI
Drnc Drnc Drnc Sr n t Lcu Lr SBBnV^d I v
LI MnLn CnntLnunuo Ll n e n r / r r t D f f n e t ; LI
Fnnt SI 0240 ntn SBBnV
Inprdnner CnupL Lna BN L l n l t P h.be Rr nuvr Chnn
to Nfn I SrL
IMD DC 40BMHz AL I Nfnn LI LI
St a t u H MnLn

80
Test #5, unterminated cable high-impedance fault high-voltage test, results are shown in
Table 31 and Figure 40.

4 No-Fault - Green LED On Off
5 Fault - Red LED Off On
11201 DXGlIIZlNG O3CXLLO3C0PE <ex*:4.1,dis:4.2,dsy:4.0>

date: 28_MFP_99 tine-: 3:32:48 IrStM_r>ent ID# B010136
T tik 4 f Ciram Hndml OrfHfIi
50V ................I................. :.................i.................I.................:.................!................ !.................i .................i .................i
/■rf Lv
V e r t LcaL dor L r o n t e l Upper

Deec Deac G r a tic u le
Main L in ear
510240 nta
BH L im it Pan/
Zoom
o ff
M ain

81
Test #6, cable terminated with the minimum resistance that causes a no-fault low-voltage
test, results are shown in Table 32 and Figure 41.

date-: 28_M FR_99 t i n e : 2 : 5 2 : 2 1 IrS U -L n en t ID * 6 6 1 6 1 3 6

T tik < f C in m Hnduul Dri
5V ................ ............. i .................:................ :................. i................. i ................ :.................•................. I.........
IV
'd Ly
- 1 4 . 9 n V ____ m i
-196na I.
V e r tic a l M nrl r n n t a l M ainS ir e
Dcnc SBBnn^d Iv
M ain M ain Pnn
S1B34B ntn
Coup 1 1 n B BH L lirlt Page
to
Al I N frn
Btatun
82
Test #6, cable terminated with the minimum resistance that causes a no-fault high
voltage test, results are shown in Table 33 and Figure 42.

1-1201 Q E SlIIZiN S 05C3UJCGCCPE < e X k = :4 .1 ,d i9 :4 .2 ,d s y :4 .0 >

date-: 26_MMR_99 t i n e : 4 : 0 0 : 4 1 I r 5 tr c n e r it ID# B010136
J ttk Cirawn Mndm] DrfHhi
-49E1#ib Iv 4 . S lnn
DrfHhi
SB B n/'
IBBnV
Iv . .
-SBBnV-
-43B f a SBBjia^d Iv 4. S ln a
E r I bbet Source Leve L T ine Cr Ib L ev e l; N
Sc I r c t Dcoc H oLdoff Bd Lv
N ln dov R Bd I v 4 . SSSfa T L n e Ho L d o f f ; K
4 . SB Sfa
Mode C oupL lna S lop e N ln dov Renove Main
H o L d o f f Md N fn I Fr La
NornaL DC ■h HO; n o n e LI
Trln; Main M ain

83
Test #7, cable terminated with the maximum resistance that causes a fault low-voltage

1JL20J D I t i T I I / I h 19 C S C CeXF-: 4 . I jC 2jdSti :4 .0 >
MiMil
d a t e : 28_M t in e : 2 :5 6 : 4 8 In S tr j j - i e r i + B 010I3 6
fl * . . . . C im m ht i r i nj ] OrfHhr
5V
IV
t
I::
Iv
L T ^
I m tf tr ....V F ........:. .
:
:
:
:
tntfd
:
:
:
:
jr ................ ................
M
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
-SV
-ISBnn Z B B n n ^ d Lv I . BB4j»n
OrfHhn
ZV
............... ! L ...........
............... f \ .........
EBBrl R x j ,
' d LV
T
X
H I
JW
N
I
Il
.................. n . . .
- 1 4 . = InV
-ISB nn ZBBnn^dIv I , BB4^n
V e r tic a l dor L z a n t a l R equire Upper M ain S i z e
Dcnc Denc Denc B r a t L c u Le ZBBnnrdLv
LI M ain Cont ln u ou n L in ear M ain Pon
Faet i l BZ4B n tn -ZZBn■
Irp ed ance C o u p I Lng BH L lr lt PttflE Renove Panr
to H fn I Zoon
I MQ DC 4BBMHz AL L N f r n Li o ft
BttttUH Ha I n

84
Test #7, cable terminated with the maximum resistance that causes a fault high-voltage

11201 QUSxIIZ lN S 032HU03CGPE <e-X t:4.1>di9:4.2>d=y:4.0>

date-: 28l-MRR_99 iir e -: 4 :0 5 :1 1 I r S H # B010136
..... I b R 4 ^ Cirmn Nndnil DrfHfn
3 . 5V
SBBnV
I'd Iv
Irietf
trl^d
- 1 , 5V.
-19Bjva ZBB.*Brd Lv
DrfHfn
SBBnVr'
IBBnV
'd Iv Rx'
'T - T r-T
-SBBnV.
-IS B fa Z B BfafdLv I, 9B4nn
T r Lb h e t Source Levc L TLne Vert S L ie ; LI
Sc Irct Dcbc H oLdoff SBBnVfd Iv
M ain LI IV Ina Vert O f f a e t : LI
IV
Made C o u p I Lna S lop e NLndov Renove Chan
Ho L d n f f Md N fn I Se L
NarnaL DC ■h HO; none LI LI
Tr Ln ; M a i n HaLn
Figure 44 Test #7 HV Probed Results

85
Test #8, cable terminated with a transformer low-voltage test, results are shown in Table
36 and Figure 45.

11201 CiIS-LIJjliNG ggCILLQSCCFE <eX>:4.1,di3:4.2,dsy:4.0>

date: 28_MflR_99 tins-: 3:09:42 I n S t ru n - n t ID* B010136
Ttik < ^ C in m HitIcut DrfHfh
5 V ............... I ...............:.................i................ i.................:................. I.................:................ :.................:.................!
IV
'd Lv
I .884*=
V ert IcaL TnrLED ntaT R e q u i r e M a i n 5 LEe
Dcbc Dcac Dbbc EBBna^dLv
LI M ain C ent Lnunua M ain Pna
FlLBt *10240 DtB -EEBn a
C nuplL nB BN L lhL t Rennve
N fn I
RLL Nfna LI
Ba Ln

86
Test #8, cable terminated with a transformer high-voltage test, results are shown in Table
37 and Figure 46.

1 1 2 0 1 DIELLll^-LMe Q5CTI I Q3CCPE : 4 . 1 , d i 3 : 4 . 2 , d s y : 4 . 0>

d a te -: 28_MMR_99 t i n e : 4 : 1 0 :3 3 I n S t r w e n t ID * B010136
T tik 4 ► Cunm Mndcul DrfHfii
IBV
-49El>-e 5 0 0 X 8 I 'd I v 4, S ln a
DrfHfn
500nV
100nV
rd Iv
r : i I ; ; ; ;
- 5 0 0 n V ___
-490X8 5 0 0 xb ■'d Lv 4, S ln a
T rL bhet Source Leve I lin e M ain SL ze
S e Le c I Droc H oLdoff 5 0 0 x 8 r d Lv
HeLn LI ZV I no M a i n P db
- 550x8
Mode Coup L Lna SLopE N lndou Rrnovr Panr
Ho L d o f f Md N fn I Zoon
NorneL DC ■h HO; none LI o ff
F r L n ; Mn. Ln Mn. L n

87
Test #9, cable terminated with a transformer and the minimum resistance that causes a
no-fault low-voltage test, results are shown in Table 38 and Figure 47. The TDR
response is below detection and a 150 ft cable is required to demonstrate this test.

11291 DmemziNg oscamasccFE <exe :4.1, d i g :4.2 , d s y :4 . 0>

d a te -: t i n t : 3 :1 4 :3 4 I r G t m i e n t ID # B010136
TBk 4 i» Cim m Undml DrfHhi
5V
4 .........
I
IV
/d Lv ... a ..:......... i.......
C M Ai j - ■
In etf L I ......
tric'd
JT
M
-5V
- 1 9Bna EBBna ' A l v I . BB4><b
DrfHhi
ZV
k .........
....... ...A
Z B B h 1I
/d lif
SO j \ i . .............
W - 1
MUi
..n
H........ I
M
. I ...........
L
!
- 1 4 . InV
- 1 5 IBna EBBnn^dLv I . BB4 * < n
V rrt Leal Her L z n n t a L Rcqu Ire Upper Main B L ze
Deac Deac Deac E r a t Lcu I e Z B B n a r d Lv
LI Main Cnnt Lnunua L inear M ain Pna
Fnat S1BZ4B nta -ZZBn a
Irpedanca Coup LI n B BH L l r L t PaBE Rernve Panr
to N fr I Znnr
IMQ DC 4BBMHz A LL N f n o LI n ff
Btatuo Main

88
Test #9, cable terminated with a transformer and the minimum resistance that causes a
no-fault high-voltage test, results are shown in Table 39 and Figure 48.

11201 CCDSXT3ZINS OSCILI 05CCPE : 4 . 1 , d i 9 : 4 .2 ,d s y : 4 . 0>

d a t e : 2S_MPR_99 t i n t : 4 : 1 4 :5 3 I r S t M J i e n t ID » B010136
T ttk ^ Cintm Hndnil DrfHfii
.....L L
\
. . . . . .... L
trirfi
.id
- 4 9 0 jm b SBBUi h ' d Lv 4 . S lnB

DrfHfn
500rV
100nV
'4 Lv .......i .
I
'I
-50 0 n V _
- 4 9 0 * ib 500*18 ^ d Lv 4 . S lna
Ir Lhbet Snurce Leve L T Lne M ain S iz e
S e Iect Drnc H n ld n ff S B B w a f 4 Lv
M ain LI IV Ina M ain Pna
-550*iB
MndE C n u p L Lna SLnpe N ln dn u Rennve Pan/
H n L d n f f Md N fn I Znnn
NnrnaL DC I" HO; none LI n ff
F r L n ; Mb . L n Mn. L n

89
Test #10, cable terminated with a transformer and the maximum resistance that causes a
fault low-voltage test, results are shown in Table 40 and Figure 49.


90
Test #10, cable terminated with a transformer and the maximum resistance that causes a
fault high-voltage test, results are shown in Table 41 and Figure 50.

l l ^ y l Li - LbJ- 1 . L f . ! . Nb U C z C II I C S C O F E < e X > : 4 . i j d i 9 : 4 . 2 j d t e y : 4 . 0 >

d a t e : 28 L ffR _ 9 9 t i n e : 4 : 1 7 : 5 8 I n s tr u m e n t ID # 8 0 1 0 1 3 6
T B k 4 f C irom Mnduul DrfHfn
t
SBBr1
' d Ly
' L i. ............> r v ........
H T ^ \ / s
Im th / ........ X y
IrigTd
JW
M
-2.5V 1
-49B*ia SBBj-H^dLy 4. S lrn
DrfHfr
S B B n 1r
I BBr', 1
' d Ly
RX
'I
...'.. I
I
JW
M
- B B B r iV
-49B>m 5 B B > H ^ d Ly 4, S ln n
IrL B flcr Source Leye L T ire Trlfl L e y e I; H
S e L ect Deac H oLdoff 3BBnV
M ain LI 3BBnV Ine Tine Ho L d o f f :
i na
Mode C o up Llnfl BLnpc NLndou Renoye NaLn
No L d o f f He N fn I T rig
NarnaL DC HO; n o n e LI
T rio: M ain Ma I n
Figure 50. Test #10 FIV Probed Results

91
Test #11, cable terminated with a transformer and high-impedance breakdown high-
voltage test, results are shown in Table 42 and Figure 51.

4 No-Fault - Green LED On Off
5 Fault - Red LED Off On

92
Project Demonstration Anomalies
1. Occasionally a HV test with a high-impedance fault causes a 41 ft distance
displayed because the first positive detected pulse undershoot extends the
time-to-digital converters 120 ns lock-out.
2. The range of TDR detection and distance measurement is limited to less than
450 ft because the reflected wave is attenuated below the level of detection.
This is caused by the energy level in the TDR test pulse width being set
deliberately to minimize the ‘dead zone’ of the pulse so shorter distances can
be detected.
3. Adding a transformer to the cable test results in
a. a small phase shift in the TDR echo response, causing an increase in the
cable distance, and
b. limiting detectable resistive faults near the outer detectable range.
4. Cable lengths under 100 ft are reported with distances greatly inflated due to a
phase shift in the TDR Coupler/Arm Filter circuitry.

93
CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
Utility power company service personnel have needed a device that can be
quickly connected to any residential circuit to determine if a fault exists before re
energizing the circuit, presenting an approximate distance from the testing location to an
existing fault. In the past five years the problem of determining an underground cable
fault location has been studied from several methodologies; the most common technique
used is Time Domain Reflectometry. For a moderate investment, there are products
available which can locate cable faults within 1% to 2% accuracy, however, they do not
meet the needs of portability.
The 15 kV Class coaxial cable characteristics and pulsed energy responses are
identified in the analytical and simulation study.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of a small hand portable
underground cable tester which can determine fault/no fault conditions of de-energized
circuits and which can estimate the distance to a fault while residential transformers are
connected, and which meets portable size, weight, and cost constraints.
94
The demonstration project physical size is 14” W x 12.14” L x 614” H, which
gives a volume of 0.633 ft3 and has a weight of 48 lbs.
The demonstration project circuit components are identified, analyzed, and
specified. A summary of the modules and costs is listed in Table 43. See Appendix C
for a complete parts listing of each module.
Table 43. Parts List Cost Summary

ITEM DESCRIPTION COST
I HV Section Parts List 1223.43
2 Main Board Parts List 309.79
3 TDR Supply Parts List 49.04
4 TDR Transmitter Parts List 47.93
5 TDR Coupler Parts List 33.03
6 Main Power Parts List 239.94
■ 7 TDR Receiver Detector Parts List 78.02
TOTAL $1,981.18
A complete review of eleven low-voltage and high-voltage test results is included.
Conclusions
Time Domain Reflectometry methods can identify open circuits near the tester,
and short circuits, low-resistance faults, and high-impedance faults anywhere in the TDR
detectable range. The TDR detectable range is limited to the energy level in the test
pulse because of cable and instrumentation losses. From the demonstration project, it.
was found that a 50 ns TDR test pulse limits the maximum detectable range to around
450 ft.
Complete cable testing can be accomplished with the pad-mount utility
transformer attached to the circuit, without detrimentally affecting the customer’s

95
equipment or posing a safety issue, however, there is a small phase shift added to the test
pulse that adds time to the reflected wave, affecting distance measurements.
It is desirable to use low-voltage TDR tests for determining cable length and low
energy integrity before engaging a high voltage test for high-impedance faults.
The most feasible method for a portable tester to generate a diagnostic high
energy pulse is to charge a capacitor to the desired high-voltage and switch it onto the
cable under test. An ARM Filter is required to allow the separation of the high-frequency
TDR responses from the high-voltage pulse.
Considering current technology, a gas-filled high-voltage relay seemed to be the
best choice of switch for this application.
The demonstration prototype met the all of the objective constraints and
requirements except the maximum distance, 3000 ft, and accuracy to with 5 ft throughout
the range of detection.
Recommendations
Further study should be made on the following:
” Developing a less expensive high-voltage switch than a gas-filled relay. Since
the rise and fall times are not critical because of the ARM Filter, slower
devices could be used, such high-voltage SCRs.
° Developing a programmable pulse width TDR transmitter which can switch
100 VDC to allow for an auto-ranging algorithm to determine the cable length
and integrity beyond the current 450 ft limit.

96
° If the above can not be realized, integrating a high-speed, programmable,
high-frequency, TDR receiver attenuator to limit the voltage response of the
TDR test pulse, without limiting the reflected wave.
° Redesign of the TDR Coupler/ARM Filter snubber to reduce the phase shift
and attenuation of the reflected TDR wave. It was demonstrated that for the
low-voltage tests, short cable lengths are reported correctly when the TDR
coupler is not used.

97
REFERENCES
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Delay and Its Application to Cable Fault Location," IEEE Transactions on
Instrumentation and Measurement. Vo. 39, No. 3, pp. 479-484, June 1990.
[2] M.T. Abuelma'atti, "Modelling of Capacitively (resistively)- Loaded Uniform

RC Lines for Computer Aided Analysis," IEE Proceedings - G. VoL 138, No. 4, pp 463-
466, August 1991.
[3] Jose E. Schutt-Aine, "Transient Analysis of Nonuniform Transmission Lines,"

IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems. VoL 39, No. 5, pp 378-385, May 1992.
[4] Leo P. Van Biesen, Jean Renneboog, Alain RE. Barel, "High Accuracy
Location of Faults on Electrical Lines Using Digital Signal Processing," IEEE
Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurements. VoL 39, No. I, pp 175-179,
February 1990.
[5] Makoto Kanno, Isao Minowa, "Applications on Nonlinearity Measuring

Method Using Two Frequencies to Electrical Components," IEEE Transactions on
Instrumentation and Measurements. VoL IM-34, No. 4, pp 590-593, December 1985.
[6] T. Kawai, N. Takinami, T. Chino, K. Amano, K. Watanabe, Y. Nakamura, N.

Shiseki, "A New Approach to Cable Fault Location Using Fiber Optic Technology (Part
I)," IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. VoL 10, No. I, pp 85-91, January 1995.
[7] N. Inoue, T. Tsunekage, S. Sakai, "On-Line Fault Location System For 66kV
Underground Cables with Fast O/E and Fast A/D Technique," IEEE Transactions on
Power Delivery. VoL 9, No. I, pp 579-584, January 1994.
[8] C.M. Wiggins, D.E. Thomas, T.M. Salas, F.S. Nickel, H.W. Ng, "A Novel
Concept For URD Cable Fault Location," IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, VoL 9,
No. I, pp 591-597, January 1994.
[9] J.P. Steiner, W.L. Weeks, H.W. Ng, "An Automated Fault Locating System,"
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. VoL 7, No. 2, pp 967-978, April 1992.
[IOjWalter L.Weeks, J.P. Steiner, "Above Ground Detection and Interpretation of

Transient Signals On Underground Power Distribution Systems," IEEE Transactions on
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98
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100
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101
APPENDICES
102
APPENDIX A
UNDERGROUND COAXIAL CABLE RATINGS

103
APPENDIX A
Table 44L Underground Coaxial Cable Ratings

ITEM DESCRIPTION VAlLUE UNITS
I Maximum Operating Voltage 15 25 kV
2 Wire Material Al Al
3 Wire Size 2 1/0 AWG
4 Resistance 336 211 , mO/1000ft
5 Insulation Type (Cross-linked XLPE XLPE
Polyethylene)
6 Insulation Thickness 0.175 0.260 inch
7 Insulation Dielectric Constant 2.9 2.9
APPENDIX B
RESIDENTIAL PAD-MOUNTED 60HZ SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

RATINGS
105
APPENDIX B
Table 45. Residential Pad-mounted 60Hz Single Phase Transformer Ratings

ITEM DESCRIPTION VAlLUE UNITS
I Primary Voltage 2400 7200 VAC
2 Secondary Voltage 120/240 120/240 VAC
3 Power 25 50 kVA
4 Resistance (R) 1.14 0,82 Q
5 Reactance (X) 1.52 1.14 Q
6 Impedance (Z) 1.90 1.40 O
106
APPENDIX C
PARTS LISTS
107
Table 46. HV Section Parts List

# QTY REF D E S C R IP T IO N M FG PN COST® TOTAL
I I PSl O -lO k V /lm A H V P o w e r S u p p ly E m co 4-100 $ 2 58.00 $258.00
2 I Kl 3 6 k V G as fille d S P S T , 2 4 V D C K ilo v a c K 61A 841 $ 4 25.00 $ 4 2 5 .0 0
R e la y
3 I Cl 2|a.F/12.5kV S to ra g e-D isch arg e P la stic L K 1 2 5 -2 0 5 N A $ 3 00.00 $ 3 0 0 .0 0
C a p a c ito r C a p a c ito rs
4 I K2 1 0 k V /3 A S P S T -N C , 2 4 V D C R e la y C ry d o m 24H V 1B 100 $63.86 $ 6 3 .8 6
5 2 D l, H V D io d e s EDAL B 5 8 8 -2 0 0 $4.73 $ 9 .46
D2 In d u st
6 I Rl 3 -1 0 0 k /1 0 W se ries co n n ected D ale C W -1 0 1 0 0 k $6.20 $ 6 .2 0
resisto rs
7 I LI IO -Im H se ries co n n e c te d to roid M ic ro T l 75-2 $50.00 $ 5 0 .0 0
in d u c to rs. m etals
5 0 tV 1 8 g a w ire on co res m o u n ted in
tw o le n g th s o f 2 ” P V C p ip e
8 I L2 4 7 0 ji H in d u c to r. 1 8 3 tu m s/l 8 g a on M ic ro T l 57-2 $5.00 $ 5 .0 0
co re m eta ls
9 I C2 2 5 0 p F /1 2 .5 k V TDL D F M -1 2 K 2 5 3 -2 $ 1 00.00 $ 100.00
10 I R2 lk /2 5 W w ire w o u n d re sisto r O h m ite L 2 5 I1 K 0 $4.19 $ 4 .1 9
11 2 P4, 3 p o sitio n sin g le ro w p o c k e t h e a d e r M o le x / 50-5 7 -9 4 0 3 $0.76 , $ 1.52 ,
P5 W a ld o m
12 I P6 2 p o sitio n 0 .1 5 6 ” h e a d e r M o le x / 09-50-8021 / 0 8 - $0.20 $ 0 .2 0 .
W a ld o m 5 0 -0106
13 I Fl T D R A R M F ilte r (see se p ara te 0 $ 0 .0 0 0
listin g )
14 I Pl B u s h in g A d a p te r C ooper unknow n $ 0 .0 0 0
TOTAL $ 1 ,2 2 3 .4 3
Table 47. Main Board Parts List

I I B eepl P ie z o e le c tric C e ra m ic B u z zer P a n a so n ic E F D -R D 2 2 C 4 1 1 $1.80 $ 1.80
2 2 C ll-1 2 1 8 p F /5 0 V C e ra m ic C ap P a n a so n ic E C U -V l H l 8 0 IC M $0,163 $ 0.33
3 10 C S , C IO , I OnFZSOV C e ra m ic C ap P a n a so n ic E C U -V 1 H 1 0 3 K B M $0,199 $ 1.99
C 13, C15,
C 17, C19,
C 22, C24,
C 2 6 , C 28
4 5 C I S ,C 2 3 , IOOnFZSOV C e ram ic C ap P a n a so n ic E C U -V 1 H 1 0 4 K B M $0,608 $ 3 .0 4
C 25, C 27,
C29
5 7 C l- 4 , C 1 4 , lp F /3 5 V T a n ta lu m C ap P a n a so n ic E C S -T l V X l 0 5 R $0,461 $ 3.23
C 1 6 , C21
6 2 C 7 ,C 9 2 2 p F /1 6 V E le ctro ly tic C ap P a n a so n ic E C E -B 1 C G E 2 2 0 $0.60 $ 1.20
I 3 C 5 -6 , C 2 0 1 0 0 p F /2 5 V E le c tro ly tic C ap P a n a so n ic E C E -B I E G E l 01 $0.85 $ 2.55
8 I Dl I AZlOOV S ilico n R e ctifier D ig i-K e y S I B D IC T -N D $0,245 $ 0.25
9 I DZl + 5 V D C R e fe re n c e N a tio n a l L M 4 0 4 0 C IM 3 -5 .0 $2.17 $ 2.17
10 I H Sl T D R H V In v e rte r M o d u le M ic ro T D R H V M -IO A $49.04 $ 4 9 .0 4
D e sig n s
11 I H S2 T D R D riv e r M o d u le (see M ic ro T D R D rv rM -IO A 0 $ 00
se p a ra te listin g ) D e sig n s
12 I HS3 T D R D e te c to r M o d u le (see M ic ro T D R D etM -IO A 0 $ Q.0Q
s e p a ra te listin g ) D e sig n s
13 I Kl D P S T 5 V D C re la y 4 -2 A F o rm D ig i-K e y Z 6 4 1 -N D $648 $ 6.48
14 I LCDl 2 0 X 1 L C D D isp la y V a ritro n ix M D L S -2 0 1 8 9 k -L V - $69 .0 0 $ 6 9 .0 0
G -L E D -0 4
15 I LCDl 14 p o s straig h t, dual ro w D ig i-K e y 9 2 9 8 5 2 -0 1 -36 -N D $0.67 $ 0.67

fe m a le h e a d e r
108
# QTY REF D E S C R IP T IO N M FG PN COST© TOTAL

16 2 LEDl 8 m m Y e llo w L E D D ig i-K e y 160 -1 0 4 1 -N D $0.27 $ 0 .54
LED6
17 3 LED2 8 m m G reen L E D D ig i-K e y 160-1 0 4 0 -N D $0.27 $ 0.81
LED3
LED5
18 I LED4 8m m R ed LED D ig i-K e y 160-1 0 3 9 -N D $0.27 $ 0.27
19 I LFl 0 .8 2 m H Z lA L ine F ilte r P a n a so n ic E L F -1 8D 2 9 0 B $2.83 $ 2.83
20 I Pl 12 p o s c o n n e c to r AMP 640502-1 $6.66 $ 6 .66
21 I P2 6 p o s c o n n e c to r M o le x 7 0 5 -4 3 -0 0 0 6 $1.57 $ 1.57
22 I P3 3 p o s c o n n e c to r M o le x 7 0 5 -4 3 -0 0 0 2 $1.13 $ 1.13
23 I POTl 2 0 k 3 m m C e ram ic S Q S /T D ig i-K ey S T 3A 203 $1.56 $ 1.56
SM D Pot
24 I 01 N P N T ra n sisto r D ig i-K e y FM M T2222 $0.36 $ 0 .36
25 4 RO Z e r o f i R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P 0 .0 E C T -N D $ 0 .9 6 / $ 0.38
10
26 6 R 2 -3 , 2 7 0 f i R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P 2 7 0 E C T -N D $ 0 .9 6 / $ 0.58
R 8 -1 0 10
27 I RH 4 7 0 f i re sisto r D ig i-K ey P 4 7 0 E C T -N D $ 0 .9 6 / $ 0 .1 0
10
28 4 R 4 -5 , R 1 4 - I K f i R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P I . O K E C T -N D $ 0 .9 6 / $ 0.38
15 10
29 I Rl l.S K f i R e sisto r D ig i-K e y P 1 .8 K E C T -N D $ 0 .9 6 / $ 0.10
10
30 5 R l 6 -2 0 4 .7 K f i R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P 4 .7 K E C T -N D $ 0 .9 6 / $ 0 .48
10
31 2 R P 1 -2 4 .7 K f i R e sisto r p a c k D ig i-K e y 7 7 0 -8 1 -R 4 .7 K $0.29 $ 0 .58
32 I R 13 2 1 K f i R e sisto r D ig i-K e y P 2 1K F C T -N D $ 1 .2 6 / $ 0 .13
10
33 I R12 I OOKfi fiR e s is to r D ig i-K ey P I OOKECT-ND $ 0 .9 6 / $ 0 .1 0
10
34 I R7 15 0 K fi R e sisto r D ig i-K e y P 1 5 0 K E C T -N D $ 0 .9 6 / $ 0 .1 0
10
35 I R6 10M f i R e sisto r l/4 w axial D ig i-K e y I O M Q B K -N D $0.28 $ 0 .28
36 7 S W P B I -5, S P S T N O P u sh b u tto n sw itch C&K K S11R22C Q D $1.17 $ 8 .19
S W P B 7 -8
37 I SW PB6 S P D T P u sh b u tto n sw itch C&K K S12R21C Q D $1.22 $ 1.22
38 9 T P l -9 T e st p o in t 0 .0 6 4 ” sw ag e h o le C a m b io n 180-73 3 7 -0 2 -0 5 $0.33 $ 2 .9 7
m t/0 .1 7 3 ” h ig h
39 I Ul P L C C 5 2 S o ck et D ig i-K e y A 2 1 2 3 -N D $1.17 $ 1.17
40 I Ul E m b e d d e d 8 -b it g P P L C C 5 2 M o to ro la M C 6 8 H C 7 11E 9V F $18.00 $ 18.00
N2
41 I U2 p P ro c w a tc h d o g /reset M a x im M A X 692A E3A $3.26 $ 3 .2 6
42 I U3 p P , S in g le S u p p ly 8 -b it .D A C M ic ro M L 2 3 5 0 C IJ/1 2 $6.00 $ 6 .0 0
L in e a r
43 I U4 L P D u a l O p -A m p N a tio n a l L M 2904M $0.42 $ 0 .4 2
44 I U5 P L C C 4 4 S o ck et D ig i-K e y A 2 1 2 2 -N D $1.15 $ 1.15
45 I U5 P ro g ra m m a b le L o g ic D ev ice A lte ra E P M 7 0 3 2 L C 4 4 -7 $19.60 $ 19.60
PLC C44
46 I Xl 1 2 M H z cry stal D ig i-K e y C T X 0 8 2 -N D $1.27 $ 1.27
47 I X2 10 0 M H z o sc illa to r D ig i-K e y S E 3 5 1 4 C T -N D $6.53 $ 6.53
48 I — M a in B o a rd P rin ted C ircu it M ic ro T D R M B -1OA $75.00 $ 7 5 .0 0
B o a rd D e sig n s
49 4 — 4 -4 0 x /4 ” A lu m in u m H ex D ig i-K e y 8 4 0 1K -N D $ 3 .3 2 / $ 1.33
M a le /F e m a le sta n d o ff 10
50 4 — '4-40'A " N y lo n H ex D ig i-K e y 19 0 2 C K -N D $ 4 .8 9 / $ T:96
F e m a le /F e m a le sta n d o ff ' 10
51 2 — 4 -4 0 x 7 /8 ” N y lo n H ex D ig i-K e y 1 9 0 2 G K -N D $ 4 .8 0 / $ 0 .9 6
F e m a le /F e m a le sta n d o ff 10
52 6 —
4 -4 0 x 1 /4 ” P h illip s M a ch in e D ig i-K e y H 3 4 2 -N D $ 1 .1 1 / ' '$ 0 .07
sc rew 100
TOTAL $ 3 0 9 .7 9
109
Table 48. TDR Supply Parts List

I 2 C l- 2 1 0 n F /5 0 V C e ra m ic C ap P a n a so n ic E F D -V l H l 0 3 K B M $0,199 $ 0 .4 0
2 I C3 2 2 p F /1 6 V T a n ta lu m C ap P a n a so n ic E C S -H 1 C D 2 2 6 R $1,223 $ 1.22
3 2 C 4 -5 1 0 0 n F /2 5 0 V D C M e taliz ed P a n a so n ic E C Q -E 2 1 0 0 4 K S $0.26 $ 0.52
P o ly e ste r
4 I Dl U ltra fa s t P o w e r R e c tifie r M o to ro la M U R S140T3 $0.99 $ 0 .9 9
1 .0 A /4 0 0 V
5 I LI 1 .5 m H In d u c to r 8 0 Q /lf i/5 0 m A T oko 2 6 2 L Y -1 5 2 k $2.61 $ 2.61
6 I Ml 1 0 A /4 0 0 V 0 .5 5 ro n N -C h an n el M o to ro la M T B 10N 40E $4.47 $ 4.47
M O SFET
7 I R8 IO O fi R e sisto r D ig i-K e y P 10 0 E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0 .1 0
8 I RH I k f i R e sisto r D ig i-K e y P I . O kE C T -N D $0,096 ' $ 0.10
9 2 R 6 -7 3.3 k f i R e sisto r D ig i-K e y P 3 .3 k E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0 .1 9
10 I R2 6 .8 k f i R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P 6 .8 k E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0 .10
11 I R4 IO k fi R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P lO k E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0 .10
12 I Rl 15 k f i R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P lS k E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0 .1 0
13 I R5 2 7 k f i R e sisto r D ig i-K e y P 2 7 k E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0 .10
14 2 R 3, 4 7 k f i R e sisto r D ig i-K e y P 4 7 k E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0 .1 9
R lO
15 I R9 I M f i R e sisto r D ig i-K e y P I M E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0 .10
16 I . Ul P W M C o n tro lle r TI TL598Q D $1.55 $ 1.55
17 4 — C o n n e c to r P in s $0.30 $ 1.20
18 I — T D R H V PCB M ic ro T D R H V -IO A $25.00 $ 2 5 .0 0
D esig n s
19 I — T D R H V M a g n e tic shield M ic ro T D R H V S -1OA $10.00 ■ $ 10.00
D e sig n s
TOTAL $ 4 9 .0 4
Table 49. TDR Transmitter Parts List

I. I Cl 1 0 n F /5 0 V C e ra m ic C ap P a n a so n ic ECU- $0,199 $ 0 .2 0
V 1H 103K B M
2. I C 2 ,C 7 2 2 n F /5 0 V C e ra m ic C ap P a n a so n ic E C U -V 1 2 2 0 JC M $0,163 $ 0 .1 6
3. I C3 2 7 0 p F /5 0 V C e ra m ic C ap P a n a so n ic ECU- $0,145 $ 0.15
V 1271K B M
4. I C6 lp F /1 6 V C e ra m ic C ap P a n a so n ic E C J- $0.16 $ 0.16
3Y B 1C 105K
5. I Dl I A /1 0 0 V S ilico n R e ctifier D ig i-K e y S !B D IC T -N D $0,245 $ 0.25
6. I DZ2 5 m A /l 5 V z /3 5 0 m W Z e n e r D io d e V ish a y D io d es BZX 84C15 $0.27 $ 0.27
7. I Ml 5 0 0 V /0 .5 A /1 6 R d sN -C h a n n e l S u p e rte x V N 0650 $1.06 $ 1.06
M O SFET
8. I M2 -5 0 0 V /-0 .2 A /3 0 R d sN - C h an nel S u p e rte x V P0650 $1.55 $ 1.55
M O SFET
9. I Pl S M B C o a x V e rtic a l Ja ck , gold AMP 413990-1 $3.88 $ 3.88
10. I R 1 ,R 3 I k f i R e sisto r D ig i-K e y P I . O kE C T -N D $0,096 $ 0.10
11. I R2 15 0 k f i R e sisto r D ig i-K e y P 1 5 0 k E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0 .1 0
12. I R4 IO k fi R e sisto r D ig i-K e y P lO k E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0 .1 0
13. I R5 2 2 k f i R e sisto r D ig i-K e y P 2 2 E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0 .1 0
14. I R6 6 8 k f i R e sisto r D ig i-K e y P 6 8 k E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0.10
15. I R7 3 .3 k f i R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P 3 .3 k E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0.10
16. I R9 5 0 k f i R e sisto r D ig i-K e y P 5 0 E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0 .1 0
17. I R8 2 2 0 k f i R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P 2 2 0 E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0.10
18. I Ul T im e r TI T I5 5 5 I $1.15 $ 0.10
19. 11 — C o n n e c to r p in s M ic ro D esig n s $0.30 $ 1.15
20. I — T D R D r iv e r P C B M ic ro D esig n s T D R D rv r-IO A $25.00 $ 3.30
no

21. I —
T D R D riv e r m a g n e tic shield M ic ro D esig n s T D R D rv r-S lO A $10.00 $ 2 5 .0 0
TOTAL $ 38.03
Table 50. TDR Coupler Parts List

I 2 C l, 2 2 0 n F /5 0 k V M e ta liz e d F ilm C a p P a n aso n ic E C Q -V l H 2 2 4 L $0,183 $ 0 .37
C2
2 I C3 2 2 n F /1 0 k V F ilm C a p E FC H V 1 3 1 3 T C -X - $8.50 $ 8 .50
.0 0 2 -1 0 k -1 0
3 2 L I, 10 0 p H /0 .0 4 5 R s /5 0 Q In d u c to r T oko R 6 2 2 L Y -1 0 0 K $2.42 $ 4 .8 4
12 8RHS
4 I Pl S M B C o a x V e rtic a l Ja c k , gold AMP 4 13990-1 $3.88 $ 3.88
5 I Rl 2 .2 k 1 /4 W Cl C a rb o n F ilm R e sisto r D ig i-K ey 2 .2 k Q B K -N D $0,056 $ 0 .06
6 2 —
2 2 A W G /2 0 k V w ire I f t len g th s R o w e -T a lle y R 8 0 0 -2 0 2 2 $0.98 $ 1.96
7 I 3 /8 ” S tu d 2 2 -1 6 R e d C rim p Amp 31 8 9 7 $0,262 $ 0.26
T e rm in al
8 I — 'A" S tu d 2 2 -1 6 R e d C rim p T e rm in al Amp 31894 $0,254 $ 0.25
9 2 0 .1 0 0 ” w id e x 3 ” lo n g N y lo n tie R ich c o W IT -1 8 S F $0.03 $ 0.06
w rap
10 I — T D R A R M F ilte r P C B M ic ro D esig n s T D R A R M F -1 0 A $10.00 $ 10.00
11 4 4-40x14” N y lo n H e x F e m a le /F e m a le D ig i-K ey 19 0 2 C K -N D $0,489 $ 1.96
sta n d o ff
12 8 — 4 -4 0 x % ” P h illip s M a c h in e sc rew D ig i-K ey H 3 4 2 -N D $0,111 $ 0.89
TOTAL $ 33.03
Table 51. TDR Receiver Detector Parts List

I I C l, 2 .7 n F /5 0 V C e ra m ic C ap P a n a so n ic ECU- . $0,159 $ 0 .16
C3 V 1H 272K B M
2 I C 2, 4 7 n F /5 0 V C e ra m ic C ap P a n aso n ic ECU- $0,304 $ 0 .30
C 4, V 1H 473K B M
CS,
C6
3 I DZl + 5 V D C R e fe re n c e N a tio n al L M 4 0 4 0 C IM 3 - $2.17 $ 2 .1 7
5.0
4 I Rl 1 5 K Q R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P lS k E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0 .10
5 I R2 27012 R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P 2 7 0 E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0 .1 0
6 I R3 5112 R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P 5 1E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0 .10
S B
7 2 3.3K£2 R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P 3 .3 k E C T -N D $0,096 $ 0 .19
8 6 R 5 -7 , 1K£2 R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P I . O kE C T -N D $0,096 $ 0.58

R9-1T
9 2 R l 2, 3 6 0 0 R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P 3 6 0 C T -N D $0,096 $ 0.19
Rl3
10 I Ul H ig h P e rfo rm a n c e V id e o O p A m p A n a lo g A D 811SQ $25.99 $ 2 5 .9 9
D evices
11 - 2 U 2-3 U ltra fa s t T T L C o m p a ra to rs A n a lo g A D 9696TQ $5.22 $ 10.44
D ev ices
12 9 — C o n n e c to r p in s M ic ro D esig n s $0.30 $ 2.70
13 I — T D R D e te c to r M o d u le P C B M ic ro D esig n s T D R D e t-IO A $25.00 $ 2 5 .0 0
14 I —
T D R D e te c to r M o d u le m a g n e tic M ic ro D esig n s T D R D e t-S lO A $10.00 $ 10.00
sh ie ld
TOTAL $ 7 8 .0 2
Ill
Table 52. Main Power Parts List

# QTY REF D E S C R IP T IO N M FG PN CO ST® TOTAL
I I Dl 3 A /4 0 V S c h o ttk y B a rrie r R e c tifie r D ig i-K ey S K 3 4 D IC T -N D $1.68 $ 1.68
2 3 D 2, 3 3 V /6 0 0 W T ra n s ie n t V o lta g e S u p D ig i-K ey P6K E33A D C T - $0.76 $ 2.28
D 3, ND
D4
3 3 F 1 .F 2 1/4A 2 A G S lo -B lo S u b m in ia tu re D ig i-K ey F 6 6 0 -N D $ 2 .7 4 /5 $ 1.64
F4 F u se
4 I F3 3 A 2 A G S lo -B lo S u b m in ia tu re F u se D ig i-K ey F 6 6 8 -N D $ 2 .7 4 /5 $ 0.55
5 I F5 2 A 2 A G S lo -B lo S u b m in ia tu re F u se D ig i-K ey F 6 6 6 -N D $ 2 .7 4 / 5 $ 0.55
6 I F6 4 A A T C F u se D ig i-K ey 2 8 3 -2 3 1 5 -N D $ 1 .5 4 /5 $ 0.31
7 I Jl 3 P o sitio n 0 .1 5 6 ” H e a d e r W /M o le x 26-48-1035 $0.28 $ 0.28
8 I J2 6 P o sitio n 0 .1 5 6 ” H e a d e r W /M o le x 0 9 -50-3061 ' $0.47 $ 0 .47
9 I J3 12 P o sitio n 0 .1 5 6 ” H e a d e r W /M o le x 2 6 -4 8 -1 1 2 5 $1.12 $ 1.12
10 2 J 4 ,J 5 3 P o sitio n 3 .0 5 m m P o c k e t H e a d e r W /M o le x 7 0 5 -5 3 -0 0 0 2 $1.13 $ 2.26
11 I J6 2 P o sitio n 0 .1 5 6 ” H e a d e r W /M o le x 2 6 -4 8 -1 0 2 5 $0.18 $ 0.18
12 I Kl S P D T 5 A /2 4 V D C PB M o u n t P o w e r O m ron G 5 L -1 1 4 P -P S - $2.00 $ 2 .00
R elay D C 24
13 I LI 12V A u to m o tiv e L am p GE 1002/B P $ 1 .8 5 /2 $ 0.93
14 I Rl 2 2 1K f l R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P 2 2 1K F C T -N D $ 1 .2 6 / $ 0.13
10
15 I R2 4 6 .4 K A R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P 4 6 .4 K F C T -N D $ 1 .2 6 / $ 0.13
10
16 I R3 T h e rm iste r (u n -u sed ) $0.00 $ 0.00
17 4 R 4 -7 2 7 0 f i R e sisto r D ig i-K ey P 2 7 0 E C T -N D ' $ 0 .9 6 / $ 0.38
10
18 I Ul T rip le O u tp u t D C /D C C o n v e rte r P o w e r-O n e D G P 2 0 E 2 4 T 5 /1 2 $88.40 $ 88.40
19 I U2 F o u r C h a n n e l O p to e le c tro n ic D ig i-K ey P S 2 5 0 2 -4 N E C - $2.94 $ 2 .9 4
Iso la to r ND
20 2 V I, P a n a so n ic S ealed R e c h a rg e a b le S tandard N S 12 70 ,$ 1 8 .9 0 $ 37.80
V2 L e a d -A c id B a tte ry B a tteries
21 I 4 0 W 2 3 V /2 9 V 1 .7 4 A /1 .3 8 A M A P P o w e r-O n e M A P 4 2 -1 -2 4 $60.00 $ 60.00
S eries 8 5 -2 6 4 V A C in p u t P o w er
S u p p ly
22 10 — 2 A G P C B F u se c lip D ig i-K ey 2 8 3 -2 3 3 5 -N D $ 1 .9 5 / $ 1.95
10
23 6 —
2 2 -1 8 A W G R e d 4 .7 5 m m In su lated 3M M N U l 8- $ 4 .0 1 / $ 2.41
F e m a le S p a d e C o n n e c to r 1 8 7 D F IK 10
24. 4 — 4-40x14” A lu m in u m H ex D ig i-K ey 87 1 4 K -N D $2 .1 0 / $ 0 .84
M a le /F e m a le s ta n d o ff 10
25 4 — 4 -4 0 x 1 -1 /4 ” A lu m in u m H ex D ig i-K e y 84 0 7 K -N D $ 5 .1 7 / $ 2 .07
M a le /F e m a le s ta n d o ff 10
26 4 — 4 -4 0 x 1 /4 ” P h illip s M a c h in e sc rew D ig i-K ey H 3 4 2 -N D $ 1 .1 1 / $ 0.04
100
27 I — M a in P o w e r P C B M ic ro D esig n s T D R M a in P w r- $25.00 $ 2 5 .0 0
IO A
28 I — S -6 D .C . L am p S o ck et L ee c ra ft 12-272 $3.60 $ 3.60
TOTAL $ 2 3 9 .9 4
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY - BOZEMAN
iiiiNinnuiiiiiiiii
1762 10421582 5

Cable Fault Prototype

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15 kV class underground cable fault tester

by Clair Karl Nystrom

CABLE FAULT TESTER

Clair Karl Nystrom

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

MONTANA STATE UNTVERSITY-BOZEMAN

Clair Karl Nystrom

All Rights Reserved

Clair Karl Nystrom

Baldev Thapar, Committee Chair

Approved for the Department of Electrical Engineering

John P. Hanton, E.C.E., Dept. Head

Approved for the College of Graduate Studies

Bruce R. McLeod, E.C.E., Dean

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a master's

available to borrowers under rules of the Library.

If have indicated my intention to copyright this thesis by including a copyright

Appendix A—Underground Coaxial Cable Ratings.................................. :............ 102

Appendix B—Residential Pad-Mounted 60Hz Single

Appendix C—Parts Lists 106

Table I . Cable Tester Manufacturer - Supplier List...................................................... 7

40. Test #10 LV Operator Display Results............................................................89

Figure I . Operator Panel and Embedded Controller Block Diagram............................. 11

39. Test #4 HV Probed Results... ....79

appliances, and often necessitating rebooting of computers.

quickly connected to any de-energized residential circuit to determine if a fault exists. If

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the feasibility of developing an

determine fault/no-fault conditions (with estimated distances to detected faults) of de­

the commonly used sectional troubleshooting process.

Assumptions And Limitations

assumed. For fault location, accuracy of within 5 feet (ft) is assumed.

Summary OfThe Remainder OfThis Thesis

Chapter 2 discusses a limited literature review of patents, technical journals,

power industry publications, periodical product advertisements and manufacturer’s

equipment. Chapter 3 identifies system characteristics that need to be addressed,

requirements. Chapter 4 presents analytical data on system component characteristics, a

summary of high-voltage (HV) switch devices, instrumentation concerns, a fault location

for future study.

LITERATURE AND INDUSTRY REVIEW

A literature search was performed to determine what technological and/or

Measurement, IEEE Transactions' on Circuits and Systems, and IEEE Transactions oh

Power Delivery); indices to power industry publications; periodical product

High-Powered Electromagnet", it describes a method for above-ground fault location by

Pintelon [1] proposes that a Gaussian, frequency-domain, maximum likelihood

estimator can determine the transfer function of a linear, continuous-time, two-port

claims to make it easier to implement a computer-aided analysis, however, it is not as

accurate as other published techniques.

resolve accuracy’s of 30 cm, using a 20 MHz-8 bit sampler.

Makoto [5] reports a nonlinearity measuring method using two frequencies to

determine electrical circuit components. Two currents of different frequencies were

introduced into a device which selectively measured the multi-order of nonlinearity

demonstrate the results.

temperature-dependent and composed of Stokes light and anti-Stokes light (incident).

A continuous monitoring location system was developed for a 66 kilovolt (kV)

underground cable using an optical-to-electrical (O/E) converter and a fast, 16

The characterization of fault-generated traveling waves and properties was

empirically determined for underground residential distribution (UED) cable systems,

square, sinusoid, or alternating pulse waveform. A wave peak amplitude of 10 kV / 300

tree-retardant cross-linked polyethylene (TRXLP) primary cable with a surge impedance

of approximately 34 ohms (Q). The waveform risetime of 20 nanoseconds (ns) at the

maximum of 80 microseconds (ps) and a minimum of 4 ps. The cable propagation

locator unit intended to be installed at the padmount.

There is an automated fault locating system which implements a two-step

and some empirical data are reported by Weeks [10].

determine fault/no-fault conditions (with estimated distances to detected faults) of de