Module VI Training Course

CONTENTS

1- Orifice Meter Station Fundamentals

2- Orifice Meter Station Operation / Maintenance

- Mass Flow Measurement
- Metering System
- Gas Metering Equipment (location/function description)

3- NGL Measurement
3.1Pressure Measurements
- Fluid Properties Relating to Pressure Measurement
and Calibration Principles.
- Primary Transducers and Pressure gauges
- Secondary Transducers and Transmitters
- Smart Transmitters

3.2 Temperature Measurements

- Temperature Scales
- Thermowells
- Principles of Temperature Measurement
- Electric Temperature Switch
- Temperature Transmitter
- Thermocouple MV. vs. Temperature Tables
- Resistance vs. Temperature Table

3.3 Level Measurements

- Level Measurement Methods
- Magnetrol Liquid Switch

4- Electronic Flow Measurements

- Positive Displacement Meter
- Differential Head Type Meters
- Velocity Flow Meters
- Mass Flow
- Flow Switches
- Flow Transmitters

5- Orientation of Instrumentation and Controls

- Basic Measuring and Indicating Instruments
- Process Instruments
- Alarm and Shutdown Systems
1
6- Instruments and Controls
- Control Philosophy
- Control Theory
- Controller Principles
- Loop Configuration
- Periodic Calibration of the Controllers

2
 Chapter 1
Orifice Meter Station Fundamentals

Orifice Meter Station

Payments from consumers to producers and transporters of

natural gas are currently based on the volume and real calorific
efficiency of gas estimated from its bulk component composition.

The metering system shall measure flow rate and total quantity
and have access to gas quality parameters.

Figure 1.1 Typical metering station.

The natural gas metering station (Fig.1), which allows correction of

gas consumption as a function of its real physical properties
estimated from the bulk composition is consisting of the following:

Filter/Separator
Filter to remove foreign particles and the separator to remove the
water.

These Filter Separators generally have two stages, a particulate

filter-coalescer (with replaceable elements), followed by a
separator (a vane, wave-plate, cyclone or knitted mesh pad) to
knock out the coalesced liquids. The separated liquids (“drip
gasoline” and water) are collected in sumps below the pressure
vessel.
3
Straightener
The Straightening Vanes are installed in the upstream section of
meter tubes to reduce flow disturbance preceding the orifice plate.
Disturbance is often created by complex piping or valves which
precede the orifice metering section. As flow passes through the
vane bundle, the disturbance is straightened and smoothed to a
normal flow pattern. Straightening Vanes are economical because
their use often allows sufficient reduction of upstream meter tube
length, so that a smaller building or enclosure is possible.

Orifice meter
An orifice meter is a restriction element to create a pressure drop.

Flow Transmitter
The flow transmitter is an electronic device which converts the
variation in flow into a standard analogue signal 4 – 20 mA.

Temperature Transmitter
4
The temperature transmitter is an electronic device which convert
the variation in temperature into a standard analogue signal
4 –20 mA.

Pressure Transmitter
The pressure transmitter is an electronic device which converts the
variation in pressure into a standard analogue signal 4 – 20 mA.

Calorific Meter
Gas chromatography is normally employed for the calculation of
the heating value.

However, when the gas chromatograph runs an analysis we not

only get the heating value, but other valuable information; such as
gas composition and relative density. This additional information
is used in the gas volume calculations.

Gas Chromatographs (G.C's) have been widely used in

hydrocarbon processing facilities when high quality product
specifications are required, or when rigid custody transfer
standards are needed for natural gas trading.

Flow Computer
The flow computer is an electronic device which receives the flow,
pressure and temperature analogue signals in addition to the data
of calorific meter and manipulate these variables to calculate:
- Gross volume
- Net volume
- Mass flow

The flow computer has a digital display to indicate the following:

- Flow rate
- Gross volume
- Net volume
- Mass flow
- Pressure
- Temperature

What is an Orifice Meter?

An orifice meter is a restriction to create a pressure drop. The
orifice meter is widely accepted as a standard means of measuring
fluids. An orifice in a pipeline is shown in figure 1 with a
manometer for measuring the drop in pressure (differential) as the
fluid passes thru the orifice. The minimum cross sectional area of
the jet is known as the “vena contracta.”

5
Vena Contracta
The cross-sectional area of a fluid decreases as it is forced
through a restriction as shown in figure 1.2.

With the inertia of the fluid, the cross-sectional area continues to

decrease after the fluid has passed the restriction. Because of this,
the fluids minimum cross-sectional area, which also has the
maximum velocity and lowest pressure, is located at some point
downstream of the restriction. This point is called the vena-
contracta.

Figure 1.2
Vena-Contracta

How does the orifice work?

6
As the fluid approaches the orifice the pressure increases slightly
and then drops suddenly as the orifice is passed. It continues to
drop until the “vena contracta” is reached and then gradually
increases until at approximately 5 to 8 diameters downstream a
maximum pressure point is reached that will be lower than the
pressure upstream of the orifice. The decrease in pressure as the
fluid passes thru the orifice is a result of the increased velocity of
the gas passing thru the reduced area of the orifice. When the
velocity decreases as the fluid leaves the orifice the pressure
increases and tends to return to its original level. All of the
pressure loss is not recovered because of friction and turbulence
losses in the stream. The pressure drop across the orifice (Fig.
1.3) increases when the rate of flow increases. When there is no
flow there is no differential. The differential pressure is proportional
to the square of the velocity, it therefore follows that if all other
factors remain constant, then the differential is proportional to the
square of the rate of flow.

Figure 1.3
Typical Orifice Flow Pattern Flange Taps Shown

THE ORIFICE PLATE

The orifice plate bore can be made in many configurations to

handle various flow measurement jobs.

The flowing conditions should be checked to see which of the

configurations is suitable for each measurement job.

7
a. Concentric Orifice Plate
The concentric orifice plate has a round opening (bore) in the
center of the plate (Fig. 1.4).

The upstream edge of the orifice must be sharp and square.

Minimum plate thickness based on pipe I.D., orifice bore, etc. is
standardized.

The plate should not depart from flatness along any diameter by
more than 0.01 inch per inch of the dam height (D-d)/2. To conform
with recommended practices, the orifice-to-pipe diameter ration
d/D (called Beta ratio), must not exceed recommended limits.

Figure 1.4
Concentric orifice plate

b. Eccentric Orifice Plates

The eccentric plate has a round opening (bore) tangent to the
inside wall of the pipe (Fig. 1.5).

This type of plate is most commonly used to measure fluids which

carry a small amount of non-abrasive solids, or gases with small
amounts of liquid, since with the opening at the bottom of the pipe,
the solids and liquids will carry through, rather than collect at the
orifice plate.

8
 Figure 1.5
Eccentric orifice plate

c. Segmental Orifice Plates

The opening in a segmental orifice plate is comparable to a
partially opened gate valve.

This plate is generally used for measuring liquids or gases which

carry non-abrasive impurities such as light slurries or exceptionally
dirty gases.

d. Quadrant Edge Plate

The quarter-circle or quadrant orifice is used for fluids of high
viscosity.
The orifice incorporates a rounded edge of definite radius which is
a particular function of the orifice diameter as in (Fig. 1.6).

9
 Figure 1.6
Quadrant edge orifice plate

METER TAP LOCATION

a. Flange Taps
These taps are located one inch from the upstream face of the
orifice plate and one inch from the downstream face with a + 1/64
to +1/32 tolerance.

b. Pipe Taps
These taps are located 2½ pipe diameters upstream and 8 pipe
diameters downstream (point of maximum pressure recovery).

c. Vena - Contracta Taps

These taps are located one pipe diameter upstream and at the
point of minimum pressure downstream (this point is called the
vena-contracta). This point, however, varies with the Beta ratio and
they are seldom used in other than plant measurement where
flows are relatively constant and plates are not changed.

d. Corner Taps
These taps are located immediately adjacent to the plate faces,
upstream and downstream. Corner taps are most widely used in
Europe, in line sizes less than 2 inches they are used with special
honed flow meter tubes for low flow rates.

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Orifice meter types:

Orifice Flanges Type

The most elementary device used to hold an orifice plate in place
is the orifice flange union as in fig. 1.7. Orifice flanges have been
used for a great many years but gained in importance during the
1920's, when the petroleum industry began making extensive use
of orifice measurement. It did not take many years to discover that
the orifice flange, in spite of simplicity, had many shortcomings in
certain applications. It was apparent that it could not be
conveniently used for wide variations of flow, dirty fluids requiring
frequent plate cleanings, or in services where flow interruptions are
expensive. Therefore, it was often necessary to bypass the flow so
that the orifice plate could be changed as conditions warranted.

Figure 1.7 Orifice Flanges Type

The Senior Orifice Fitting

Changing plates in orifice flanges is time consuming and
expensive. It is evident that operating personnel are in need of
some device which would make the operation of plate changing or
inspection less tedious. Therefore, the first significant type of
orifice fitting is known as the Senior type, having a design
permitting the change or the removal of a plate under flowing
conditions.

11
 Figure 1.8 Senior Orifice Type

The Senior Orifice Fitting is a dual chambered fitting allowing the

removal of an orifice plate under flow conditions. The lower
chamber, which holds the orifice plate in the fluid flow, is bolted to
an upper chamber. Separating the two chambers is a slide valve
that opens/closes with a gear shaft. Opening the slide valve allows
elevation of the plate carrier and orifice plate into the top chamber.
Once the slide valve is closed again and pressure bled from the
top chamber, the plate carrier/plate can be removed to the
atmosphere.

The Junior Orifice Fitting

Some time after the development of the Senior Orifice Fitting,

attention was given to the problem of changing orifice plates when
a bypass was in existence, or where two or more meter tubes were
joined by common headers.

Since orifice flanges are not convenient and require a considerable

amount of time when used, thought was turned to developing a
simple fitting for speedy operating. The result was the Junior type
fitting Figure 1.9.

The Junior Fitting is much like the Senior, except the Junior does
not have a slide valve and a top chamber. The Junior fitting
requires only the following steps to remove an orifice plate from
the line:
1. Shut in meter tube.
2. Depressure tube.
3. Loosen set screws, remove top clamping bar, sealing bar, and
gasket.
4. Turn shaft, elevating orifice plate out of the fitting.

12
The procedure is reversed to install an orifice plate.

Figure 1.9 Junior Orifice Type

Meter Tubes

In recent years many companies have joined with industry to study

the effects of the upstream and the downstream pipe immediately
adjacent to the orifice plate.

These lengths of pipe are known as meter tubes, meter runs, flow
sections, meter sections, etc.; however, the most generally
accepted terminology is meter tubes.

It has been clearly demonstrated by tests that the length and the
condition of the pipe used in meter tubes has a very important
bearing on the overall accuracy of the measurement.

A.G.A. piping installation classifications are shown in A.G.A.

Figures 4, 5, 6, 7 & 8 and table (1).

13
14
15
Table (1)

General Installation Recommendations

1) Meter manifold piping should always be installed to enable
calibration as well as to protect the differential element against
overange.

2) The meter should be installed as close as possible to the orifice

fitting.

3) Always slope the manifold lines gently from the orifice fitting to
the meter to eliminate any high or low points in the manifold lines.

4) Use condensate chambers or air traps to remove either liquid

from a gas system or gas from a liquid system if lows or highs in
the manifold piping cannot be avoided.

5) It is important when pressurizing or depressurizing differential

measuring devices (Figure 1.10) to apply or release pressure to or
from the high and low meter chambers uniformly, so as not to
impose excessive overange.

PRESSURIZE
A) Be sure (1) & (2) are closed (if not, follow depressure
procedure).
B) Open (3), (4), (5), & (6) and close (7).
C) Slowly open (1) & (2).
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D) Close (5) & (6) and open (7).

Figure 1.10 Differential Pressure installation

DEPRESSURIZE
A) Close (7).
B) Open (5) & (6).
C) Close (3)& (4) (or (1) & (2) if checking piping for leakage).
D) Slowly open (7) (this will evenly vent hi & low sides).

Pressure correction
Absolute pressure = gage pressure + 14.73 = psia

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 CHAPTER 2
Orifice Meter Station Operation / Maintenance

2.1 Mass Flow Measurement

There are three main measurements that can be made with

process flows:
- Velocity
- Volumetric flow
- Mass flow

Velocity is the speed at which the fluid moves. This by itself does
not give any information about the quantity of fluid.

Volumetric flow is often deduced by knowing the cross sectional

area of the fluid. Most volumetric flow equipment measures the
velocity and calculates the volumetric flow based on a constant
cross sectional area.

Q = v. A

Where: v is the velocity

A is the cross sectional area
Q is the volumetric flow rate

Mass flow rate can only be calculated from the velocity or the
volumetric flow rates if the density is constant. If the density is not
constant, then mass flow measuring equipment is required for
mass flow rate.

W = Q. ρ

Where: Q is the volumetric flow rate

ρ is the density of the fluid
W is the mass flow rate

The flow of gases is normally measured in terms of mass per unit

time. While most liquids are nearly incompressible, densities of
gases vary with operating temperature and pressure. Some
flowmeters, such as Coriolis meters, measure the mass flow
directly. Volumetric flowmeters do not measure mass flow directly.
Mass flow is calculated from the density and the volumetric flow as
shown above. Some volumetric meters infer density based on the
measured pressure and temperature of the fluid. This type of

18
measurement is referred to as the inferred method of measuring
mass flow.

Base Conditions:
The conditions of temperature and pressure to which measured
volumes are to be corrected (Same as reference or standard
conditions).

The base conditions for the flow measurement of fluids, such as

crude petroleum and its liquid products, having a vapor pressure
equal to or less than atmospheric at base temperature are:

The International Standards Organization:

Pressure: 14.696 psia (101.325 kPa)
Temperature: 59ºF (15ºC)

For fluids, such as liquid hydrocarbons, having vapor pressure

greater than atmospheric pressure at base temperature, the base
pressure is customarily designated as the equilibrium vapor
pressure at base temperature.

The base conditions for the flow measurement of natural gases

are:

The International Standards Organization:

Pressure: 14.696 psia (101.325 kPa)
Temperature: 59ºF (15ºC)

For both liquid and gas applications, these base conditions can
change from one country to the next, from one state to the next, or
from one industry to the next. Therefore, it is necessary that the
base conditions be identified for standard volumetric flow
measurement.

ORIFICE GAS FLOW EQUATION

Qv = 18.527*Cd*Ev*Y1*(d²)*[Tb/Pb]*[(Pf1*Zb*hw)/(Gr*Zf1*Tf)] 0.5

Where
Cd = Orifice plate coefficient of discharge
d = Orifice plate bore diameter calculated at flowing temperature
(Tf) - in.
Gr = Real gas relative density (specify gravity)
hw = Orifice differential pressure in inches of water at 60 degF
Ev = Velocity of approach factor
Pb = Base pressure - psia
Pf1 = Flowing pressure (upstream tap - psia
19
 Qv = Standard volume flow rate - SCF/hr.
Tb = Base temperature - degR
Tf = Flowing temperature - degR
Y1 = Expansion factor (downstream tap)
Zb = Compressibility at base conditions (Pb,Tb)
Zf1 = Compressibility (upstream flowing conditions - Pf1, Tf)

Orifice Plate Coefficient of Discharge - Cd

This has been empirically determined for flange-tapped orifice

meters. To accurately use these coefficients, the orifice meter must
be manufactured to the specifications of Chapter 14 - Natural Gas
Fluids Measurement of the manual of Petroleum Measurement
Standards Section 3 Concentric, Square edge Orifice Meters Part
2 Specifications and Installation Requirements (Also referenced as
AGA Report No. 3, Part 2 and GPA 8185-9, Part 2). Basically, the
coefficient of discharge depends on the Reynolds number, sensing
tap location, meter tube diameter and orifice diameter with some
other smaller influences.

Each coefficient of discharge applies to the Reynolds number at

which it is calculated.

Orifice Plate Bore Diameter - d

This bore must represent the bore at flowing conditions so

corrections to account for the effects of temperature must be
made.

Real Gas Relative Density (Specific Gravity) - Gr

This is the normal specific gravity obtained from a specific gravity

test or recording instrument and represents the ratio of the relative
densities of the gas, divided by air at the same conditions. With a
given applied force to a gas, a larger quantity of .25 specific gravity
gas can be passed through an orifice than a 1.00 specific gravity
gas. Since flow varies as the square root of one over the specific
gravity twice as much gas will flow with the lighter gas.

Orifice Differential Pressure in Inches of Water at 60 degF - hw

This is a measure of the pressure drop across the orifice and is

measured in inches of water. (Note: Approximately 27.7 inches of
water is equal to one pound drop.)

20
Velocity of Approach Factor - Ev

This factor corrects for the change in velocity between the

upstream meter tube and the velocity in the orifice bore. This factor
varies with the beta ratio.

Base Pressure (psia) - Pb

To define the quantity of a gas measured, the base pressure must

be defined. This is set by contract, governmental law or agreement
by the two parties to the measurement. The AGA-3 used 14.73
psia as its base pressure.

Flowing Pressure (psia) Pf1 or 2

The pressure is measured at either the upstream (1) or

downstream (2) tap. It has been common in the natural gas
business to use the downstream tap. Pressure has two effects on
volume. The higher pressure makes the gas denser so less
volume flows through the meter. However, when the volume is
expanded to base pressure, the volume is increased.

Base Volume Flow Rate - Qr

The standard equation calculates an hourly volume rate which

must be multiplied by time to get total volume. The volume is
expressed at the base conditions of temperature and pressure.

Base Temperature in Degrees Rankin - Tb

The base temperature is defined by the contract, governmental law

or agreement by the two parties to the measurement. To correct
degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Rankin, 459.67 degrees is added.
Most natural gas uses 519.67°R (i.e. 60°F + 459.67°) as the base
temperature.

Flowing Temperature in Degrees Rankin - Tf

The flowing temperature is normally measured downstream from

the orifice and must represent the average temperature of the
flowing stream in degrees Rankin. Temperature has two effects on
volume.

21
A higher temperature means a less dense gas and higher flows,
but when this higher flow is corrected to base temperature, the
base flow is less.

Expansion Factor - Y1 or 2

The expansion factor corrects for the density change between the
measured tap density and the density at the plane of the orifice
face. Since the common static pressure tap used in natural gas
measurement is the downstream factor Y2; this factor is smaller
than the Y1 correction.

Compressibility at Base Conditions (Pb Tb)

This correction is very close to one so in the past it has been

ignored. However, since 1985 it has been required to correct for
the gas compressibility from the base pressure to absolute zero
pressure at 60° F.

Figure 2-1 Natural gas compressibility and supercompressibility.

Compressibility Flowing conditions (Pf and Tf) Zf 1 or 2

The real gases compress more than the ideal gas law predicts and
this must be corrected for when gas is measured at high pressure
and temperatures other than 60°F mathematically reduced to base
conditions. This correction, when applied outside of the square root
radical is called supercompressibility.

In round numbers at ambient temperature the compressibility

affects volume by 0.5 percent per 100 psi of pressure.

22
Critical Flow

The above square root flow formula applies to subsonic flow only.
Sonic or critical flow occurs when the velocity of the gas or vapor
reaches the speed of sound (approx. 700 miles per hour in air). A
gas cannot be made to travel any faster and remain in the same
state.

A rule of thumb to use in gas flow is that critical flow is reached

when the downstream pipe tap registers an absolute pressure of
approximately 50% or less than the upstream pipe tap.

Major Advantage of Orifice Meter Measurement

1-Flow can be accurately determined without the need for actual

fluid flow calibration.
2- Well established procedures convert the differential pressure
into flow rate, using empirically derived coefficients. These
coefficients are based on accurately measurable dimensions of the
orifice plate and pipe diameters as
Defined in standards, combined with easily measurable
characteristics of the fluid, rather than on fluid flow calibrations.

3- With the exception of the orifice meter, almost all flow meters
require a fluid flow calibration at flow and temperature conditions
closely approximating service operation in order to establish
accuracy.

In addition to not requiring direct fluid flow calibration,

4- orifice meters are simple, rugged, widely accepted, reliable and
relatively inexpensive.
5- No moving parts.

BETA RATIO is the ratio of orifice plate bore divided by pipe I.D. is
referred to as the Beta Ratio or d/D where d is the plate bore and
D is the pipe I.D.

THE THREE “R’s”

Reliability (uncertainty/accuracy)

The coefficients calculated for flange taps by the equations in AGA

Report No. 3 (API 14.3) are subject to an uncertainty of
approximately + .5 percent when the beta ratio is between 0.20
and 0.70. When the beta ratio is between 0.10 & 0.20 and .70 & .
75, the uncertainty may be greater. Minimum uncertainty occurs

23
between 0.2 and 0.6 beta ratios. Below 1,000,000 Reynolds
number there will be some small increase in uncertainty with the
minimum Reynolds number of 4,000 being the limit of the
standard.

Rangeability

Sometimes called “turn-down” is the ratio of maximum flow to

minimum flow throughout which a stated accuracy is maintained.
For example, if an orifice meter installation is said to be accurate to
+ 1% from 600,000 SCFH to 200,000 SCFH, the rangeability
would be 3 to 1.

Repeatability

The ability of a flow meter to indicate the same readings each time
the same flow conditions exist. These readings may or may not be
accurate, but will repeat. This capability is important when a flow
meter is used for flow control.

2.2 Metering System

The metering system shall measure flow rate and total quantity
and have access to gas quality parameters.

Figure 2.2 Modern natural gas measuring systems may be quite complex,
and all elements must be considered in determining metering accuracy.

2.2.1 For all metering systems

•The metering system has flow, pressure, temperature and calorific
devices.
24
• The metering system has inlet/outlet valves for isolation and
proving. These valves can be:
- Manually operated
- Electrically operated
- Pneumatic operated

• The metering system shall automatically perform all line/ valve

control as required during normal operation.

• The metering system shall be operated from the computer at the

site or the system shall be operable from "Main Control System" at
the main control room.

• It shall be possible to operate all valves locally.

• The opening and closing of the metering system with gas flowing
through, shall always be done in manual mode (from the computer
part).

• The metering system shall measure the gas flow for different
operating conditions.

• Practical rangeability limits vary with the meter and measurement

conditions.
A single meter has a limited range for the accurate flow
determination, and this should not be approached at either the
high or low extreme. It is important to examine carefully a meter's
response at very low flow rates.
An application's rangeability can be extended by the use of
multiple meters where wide variations in flow are experienced and
minimum uncertainty is required over the full flow range as in
figure 2.3.

25
 Figure 2.3 If a meter’s rangeability is not sufficient to cover the flow range
being measured, multiple transducers can be used or a different type meter
evaluated.

ORIFICE METER DESCRIPTION

An orifice meter consists of an orifice plate, a holding device,
upstream downstream meter piping, and pressure taps.

Figure 2.4 Typical orifice meter built to AGA-3.

By far the most critical part of the meter is the orifice plate,
particularly the widely used square-edged concentric plate whose
construction requirements are well documented in standards such
as AGA-3 and ISO 5167-1. These standards define the plate's
edge, flatness, thickness with bevel details, if required and bore
limitations.

The most common holding system is a pair of orifice flanges.

However, for more precise measurement, various fittings are used.

26
These simplify plate installation/removal for changing flow ranges
and for easy inspection.

In every case, the orifice must be installed concentric with the pipe
within limits stated by the standard.

An orifice plate installed without specified upstream and

downstream lengths of pipe controlled to close tolerances and/or
without properly made pressure taps (usually flange) is not a
legitimate flow meter; it must have specific tests run to determine
its calibration.

Since this is not economical, almost all orifice systems are built to
meet the standard(s). This allows calculations to be made with
specified tolerances. Control over orifice metering accuracy
derives directly from data in the standard, which must be followed
without exception.

2.2.3 Interface Requirements

• Flow Computer.
• Flow proportional sampling system and/or On-line gas
chromatograph.

2.3 Gas Metering Equipment (location/function description)

The natural gas metering station (Fig.1 is consisting of the

following equipments:
- Filter/Separator
- Straightener
- Orifice meter
- Flow Transmitter
- Temperature Transmitter
- Pressure Transmitter
- Calorific Meter
- Flow Computer

The basic instrument used for commercial metering of natural gas

(Fig. 1.1). The system includes calculator, a gas flux analyser (a
Btu chromatograph), a retransmitter, and a PC with special
software.

:The system has the following functions

27
• Hourly automatic sampling of recorded and calculated
parameters of gas and its consumption; database maintenance.

• Visualising online data on user's demand:

- Flow rate
- Gross Flow
- Compensated Flow
- Pressure
- Temperature

• Generating and optional printing of daily reports:

- Batch report
- Shift report
- Maintenance report

• Warning signaling:
- High flow
- Low flow
- High pressure
- Low pressure

2.3.1 Meter Location

Close-coupled mounting is preferred for transmitters (Figure2.5).
When close coupling is not available, the meter should be
mounted at a convenient height of 4 or 5 feet (1.2 or 1.5 meters)
above grade, platforms, walkways, or other permanent means of
access.

28
29
 Figure 2.5 Remotely Mounted Differential-Pressure Flow meters for Gas
Service

2.3.2 Impulse Lines

Impulse lines for remote devices should be as short as possible, 3
feet for close-coupled transmitters and preferably not more than
20 feet (6 meters).

It is preferable to use Type304 or better stainless steel tubing with

a minimum outside diameter of inch (15 millimeters) for meter
impulse leads.

Valving at the orifice flanges is the same as for close-coupled

transmitters, but valving at the meter requires different
configurations (see Figure 2.1).

Special process or maintenance considerations may require the

addition of drain or blowdown valves, condensate drip legs, and
vents. In some services it is necessary to protect meters from the
process or to reduce potential errors caused by vapor
condensation in the meter leads.

2.3.3 Meter Manifolds

Manifolds are recommended on all differential-pressure

Valving for close-coupled transmitters requires process blocks at
the orifice flange and an equalizing bypass valve at the meter.

Meter Equipment Maintenance

Both the shipper and the receiver must have confidence that a
custody transfer meter is measuring the proper delivery volumes
and meeting contract requirements. Equipment calibration may
change over time, so both parties should take an active part in the
periodic testing of the meter system.

Maintenance tests usually depend on contractual requirements for

type and frequency as often as weekly or even daily. They may
require only a calibration of the readout equipment, a complete
mechanical inspection of the entire system, or an actual
throughput test against some agreed upon correct volume.

Maintenance testing may consist of only secondary equipment

calibration, or complete mechanical inspection of the entire
system, or an actual throughput test against some agreed upon
standards or any combination of these.
30
In any case, equipment used to test the meter must be approved
and agreed upon. Such test devices include certified thermometers
for temperature, certified dead-weight testers or test gauges for
pressure, certified differential testers for differential meters,
certified chromatographs for component analysis, and certified
provers for throughput tests. Many models of each are available
and can be supplied with accuracy certification.

Certification is important to both parties to minimize concern about

the test equipment acceptability.

The test equipment itself should be recertified on a timely basis by

the agency or manufacturer that originally certified the equipment.

The first step in testing any meter is a visual inspection for any
signs of improper operation, such as leakage and unstable flow.

This includes a review of all of the attendant equipment and their

indications or recordings.

If the station appears to be operating properly, the individual

elements of the station, such as the meter and the corrections for
pressure, temperature, density, and composition, should be
individually verified and/or calibrated with the assumption that if all
parts are in calibration, the system will be in calibration to the limits
calculated by the uncertainty equation. This procedure is
commonly used for industrial flow metering.

A master meter used in transfer proving is calibrated and certified

to some uncertainty limit by a testing facility of a government
agency, a private laboratory, a manufacturer, or the user using
agreed upon flow standards.

Periodically, the master meter has to be sent back to the laboratory

for recertification. The frequency of this retesting depends on the
fluids being tested and the treatment of the master meter between
tests.

The best throughput test is one that can be run directly in series
with a prover. The prover can come in many forms, but essentially
involves a basic volume that has been certified by the government
or industry group.

31
Gas provers are usually master meters with computer controls so
that testing requires little or no calculation or critical flow nozzles
(where accurate thermodynamic properties of the gas are
available). Critical nozzles require permanent pressure drops of
some 15 to 20% of the upstream static pressure and cannot be run
at static pressure below approximately 30 pounds per square inch
absolute.

Atmospheric critical flow proving, which requires gas to be

exhausted to the atmosphere, used to be popular for linear meters.
It is now seldom used because of the cost of lost gas and
concerns for safety and the environment.

Figure 2.6 A major problem with tests using charts—such as this one
comparing chart integration versus a flow computer—is that even though input
data are correct, data extraction by integration may introduce very large
errors.

It should be noted that testing requires participation by both the

supplier and the customer. Diagnostics and evaluation with proper
test equipment ensure that recorded volumes are correct. Any
proving must be documented and signed by both parties so that
contract provisions can be implemented on any corrections
required.

GAS MEASUREMENT MAINTENANCE

In a rush to reengineer pipelines improve profits by lowering cost,

32
a favorite target has been the maintenance costs along gas
pipelines.

Because of the reduction in personnel and time allocated for

testing and maintenances, quality maintenance time has been
traded for meeting a schedule of routine work and meeting
emergencies. This has resulted in less control over the quality of
gas transported and the accuracy of the meters used to measure
it.

Maintenance for all meters, particularly orifice and turbine for gas
measurement, has suffered. In order to avoid having to change
orifice plates to accommodate changing flow ranges, the largest
orifice bore acceptable to both parties is often installed along with
smart differential-pressure transmitters.

33
Figure 2.7 The orifice plates shown here range from “clean” (upper left) to so
dirty as to make measurement almost meaningless (lower right).

Experience has shown that a pipeline loss-and-unaccounted-for

report can be negatively impacted when this condition occurs. The
solution is to improve the quality of the gas handled to the point
that solids (iron oxides and sulfides and other pipeline dusts) and
liquids (condensates and compressor oils) are reduced to the
contract limits. This minimizes effects on flow measurement.

These same materials have a detrimental effect on the efficiency of

the pipeline throughput. If allowed to go to extremes, they can
cause damage to operating equipment such as regulators and
compressors, in addition to the pipeline itself. Obviously such
costly pipeline efficiency deteriorations and shut downs are to be
avoided.

Today's routine work of field personnel is to emphasize the routine

testing of the secondary element transducers and computers with
less time allocated to the primary meter devices, often just cursory
visual inspections.

Little or no detailed meter tube removal and cleaning is scheduled.

The resulting metering device may or may not meet the gas
measurement standards requirements.

Requirements stated in contracts are based on the product whose

quantities or contaminants are specified and limited. The
contaminants are restricted to no material that will fall out in the
pipeline after the gas has been delivered. It is these contract
requirements that must be enforced to minimize maintenance.
Consideration should be given to proper separation, filtration,
drying, heating, or cooling and their costs to upgrade the gas to
prepare it for measurement rather than later trying to keep meters
clean in a dirty pipeline.

There is a desire simply to buy better metering to solve

maintenance problems. This usually means a new meter, or a new
readout system or a self-analyzing device that alarms when it has
a problem. While all of these are useful, dirty gas means the user
is normally exchanging one set of problems for another unless the
gas quality maintenance problems are addressed.

Another set of ideas related to dirty meters that has started to

appear in pipeline businesses says, Give me a factor for correcting
34
for the majority of errors caused by these problems and an
analysis of the cost value benefit will be made versus the cost of
cleaning up the gas. The fallacy of this is that knowledge of the
correcting factors is lacking, and the database is poor or
nonexistent for all conditions, so the correcting data are highly
questionable.

Figure 2.8 A ball hone such as this one may be required to remove certain
deposits in a meter tube.

The second problem in this approach is the assumption that these

contaminants arrive and deposit once, then don't change with time.
Unfortunately, most flow and related contaminates along a pipeline
vary from production to the final customer. If wells load up and kick
over, the operator hopes separators catch the fluids. Sometimes
they do, often they do not. Likewise, dump valves on separators
will hang up and fail to dump the fluids, which then end up in the
pipeline. As compression and processing plants get older, there is
more oil leakage or there are more process upsets than with new
equipment. Even if the contaminants are at very low values, as
specified in contracts, over time they build up to significant total
quantities.

For example, two molecules of steel pipe react to three molecules

of oxygen to form ferric oxide. Any time oxygen gets into a
pipeline, chances are it will react with the pipe. Ferric oxide is
found in all pipelines to some degree. It varies in color from red to
black and is generally described as line dust. As it is normally in
the 1- to 3-micron size, it moves very easily with the gas flow,
particularly as the flow rate changes.

To keep dusts from being formed, sources of oxygen water,

oxygen (air), carbon dioxide should be minimized in the pipeline.
35
Hydrogen sulfide, though it does not contain oxygen, will react in
the presence of oxygen to form several compounds of iron and
sulfur. The quality requirement of natural gas was written around
this knowledge.
Once formed, rust may be removed by pigging, filtering, or oil
scrubbing.

The bottom line is that gas metering to the quality specifications of

contracts is the simplest and best answer to minimize the
maintenance problems.

Experience has shown that the best solution to a problem is to

correct it at the source rather than to treat the symptoms after they
appear in a pipeline system. Once started in a pipeline, they tend
to be self-perpetuating and increase the problems on flow
measurement with time.

In recent presentations at two meter schools, the problem of poor

maintenance was discussed in detail. In an article, Problems in
Offshore Measurement, presented in 1991 at the Acadiana School,
examples of losses due to typical dirty measurement conditions
were presented showing an estimated calculated loss of $14.5
million per year.

A paper on the same subject at a later Acadiana School in 1996,

entitled .The Value of Check Meter and Surveillance System, found
actual losses by using a check meter station in series with the
billing system. The check meter showed losses of 0.42% of
deliveries for a total of over $400,000 per year for five years, or
slightly over $2 million dollars of actual adjustments paid because
of the combination of primary and secondary devices found to be
in error.

Minimizing maintenance in an effort to reduce short-term costs is

having an economic impact on pipeline operation efficiency and
metering just the opposite from what was planned when original
downsizing was done.

Meter Tube Inspection and Cleaning

Good orifice meter measurement requires that new metering
equipment be built and installed to meet requirements of AGA-3
Part 2. As previously discussed, in addition to the requirements for
new installations, meters must be maintained in like-new
conditions to continue providing accurate measurement.

36
This requires maintenance, since all pipelines contain liquids and
solids that will dirty meter tubes and necessitate cleaning. Meter
tubes for other types of meters should also be similarly inspected
and cleaned.

Previous cleaning methods required line shutdown and removal of

meter tubes. In recent years, with personnel and budget reduction
for operating and maintenance functions, it has become more and
more difficult to get the proper meter-tube care funded and
accomplished. Yet dirty meter tubes are one of the most common
reasons why metering loses accuracy.

New Cleaning Procedure An improved method of cleaning meter

tubes can circumvent the manpower/funding barriers. It involves
using this equipment:
Fiber optic inspection device;
High-pressure water pump;
Clean-water tank;
Dirty-water collection tan;
Various hoses used in pumping and collecting water;
Drain-collection open tank; and
Chemicals and/or ball hones needed for removing certain
deposits.

Several types of hydraulic pump systems, tanks, hoses, hydraulic

spray systems and chemicals, and ball hones are available from
supply stores and service centers in most oil/gas areas where
meter-tube cleaning is needed.

The first step is to inspect the meter tubes internal condition with
the fiber optic device. The meter tube must be blown down and
removed from service. Insertion of the inspection device requires a
tap 1/2 inch or larger in diameter. This may be a blow-off valve, a
tap hole, or a fitting slot.

Where no taps other than those required for T/P/dP transducers

are allowed, a new tap may be installed in the meter station piping
outside the distance specified by AGA-3.

The most critical parts of the meter tube to inspect are the 5 to 7
diameters immediately upstream of the meter and downstream of
straightening vanes or flow-conditioner plates (if used). Examine
for any liquid or solid deposits. Contrary to common belief, any
amount of deposit may cause measurements to be in error, usually
low. Evaluation of the necessity for cleaning can be made after

37
visual inspection, but cleaning is almost always the best choice. It
is simply better to err on cleaning than to take a chance on
measurement several tenths of a percent low.

Cleaning also requires a means of inserting nozzles and hoses,

typically a 1 inch or larger hole. This can be a 45º collar welded
outside the dimensions specified by the applicable standard but
inside shutoff valves. Such collars should be welded on the bottom
side of the meter tube to allow drainage as well as hose insertion.
The collar or collars should allow upstream and downstream
access.

Manually feed the high-pressure water hose and nozzle of the

hydraulic system into the upstream tap. The downstream tap
should have a collection container to collect dirty rinse water. Dirty
water can be pumped from the container into a collection tank for
proper disposal as an environmentally unsafe material.

The high-pressure hose can be fed through straightening vane

tubes 3/4 inch or larger in diameter. On small meter tubes.3 inch
and less the meter tube will have to clean from both upstream and
downstream if flow-conditioning devices are present, or a smaller
tube/nozzle system can be used.

The cleaning cycle should be repeated until the drain water runs
clear.

Check on actual results by repeating optical inspection. If

inspection verifies internal cleaning, drain plugs should be
removed and all water drained from the fitting cavity. Proper choice
of a drain tap depends on whether the fitting is upright (use both
drains) or installed on the side (where only the bottom tap need be
used for drainage). Standard purging and repressuring procedures
should be used to return the meter tube to service.

If a tube is not clean after high pressure washing, two other

cleaning methods may be used, ball hone and/or chemical
cleaning, depending on the composition of deposits. Chemical
cleaning can be done in place; ball hone cleaning requires meter-
tube removal with a pipeline crew and lifting equipment (standard
in the pipeline industry).

38
Figure 2.9 The orifice plate shown here in a gas measurement system clearly
shows that a “river of liquid” was flowing in the line. Needless to say, gas
measurement accuracy was far from accurate.

Once a tube is cleaned chemically or honed, it may subsequently

require only water cleaning for an extended time. Periodic
inspection will establish how often cleaning should be scheduled
and what type will be needed.

Figure 2-10. Typical Configuration

Plate Removal
Procedure:
1. To remove the orifice plate the operator must first balance the
pressure between the body chamber and the top chamber.

2. Open the equalizer valve (1) (½ to 1 turn is sufficient).

39
3. Wait several seconds while the top chamber pressure equalizes
with the actual line pressure.

4. Rotate the slide valve shaft (5) until it stops and OPEN is
indicated on the indicator plate.

5. Rotate the plate carrier shaft (6) located in the body chamber (4)
in a direction that will move the plate carrier out of the body
chamber (4) and into the upper gear shaft (7) located in the top
chamber.

6. Rotate the plate carrier shaft (7) located in the top chamber in a
direction that will lift the plate carrier completely out of the body
chamber and fully into the top chamber. Rotate shaft until the plate
carrier stops against the seal bar.
7. Once the plate carrier is completely out of the body chamber (4),
rotate the slide valve shaft (5) to the CLOSED position. This
rotation closes the slide valve thus separating and sealing the
body chamber (4) from the top chamber.

8. Close equalizer valve (1).

9. Open the bleeder valve (10B).

Once pressure in the top chamber is reduced to ambient pressure,
the operator may then extract the plate carrier, containing the
orifice plate, from the Senior Orifice Fitting using the following
steps.

10. Loosen (approximately two turns, but do not remove) each

fastener (11), located in the clamping bar on the extreme end of
the top chamber.

11. Once the fasteners (11) are loose, the operator should then
turn the plate carrier shaft (7) located in the top chamber in the
direction to raise the plate carrier and to tap the inside surface of
the sealing bar (9) to free both it and the gasket.

12. Slide the clamping bar (12) containing the fasteners (11),
sealing bar (9) and gasket (9A) from the top chamber.

13. Rotate the top chamber plate carrier shaft (7) to lift the plate
carrier out of the Senior Orifice Fitting.

40
 CHAPTER 3
NGL Measurement

Natural gas liquids (NGL) include all hydrocarbons liquefied in the

field or in processing plants, including ethane, propane, butanes,
and natural gasoline.

Such mixtures generated in gas plants are usually referred to as

“Y-grade” or “raw product.”

41
 Figure 3.1 NGL fractionation train.

NGL (natural gas liquids) fractionation is a process used in

gas processing plants to remove NGL's from natural gas.
These NGL's are the ethane, Propane, Butanes and Pentanes
plus (natural gasoline) found in natural gas.

Liquid fractionation towers (columns) are used to separate

and remove NGL's. They can be controlled to produce pure
vapor phase products from the overhead by optimizing the
inlet feed flow rate, reflux flow rate, reboiler temperature,
reflux temperature and column pressure.

3.1Pressure Measurements

3.1.1 Fluid Properties Relating to Pressure Measurement and

Calibration Principles.

Limits are specified for certain basic properties such as

composition limits, pressure and temperature, and actions to be
taken if the material is outside the limits.

Transmitters for measuring pressure or differential pressure, on the

other hand, comprise two basic parts. A primary element directly or
indirectly in contacts with the process collects the measurement,
while a secondary electronics package translates the output from
the primary element into a standard 4–20mA dc output signal.

3.1.2 Primary Transducers and Pressure gauges

A primary element directly or indirectly in contacts with the process

collects the measurement.

Pressure transducers and elements - Mechanical

- Bourdon tube
- Helix and spiral tubes
- Spring and bellows
- Diaphragm
- Manometer
- Single and Double inverted bell

3.1.2.1 C-Bourdon Tube

The Bourdon tube works on a simple principle that a bent tube will
change its shape when exposed to variations of internal and
external pressure. As pressure is applied internally, the tube
42
straightens and returns to its original form when the pressure is
released.

The tip of the tube moves with the internal pressure change and is
easily converted with a pointer onto a scale. A connector link is
used to transfer the tip movement to the geared movement sector.
The pointer is rotated through a toothed pinion by the geared
sector.

Figure 3.2 C-Bourdon pressure element

This type of gauge may require vertical mounting (orientation

dependent) for correct results. The element is subject to shock and
vibration, which is also due to the mass of the tube. Because of
this and the amount of movement with this type of sensing, they
are prone to breakage, particularly at the base of the tube.

The main advantage with the Bourdon tube is that it has a wide
operating (depending on the tube material). This type of pressure
measurement can be used for positive or negative pressure
ranges, although the accuracy is impaired when in a vacuum.

3.1.2.2 Helix and Spiral Tubes

Helix and spiral tubes are fabricated from tubing into shapes as
per their naming. With one end sealed, the pressure exerted on
the tube causes the tube to straighten out. The amount of
straightening or uncoiling is determined by the pressure applied.

43
These two approaches use the Bourdon principle. The uncoiling
part of the tube is mechanically linked to a pointer which indicates
the applied pressure on a scale.

This has the added advantage over the C-Bourdon tube as there
are no movement losses due to links and levers.

The Spiral tube is suitable for pressure ranges up to 28,000 kPa

and the helical tube for ranges up to 500,000 kPa.

The pressure sensing elements vary depending on the range of

operating pressure and type of process involved. Very seldom
used anymore.

Figure 3.3 Spiral bourdon element

3.1.2.3 Spring and Bellows

A bellows is an expandable element and is made up of a series of

folds which allow expansion. One end of the Bellows is fixed and
the other moves in response to the applied pressure.

A spring is used to oppose the applied force and a linkage

connects the end of the bellows to a pointer for indication.

Bellows type sensors are also available which have the sensing
pressure on the outside and the atmospheric conditions within.

The spring is accurate measurement. The elastic action of the

bellows by themselves is insufficient to precisely measure the force
of the applied pressure.

This type of pressure measurement is primarily used for ON/OFF

control providing clean contacts for opening and closing electrical
circuits. This form of sensing responds to changes in pneumatic or
hydraulic pressure.

44
 Figure 3.4 Basic mechanical structures

3.1.2.4 Diaphragm, bellows or piston?

The process pressure is applied to the actuator which can be
either a diaphragm, bellows or piston type.
Piston controls are used for hydraulic fluids operating at high
pressures. They are not intended for use with air or water as their
accuracy is limited.

45
 Figure 3.5 Spring and bellows gauge

3.1.2.5 Diaphragm
Many pressure sensors depend on the deflection of a diaphragm
for measurement.

The diaphragm is a flexible disc, which can be either flat or with

concentric corrugations and is made from sheet metal with high
tolerance dimensions.

The diaphragm can be used as a means of isolating the process

fluids, or for high pressure applications. It is also useful in
providing pressure measurement with electrical transducers.

Diaphragms are well developed and proven. Modern designs have

negligible hysteresis, friction and calibration problems when used
with smart instrumentation.

They are used extensively on air conditioning plants and for

ON/OFF switching applications.

3.1.3 Pressure Transducers and Elements - Electrical

The typical range of transducers here is:
- Strain gauge
- Vibrating wire
- Piezoelectric
46
 - Capacitance
- Linear Variable Differential Transformer
- Optical

3.1.3.1 Strain Gauge

Strain gauge sensing uses a metal wire or semiconductor chip to
measure changes in pressure. A change in pressure causes a
change in resistance as the metal is deformed. This deformation is
not permanent as the pressure (applied force) does not exceed the
elastic limit of the metal. If the elastic limit is exceeded than
permanent deformation will occur.

This is commonly used in a Wheatstone bridge arrangement

where the change in pressure is detected as a change in the
measured voltage.

As strain gauges are temperature sensitive, temperature

compensation is required.

One of the most common forms of temperature compensation is to

use a wheatstone bridge. Apart from the sensing gauge, a dummy
gauge is used which is not subjected to the forces but is also
affected by temperature variations. In the bridge arrangement the
dummy gauge cancels with the sensing gauge and eliminates
temperature variations in the measurement.

Figure 3.6
Wheatstone circuit for strain gauges

Strain gauges are mainly used due to their small size and fast
response to load changes.

47
3.1.3.2 Piezoelectric
When pressure is applied to crystals, they are elastically deformed.
Piezoelectric pressure sensing involves the measurement of such
deformation. When a crystal is deformed, an electric charge is
generated for only a few seconds. The electrical signal is
proportional to the applied force.
Because these sensors can only measure for a short period, they
are not suitable for static pressure measurement.
More suitable measurements are made of dynamic pressures
caused from:
- shock
- vibration
- explosions
- pulsations
- engines
- compressors
This type of pressure sensing does not measure static pressure,
and as such requires some means of identifying the pressure
measured. As it measures dynamic pressure, the measurement
needs to be referenced to the initial conditions before the impact of
the pressure disturbance. The pressure can be expressed in
relative pressure units, Pascal RELATIVE.
Quartz is commonly used as the sensing crystal as it is
inexpensive, stable and insensitive to temperature variations.
Tourmaline is an alternative which gives faster response speeds,
typically in the order of microseconds.

3.1.3.3 Capacitance
Capacitive pressure measurement involves sensing the change in
capacitance that results from the movement of a diaphragm. The
sensor is energised electrically with a high frequency oscillator. As
the diaphragm is deflected due to pressure changes, the relative
capacitance is measured by a bridge circuit.
Two designs are quite common. The first is the two-plate design
and is configured to operate in the balanced or unbalanced mode.
The other is a single capacitor design.
The balanced mode is where the reference capacitor is varied to
give zero voltage on the output. The unbalanced mode requires
measuring the ratio of output to excitation voltage to determine
pressure.
This type of pressure measurement is quite accurate and has a
wide operating range.
Capacitive pressure measurement is also quite common for
determining the level in a tank or vessel.

48
 Figure 3.7
Cross section of the Rosemount S-Cell™ Sensor

Figure 3.8
Capacitance pressure detector

3.1.4 Installation Considerations

There are a number of points to consider in a pressure
measurement application. All require some thought in both the
planning and execution.

Location of Process Connections

Process connections should be located on the side of the lines for
NGL fluid.

Isolation Valves

49
Many pressure devices require tapping points into the process.
Isolation valves should be considered between the process fluid
and the measuring equipment if the device is required to be taken
out of service for replacement or calibration.

Use of Impulse Tubing

Impulse piping should be as short as possible.
Instruments used in liquid and condensable applications should be
self-venting.
Self-venting is performed by sloping the lines towards the
instrument to avoid trapping gas.
If solids can accumulate in the impulse line, tees and plug fittings
should be installed in the place of elbows to allow for “rodding” of
plugged lines.

Test and Drain Valves

Apart from the isolation valve at the process connection, the need
for test and drain valves must be evaluated. If the fluid to be
measured is toxic or corrosive, a blowdown valve line should be
provided.
For maintenance reasons, all valves must be accessible from
either the ground or suitable platforms.

Sensor Construction
Depending on the environment in which the instrument is to be
used, selection of the correct sensor should also involve physical
conditions. The sensor may need to be isolated mechanically,
electronically and thermally from the process medium and the
external environment.

3.1.3 Secondary Transducers and Transmitters

A secondary electronics package translates the output from the
primary element into a standard 4–20mA dc output signal.

The related secondary devices consist of a differential pressure

measuring unit with connecting piping and other measuring units
required to define the flowing variables of the fluid, such as
pressure, temperature, and composition. The pressure and
differential-pressure transducer is often combined into a single
unit.

3.1.4 Smart Transmitters

The smart transmitters are designed for Differential Pressure (DP),

Gage Pressure (GP) and Absolute Pressure (AP) measurements.

50
The smart transmitter utilizes capacitance sensor technology for
DP and GP measurements. Piezoresistive sensor technology is
utilized in the AP measurements.

The major components of the smart transmitter are the sensor

module and the electronics housing. The sensor module contains
the oil filled sensor system (isolating diaphragms, oil fill system,
and sensor) and the sensor electronics.

The sensor electronics are installed within the sensor module and
include a temperature sensor (RTD), a memory module, and the
capacitance to digital signal converter (C/D converter). The
electrical signals from the sensor module are transmitted to the
output electronics in the electronics housing.

The electronics housing contains the output electronics board

(Microprocessor, memory module, digital to analog signal
converter or D/A converter), the local zero and span buttons, and
the terminal block. The basic block diagram of the smart
transmitter is illustrated in Figure 3.9.

For the smart transmitter, design pressure is applied to the

isolating diaphragms, the oil deflects the center diaphragm, which
then changes the capacitance. This capacitance signal is then
changed to a digital signal in the C/D converter. The
microprocessor then takes the signals from the RTD and C/D
converter calculates the correct output of the transmitter. This
signal is then sent to the D/A converter, which converts the signal
back to an analog signal and superimposes the HART signal on
the 4-20 mA output.

51
Figure 3.9 smart transmitter

52
53
3.2 Temperature Measurements
3.2.1 Temperature Scales
Temperature is a measure of the thermal energy in a body, which
is the relative hotness or coldness of a medium and is normally
measured in degrees using one of the following scales; Fahrenheit
(F), Celsius or Centigrade (C), Rankine (R), or Kelvin (K).

Absolute zero is the temperature at which all molecular motion

ceases or the energy of the molecule is zero.

Fahrenheit scale was the first temperature scale to gain

acceptance. It was proposed in the early 1700s by Fahrenheit
(Dutch). The two points of reference chosen for 0 and 100° were
the freezing point of a concentrated salt solution (at sea level) and
the internal temperature of oxen (which was found to be very
consistent between animals). This eventually led to the acceptance
of 32° and 212° (180° range) as the freezing and boiling point,
respectively of pure water at 1 atm (14.7 psi or 101.36 kPa) for the
Fahrenheit scale. The temperature of the freezing point and boiling
point of water changes with pressure.

Celsius or centigrade scale (C) was proposed in mid 1700s by

Celsius (Sweden), who proposed the temperature readings of 0°
and 100° (giving a 100° scale) for the freezing and boiling points of
pure water at 1 atm.

Rankine scale (R) was proposed in the mid 1800s by Rankine. It is

a temperature scale referenced to absolute zero that was based
on the Fahrenheit scale, i.e., a change of 1°F = a change of 1°R.
The freezing and boiling point of pure water are 491.6°R and
671.6°R, respectively at 1 atm, see Fig. 3.10.

Kelvin scale (K) named after Lord Kelvin was proposed in the late
1800s. It is referenced to absolute zero but based on the Celsius
scale, i.e., a change of 1°C = a change of 1 K. The freezing and
boiling point of pure water are 273.15 K and 373.15 K,
respectively, at 1 atm, see Fig. 3.10. The degree symbol can be
dropped when using the Kelvin scale.

54
 Figure 3.10 Comparison of temperature scales.

The need to convert from one temperature scale to another is a

common everyday occurrence. The conversion factors are as
follows:

To convert °F to °C
°C = (°F − 32)5/9
To convert °C to °F
°F = (°C × 9/5) + 32
To convert °F to °R
°R = °F + 459.6
To convert °C to K
K = °C + 273.15
To convert K to °R
°R = 1.8 × K
To convert °R to K
K = 0.555 × °R

3.2.2 Thermowells
Temperature measurement transducers, in particular
thermocouples or RTD's; need different housings and mountings
depending on the application requirements.
Sensing devices are usually mounted in a sealed tube, more
commonly known as a thermowell; this has the added advantages
of allowing the removal or replacement of the sensing device
without opening up the process tank or piping. Thermowells need
to be considered when installing temperature-sensing equipment.
The length of the thermowell needs to be sized for the temperature
probe.

55
Consideration of the thermal response needs to be taken into
account. If a fast response is required, and the sensor probe
already has adequate protection, then a thermowell may impede
system performance and response time. Note that when a
thermowell is used, the response time is typically doubled.
Thermowells can provide added protection to the sensing
equipment, and can also assist in maintenance and period
calibration of equipment.

Figure 3.11 Construction of RTD

3.2.3 Principles of Temperature Measurement

Temperature is the most common PV (Process Variable)measured
in process control. Due to the vast temperature range that needs
to be measured (from absolute zero to thousands of degrees) with
spans of just a few degrees and sensitivities down to fractions of a
degree, there is a vast range of devices that can be used for
temperature measurements.

The five most common sensors; Thermocouples, Resistance

Temperature Detectors or RTD’s, Thermistors, IC Sensors and
Radiation Pyrometers have been selected for this chapter as they
illustrate most of the application, range, accuracy and linearity
aspects that are associated with temperature measurements.

Principles of Thermocouple Operation

A thermocouple could be considered as a heat operated battery,
consisting of two different types of homogeneous (of the same kind
and nature) metal or alloy wires joined together at one end, the
measuring point and connected, usually via special compensating
cable, to some form of measuring instrument. At the point of

56
connection to the measuring device a second junction is formed,
called the reference or cold junction, this completes the
circuit.

Figure 3.12
Typical thermocouple and extension leads

Construction of RTD’s
RTD’s consist of a Platinum or Nickel wire element encased in a
protective housing having, in the case of the Platinum version a
base resistance of 100 Ohms at 0OC and the Nickel type a
resistance of 1000 ohms, again at 0OC.
They come packaged in either 2,3 or 4 wire versions, the 3 and 4
wire being the most common. 2 wire versions can be very
inaccurate as the lead resistance is in series with the measuring
circuit, and the measuring element relies on resistance change to
indicate the temperature change.

Thermistors
These elements are the most sensitive and fastest temperature
measuring devices in common use, unfortunately the price paid for
this is terrible nonlinearity (see Figure 2.6), and a very small
temperature range.
Thermistors are manufactured from metallic oxides, and have a
negative temperature coefficient, that is their resistance drops with
temperature rise.
They are also manufactured in almost any shape and size from a
pin head to discs up to 25 mm diameter x 5 mm thick.

I.C Sensors
Integrated Circuitry Sensors have only recently began to make
their presence felt in the process control world. As such they are
still limited in the variability of shape, size and packaging that is
advisable.
Their main advantages are their low cost (below $10.00) along
with their linear and high output signals.
57
Radiation Pyrometers
At the other end of the scale is the requirement to measure high
temperatures up to 4000OC or more. Total radiation pyrometers
operate by measuring the total amount of energy radiated by a hot
body. Their temperature range is 0OC to 3890OC.
The infrared (IR) pyrometer is rapidly replacing this older type of
measurement, and these work by measuring the dominant
wavelength radiated by a hot body. The basis of this is in the fact
that as temperature increases the dominant wavelength of hot
body radiation gets shorter.

Figure 3.13 Characteristics of Thermocouples, RTD’s IC and Thermistor

Temperature Sensors

3.2.4 Electric Temperature Switch

Local Mount Types (Immersion Stem):
The temperature switch utilizes a liquid filled sensing stem which
expands or contracts against a bellows to detect a temperature
change. The response at a pre-determined set point(s), actuates or
deactuates a SPDT, dual or DPDT snap-acting microswitch(es),
converting the temperature signal into an electronic signal. Control
set point(s) may be varied by adjustment.

Remote Mount Types (Bulb & Capillary):

The temperature switch and control utilizes a liquid filled sensing
58
bulb which hydraulically transmits temperature change to a
bellows. The response at a pre-determined set point(s), actuates
or deactuates a SPDT, dual DPDT or snap-acting microswitch(es),
converting the temperature signal into an electronic signal. Control
set point(s) may be varied by adjustment.

SPDT switch

DUAL SWITCH(DPDT)

Figure 3.14 Temperature switch

3.2.5 Temperature Transmitter

The Temperature Transmitter provides superior accuracy, stability,

and reliability – making it the industry-leading temperature
transmitter used in critical control and safety applications. The
transmitter can be ordered with either 4–20 mA/HART or a
completely digital FOUNDATION fieldbus protocol. It has the
capability to accept either single-sensor or dual-sensor inputs. This
59
dual-sensor input capability allows the transmitter to accept
simultaneous input from two independent sensors, enabling
measurement of differential temperatures, averaging temperature,
or redundant temperature measurement.

The transmitter can be configured for a variety of sensor inputs:

RTD, thermocouple, millivolt, or ohm.

The temperature transmitter construction is shown in figure 3.10

LCD Display

Figure 3.15 Temperature Transmitter Construction

60
3.2.6 Thermocouple MV. vs. Temperature Table

ITS-90 Table for type B thermocouple

°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Thermoelectric Voltage in mV
0 0.000 0.000 0.000 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002
10 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003
20 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002
30 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 0.000
40 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002

50 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.006
60 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.011
70 0.011 0.012 0.012 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.015 0.015 0.016 0.017 0.017
80 0.017 0.018 0.019 0.020 0.020 0.021 0.022 0.022 0.023 0.024 0.025
90 0.025 0.026 0.026 0.027 0.028 0.029 0.030 0.031 0.031 0.032 0.033

100 0.033 0.034 0.035 0.036 0.037 0.038 0.039 0.040 0.041 0.042 0.043
110 0.043 0.044 0.045 0.046 0.047 0.048 0.049 0.050 0.051 0.052 0.053
120 0.053 0.055 0.056 0.057 0.058 0.059 0.060 0.062 0.063 0.064 0.065
130 0.065 0.066 0.068 0.069 0.070 0.072 0.073 0.074 0.075 0.077 0.078
140 0.078 0.079 0.081 0.082 0.084 0.085 0.086 0.088 0.089 0.091 0.092

150 0.092 0.094 0.095 0.096 0.098 0.099 0.101 0.102 0.104 0.106 0.107
160 0.107 0.109 0.110 0.112 0.113 0.115 0.117 0.118 0.120 0.122 0.123
170 0.123 0.125 0.127 0.128 0.130 0.132 0.134 0.135 0.137 0.139 0.141
180 0.141 0.142 0.144 0.146 0.148 0.150 0.151 0.153 0.155 0.157 0.159
190 0.159 0.161 0.163 0.165 0.166 0.168 0.170 0.172 0.174 0.176 0.178

200 0.178 0.180 0.182 0.184 0.186 0.188 0.190 0.192 0.195 0.197 0.199
210 0.199 0.201 0.203 0.205 0.207 0.209 0.212 0.214 0.216 0.218 0.220
220 0.220 0.222 0.225 0.227 0.229 0.231 0.234 0.236 0.238 0.241 0.243
230 0.243 0.245 0.248 0.250 0.252 0.255 0.257 0.259 0.262 0.264 0.267
240 0.267 0.269 0.271 0.274 0.276 0.279 0.281 0.284 0.286 0.289 0.291

250 0.291 0.294 0.296 0.299 0.301 0.304 0.307 0.309 0.312 0.314 0.317
260 0.317 0.320 0.322 0.325 0.328 0.330 0.333 0.336 0.338 0.341 0.344
270 0.344 0.347 0.349 0.352 0.355 0.358 0.360 0.363 0.366 0.369 0.372
280 0.372 0.375 0.377 0.380 0.383 0.386 0.389 0.392 0.395 0.398 0.401
290 0.401 0.404 0.407 0.410 0.413 0.416 0.419 0.422 0.425 0.428 0.431

300 0.431 0.434 0.437 0.440 0.443 0.446 0.449 0.452 0.455 0.458 0.462
310 0.462 0.465 0.468 0.471 0.474 0.478 0.481 0.484 0.487 0.490 0.494
320 0.494 0.497 0.500 0.503 0.507 0.510 0.513 0.517 0.520 0.523 0.527
330 0.527 0.530 0.533 0.537 0.540 0.544 0.547 0.550 0.554 0.557 0.561
340 0.561 0.564 0.568 0.571 0.575 0.578 0.582 0.585 0.589 0.592 0.596

350 0.596 0.599 0.603 0.607 0.610 0.614 0.617 0.621 0.625 0.628 0.632
360 0.632 0.636 0.639 0.643 0.647 0.650 0.654 0.658 0.662 0.665 0.669
370 0.669 0.673 0.677 0.680 0.684 0.688 0.692 0.696 0.700 0.703 0.707
380 0.707 0.711 0.715 0.719 0.723 0.727 0.731 0.735 0.738 0.742 0.746
390 0.746 0.750 0.754 0.758 0.762 0.766 0.770 0.774 0.778 0.782 0.787

400 0.787 0.791 0.795 0.799 0.803 0.807 0.811 0.815 0.819 0.824 0.828
410 0.828 0.832 0.836 0.840 0.844 0.849 0.853 0.857 0.861 0.866 0.870
420 0.870 0.874 0.878 0.883 0.887 0.891 0.896 0.900 0.904 0.909 0.913
430 0.913 0.917 0.922 0.926 0.930 0.935 0.939 0.944 0.948 0.953 0.957
440 0.957 0.961 0.966 0.970 0.975 0.979 0.984 0.988 0.993 0.997 1.002

450 1.002 1.007 1.011 1.016 1.020 1.025 1.030 1.034 1.039 1.043 1.048
460 1.048 1.053 1.057 1.062 1.067 1.071 1.076 1.081 1.086 1.090 1.095
470 1.095 1.100 1.105 1.109 1.114 1.119 1.124 1.129 1.133 1.138 1.143
480 1.143 1.148 1.153 1.158 1.163 1.167 1.172 1.177 1.182 1.187 1.192
490 1.192 1.197 1.202 1.207 1.212 1.217 1.222 1.227 1.232 1.237 1.242

°C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

61
3.2.7 RTD Temperature vs. Resistance Tables

62
3.3 Level Measurements
3.3.1 Level Measurement Methods
Continuous Measurement
The units of level are generally meters (m). However, there are
numerous ways to measure level that require different
technologies and various units of measurement.
Such means may be:
- Ultrasonic, transit time
- Pulse echo
- Pulse radar
- Pressure, hydrostatic
- Weight, strain gauge
- Conductivity
- Capacitive
For continuous measurement, the level is detected and converted
into a signal that is proportional to the level. Microprocessor based
devices can indicate level or volume.

Different techniques also have different requirements. For

example, when detecting the level from the top of a tank, the
shape of the tank is required to deduce volume.
When using hydrostatic means, which detects the pressure from
the bottom of the tank, then the density must be known and remain
constant.

Point Detection
Point detection can also be provided for all liquids and solids.
Some of the more common types are:
- Capacitive
- Microwave
- Radioactive
- Vibration
- Conductive

The ON/OFF switching action is typically used for stopping,

starting or alarming.
They may also be used as process or safety protection devices in
conjunction with continuous measuring equipment.
Overfill or empty protection can be a statutory requirement with
some process materials, and this may have limitations on the
technology used and the interface to associated circuits, which
often are required to be hard-wired.

63
A level measuring system often consists of the sensor and a
separate signal conditioning instrument. This combination is often
chosen when multiple outputs (continuous and switched) are
required and parameters may need to be altered.

Simple Sight Glasses

A visual indication of the level can be obtained when part of the
vessel is constructed from transparent material or the liquid in a
vessel is bypassed through a transparent tube. The advantage of
using stop valves with the use of a bypass pipe, is the ease in
removal for cleaning.

Figure 3.16
Level by Visual Inspection

Gauging Rod Method

This requires a little more manual effort than the sight glass, but is
another very simple and cheap method of accounting for level.
This method can be applied to liquids and bulk materials, and
weighted steel tapes can be used in very tall silos.
Service stations use this method for 'dipping' their tanks, which use
a notched dipping rod. A common example is the oil level 'dip stick'
in a motor vehicle.
This method is primarily designed for atmospheric conditions. Slip
tubes can be used for pressurised vessels, but require the venting
of process gas or fluid into the atmosphere. These devices are
hazardous to personnel and should not be used in designated safe
areas or for control as part of an automated process.

64
 Figure 3.16 Gauging rod

Buoyancy Tape Systems

There are two main types of buoyancy tape systems available:
- Float and tape systems
- Wire guided float detectors

3.3.1 Float and Tape Systems

One common form of level measuring system uses a tape or servo
motor which is connected to a float. The height can be read as the
float moves with liquid level.
Other systems use the float method by sensing the position of the
float magnetically or electrically.
Float systems can also be used when measuring granular solids
as well as liquids.

3.3.2 Wire Guided Float Detectors

For large level measurements (ie. 20m), wire-guided float
detectors can be used. The guide wires are connected to top and
bottom anchors and assist in positioning the float as it moves with
the fluid level. The tape is connected to the top of the float and
runs directly up and over pulleys then down to the gauging head
which is outside the tank at a suitable level for viewing.
The perforated tape is received in the gauge head by a counter
drive. Any slackness in the tape is taken up by the tape storage
reel which is tensioned.

65
Tensioning of the tape storage reel is sufficient to ensure correct
measurement, while not affecting the position of the float.
The shaft on the counter drive rotates as the float moves the
perforated tape up and down. The rotary motion of the shaft is
used to give a metric readout.
In atmospheric conditions, a seal is used to protect the sensing
head from the process fluid. However in pressurised applications,
it is better to fill the head with the sensing fluid, particularly if the
fluid is clean and lubricating.

Figure 3.17
Wire-guided float detectors and details of head

Hydrostatic Pressure
Some of the different types of level measurement with pressure
are:
- Static pressure
- Differential pressure
- Bubble tube method
- Diaphragm Box
- Weighing

3.4.1 Static Pressure

The basis of hydrostatic pressure measurement for level is such
that the measured pressure is proportional to the height of liquid in
the tank, irrespective of volume.

The pressure is related to the height by the following:

P = h.ρ.g
66
 where: P = pressure
h = height
ρ = relative density of fluid
g = acceleration due to gravity

For constant density, the only variable that changes is the height.
In fact, any instrument that can measure pressure can be
calibrated to read height of a given liquid, and can be used to
measure liquid level in vessels under atmospheric conditions.
Most pressure sensors compensate for atmospheric conditions, so
the pressure on the surface of liquids open to the atmosphere will
be zero. The measuring units are generally in Pascals, but note
that 1 Pa is equivalent to 1 m head of water.
Hydrostatic pressure transducers always consist of a membrane
which is connected either mechanically or hydraulically to a
transducer element. The transducer element can be based on
such technologies as inductance, capacitance, strain gauge or
even semiconductor.

Figure 3.18
A pressure gauge used to measure the height of a liquid in an open tank

Differential
When the surface pressure on the liquid is greater (as may be the
case of a pressurised tank) or different to the atmospheric
pressure, then a differential pressure sensor is required. This is
because the total pressure will be greater than the head of liquid
67
pressure. With the differential pressure sensor, the pressure on the
surface of the liquid will be subtracted from the total pressure,
resulting in a measurement of the pressure due to the height of the
liquid.

In applying this method of measurement, the LP (low-pressure)

side of the transmitter is connected to the vessel above the
maximum liquid level. This connection is called the dry leg. The
pressure above the liquid is exerted on both the LP and HP (high-
pressure) sides of the transmitter, and changes in this pressure do
not affect the measured level.

Figure 3.19
For a pressurised tank, the level is measured using differential pressure
methods

Ultrasonic Measurement
Ultrasonic level sensors work by sending sound waves in the
direction of the level and measuring the time taken for the sound
wave to be returned. As the speed of sound is known, the transit
time is measured and the distance can be calculated.

Ultrasonic measurement generally measures the distance between

the contents and the top of the vessel. The height from the bottom
is deduced as the difference between this reading and the total
height of the vessel. Ultrasonic measurement systems are
available that can measure from the bottom of the vessel when
using liquid.

68
 Figure 3.20
Ultrasonic measurement

The original sound wave pulse has a transmission frequency

between 5 and 40 kHz; this depends on the type of transducer
used. The transducer and sensor consist of one or more piezo-
electric crystals for the transmission and reception of the sound
signal. When electrical energy is applied to the piezo-electric
crystals, they move to produce a sound signal. When the sound
wave is reflected back, the movement of the reflected sound wave
generates an electrical signal; this is detected as the return pulse.

The transit time is measured as the time between the transmitted

and return signals.

Radar Measurement
Radar gauges differ from ultrasonic in that they use microwaves
instead of sound waves. Like ultrasonic devices they measure
from the top of the vessel to determine the product level.

Two examples of radar gauges are the 5.8GHz and 24GHz

systems. The higher transmission frequency can be used to detect
dry, non-conductive materials with very low bulk density.

69
 Figure 3.20
Radar differential pressure hybrid system

3.3.2 Magnetrol Liquid Switch

Top-mounting displacer type level switches offer the industrial user

a wide choice of alarm and control configurations. These units
utilize a simple buoyancy principle and are well suited for simple or
complex applications, such as high level alarm or control of
multiple pumps and alarms. Displacer switches are both reliable
and cost effective.

70
Measurement Principle:

Liquid level movement changes the buoyancy force on a displacer

suspended from a range spring. The force change on the spring
causes it to expand or contract moving an attraction sleeve into or
out of the field of the switch magnet, actuating the switch.

1.1 Principle of Operation

The design of displacer operated level switches is based upon the
principle that a magnetic field will not be affected by non-magnetic
materials such as 316 stainless steel. In this case, the displacer
moves a magnetic attraction sleeve within a non-magnetic
enclosing tube and actuates a magnetic switch mechanism. The
enclosing tube provides a pressure seal to the chamber and,
therefore, to the process.

1.2 Operating Cycle

A spring is loaded with a weighted displacer (1) which is heavier
than the liquid. Immersion of the displacers caused by rising liquid
level imparts buoyancy forces on the displacer allowing the spring
to compress. The attraction sleeve (2) attached to the spring,
moves upward into the field of a permanent magnet (3). The
movement of the magnet toward the sleeve causes the switch (4)
to actuate.

Figure 3.21
Switch position on rising level

71
A non-magnetic barrier tube (5) provides a static pressure
boundary between the switch mechanism and the displacer
assembly. As the liquid level falls, the displacer lowers, causing the
spring to extend, and moving the attraction sleeve out of the
magnetic field of the switch mechanism.

This allows the switch to again change position and to break or

make. See Figures 3.21.

2.2 Mounting

Adjust the displacers on the displacer cable for the desired switch
actuating levels (instruction tag is attached to cable). Screw
displacer cable fitting to threade connection link protruding from
the underside of control.

Be sure there are no tubes, rods, or other obstacles in the tank or

vessel to interfere with the operation of the displacers.

No guides into the tank are necessary unless liquid turbulence is

excessive, in which case a guide pipe or tube should be at least 1
inch larger than the displacer diameter, open at the bottom end,
and with several vent holes located above the maximum high level
of the liquid.

Check the installation of pipe or tube to be certain it is plumb.

2.3 Wiring

Most switch enclosures are designed to provide 360° positioning

of the conduit outlet by loosening the set screw(s) located at the
bottom of the switch housing base.

Figure 3.22 Switch Mechanism Frame Mounting Screw

72
Bring supply wires through conduit entry. Route extra wire around
enclosing tube under baffle plate, and connect then to the
appropriate terminals. Refer to Figures 4 for wiring diagrams.
Test switch action by varying liquid level or manually moving
displacers.

Figure 23 – Level Switch with DPDT contacts

3.0 Preventive Maintenance

Periodic inspections are a necessary means to keep your level
control in good working order. This control is a safety device to
protect the valuable equipment it serves. A systematic program of
“preventive maintenance” must be implemented when the control
is placed into service. If the following sections on “What to do” and
“What to avoid” are observed, your control will provide reliable
protection of your equipment for many years.

3.1 What to do
3.1.1 Keep control clean
Be sure the switch housing cover is always in place on the control.
This cover is designed to keep dust and dirt from interfering with
switch mechanism operation. It protects against damaging
moisture and acts as a safety feature by keeping bare wires and
terminals from being exposed.

Should the housing cover or any seal become damaged or

misplaced, obtain a replacement immediately.

73
3.1.2 Inspect switch mechanisms, terminals, and connections
monthly
1. Dry contact switches should be inspected for excessive wear on
actuating lever or misalignment of adjustment screw at point of
contact between screw and lever. Such wear can cause false
switch actuating levels. See switch mechanism bulletin supplied
with control should switch adjustment or replacement be
necessary.

2. DO NOT operate your control with defective or maladjusted

switch mechanisms (refer to bulletin on switch mechanisms
furnished for service instructions.)

3. Level controls may sometimes be exposed to excessive heat

or moisture. Under such conditions, insulation on electrical wiring
may become brittle, eventually breaking or pealing away. The
resulting “bare” wires can cause short circuits.

NOTE: Check wiring carefully and replace at the first sign of brittle
insulation.

4. Vibration may sometimes cause terminal screws to work loose.

Check all terminal connections to be certain that screws are tight.

5. On units with pneumatic switches, air (or gas) lines subjected

to vibration, may eventually crack or become loose at connections
causing leakage. Check lines and connections carefully and repair
or replace, if necessary.

3.2 What to avoid

1. Never leave switch housing cover off the control longer than
necessary to make routine inspections.

2. Never place a jumper wire across terminals to “cut-out” the

control. If a “jumper” is necessary for test purposes, be certain it is
removed before placing control into service.

3. Never attempt to make adjustments or replace switches without

reading instructions carefully. Certain adjustments provided for in
level controls should not be attempted in the field. When in doubt,
consult the factory or your local representative.

4. Never use lubricants on pivots of switch mechanisms. A

sufficient amount of lubricant has been applied at the factory to
ensure a lifetime of service. Further oiling is unnecessary and will

74
only tend to attract dust and dirt which can interfere with
mechanism operation.

5. Never attempt to readjust magnetic attraction sleeve. It is factory

set, and tampering may cause failure of control while in service,
even if manual operation activates switch.

75
 CHAPTER 4
Electronic Flow Measurements

4.0 Principles of Flow Measurement

4.0.1 Types of Flow
There are four main types of liquid flow:

Type of flow Notable Characteristics Process material

General Thin, clean liquids Water, light oils and

solvents

Two-phase flow Liquids with bubbles Beer, wet steam,

unrefined petroleum

Slurry Dirty liquids Water and sand

Non-Newtonian Heavy thick liquids Grease, Paint, honey

Table 4.1
Main types of liquid flow

4.0.2 Basic Terms and Concepts

Laminar vs Turbulent flow In laminar flow, the fluid moves smoothly
in orderly layers, with little or no mixing of the fluid across the flow
stream. With laminar flow, there can still exist changes in velocity
as the friction of the wall slows the layers closest to the wall, while
the flow in the centre of the pipe moves at a faster pace. This
velocity change produces a parabolic streamlined flow profile.

Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

Figure 4.1
Flow profile

In turbulent flows, the laminar flow breaks down to produce

intermixing between the layers. Turbulent flow is quite random, as

76
smaller currents flow in all directions - these are also known as
eddies. This type of flow has a flatter flow profile, such that the
velocity of forward flow in the centre of the pipe is nearly the same
as that near the walls of the pipe.

Swirl
Swirl occurs with laminar flows as fluid passes through elbows or
some other form of pipeline geometry. In a similar fashion to
turbulent flows, they affect the measurements of many instruments
and precautions should be taken to mount measuring devices well
downstream from the swirling fluid. The effects of swirls can
be minimised by the use of a flow conditioner, or straightener in the
line upstream.

Reynolds number
A Reynolds number defines the flow conditions at a particular
point. It is a way of representing fluidity and is a useful indicator of
laminar and turbulent flow.

Laminar flow exists if the Reynolds number is less than 2000, and
turbulence when the number is above 4000. There is not a clear
transition between laminar and turbulent flows, which does
complicate flow measurement in this range of operation.

The Reynolds number equation shown below shows the

relationship between the density (ρ), viscosity (µ cp), pipe inside
diameter (D) and the flow rate (v).

RD = (K x ρ x v x D) / µcp

4.1 Positive Displacement Meter

Positive displacement meters measure flow rate by repeatedly

passing a known quantity of fluid from the high to low pressure
side of the device in a pipe. The number of times the known
quantity is passed gives information about the totalised flow. The
rate at which it is passed is the volumetric flow rate. Because they
pass a known quantity, they are ideal for certain fluid batch,
blending and custody transfer applications. They give very
accurate information and are generally used for production and
accounting purposes.

77
 Figure 4-2 Cylinder and piston show principle of displacement metering

4.1.1 Rotary vane

Spring loaded vanes slide in and out of a channel in a rotor so that
they make constant contact with the eccentric cylinder wall. When
the rotor turns, a known volume of fluid is trapped between the two
vanes and the outer wall. The flow rate is based on volume per
revolution.

Figure 4.3
Rotating vane meter

The piston type is suitable for accurately measuring small volumes

and is not affected by viscosity. Limitations with this device are due
to leakage and pressure loss.

Typical Applications
This type of meter is used extensively in the petroleum industry for
liquids.

Advantages
- Reasonable accuracy of 0.1%.
- Suitable for high temperature service, up to 180 oC.
- Pressures up to 7Mpa.

Disadvantages
- Suitable for clean liquids only.

78
Lobed impeller
This type of meter uses two lobed impellers, which are geared and
meshed to rotate at opposite directions within the enclosure. A
known volume of fluid is transferred for each revolution.

Figure 4.4
Rotating lobe meter

Typical Applications
The lobed impeller meter is often used with gases.

Advantages
- High operating pressures, up to 8Mpa.
- High temperatures, up to 200oC.

Disadvantages
- Poor accuracy at low flow rates.
- Bulky and heavy.
- Expensive.

4.1.2 Oval gear meters

Two oval gears are intermeshed and trap fluid between
themselves and the outer walls of the device. The oval gears rotate
due to the pressure from the fluid and a count of revolutions
determines the volume of fluid moving through the device.

Figure 4.5
Positive displacement meters measure volumetric flow rate directly by dividing
a stream into distinct segments of known volume, counting segments and
multiplying by the volume of each segment.

79
The viscosity of the fluid can affect the leakage, or slip flow. If the
meter is calibrated on a particular fluid, it will read marginally
higher should the viscosity rise.

Newer designs of this type of meter use servomotors to drive the

gears. This eliminates the pressure drop across the meter and also
the force required to drive the gear. This eliminates the force,
which causes the slip flow. This mainly applies to smaller sized
meters and significantly increases the accuracy at low flows.

Advantages
- High accuracy of 0.25%
- High operating pressures, up to 10MPa
- High temperatures, up to 300oC
- Wide range of materials of construction

Disadvantages
- Pulsations caused by alternate drive action

Application Limitations
Over speeding can damage positive displacement meters. When
the outlet pressure needs to be maintained due to an unacceptable
pressure drop across the meter, it is quite common for the inlet
pressure to be increased.

Specifications do vary, but in general they are primarily suited for

clean, lubricating and non-abrasive applications.

Filters may be required to filter debris and clean the fluid before
the meter. Regular maintenance is an obvious addition in this
case. The added pressure drop may also need to be considered,
especially if regular maintenance is not carried out.

Limitations on operating temperature can prove to be an inhibiting

factor. If leakage does occur and is calibrated for, it can change
with temperature as the viscosity varies.

One of the main limitations with this form of flow measurement is

that the meter is driven by the flow. Particularly in the case of the
oval gear meter, the force required to rotate the gear action is not
constant and results in pulsations. These pulsations may make the
use of this type of meter impossible, particularly in controlled
applications requiring a steady flow.

80
Positive displacement meters become limited when high volume
measurement is required. They are primarily used for low volume
applications.

In comparison, they are more expensive than magnetic

flowmeters, but do have the added advantage of being able to
measure non-conductive fluids.

Advantages
- Can measure non-conductive fluids.
- Very high accuracy.
- Unaffected by viscosity.
- High Rangeability of up to 10:1.

Disadvantages
- Clean fluids only, limited life due to wear.
- Some unrecoverable pressure loss.
- Requires viscous fluid, not suitable for gas.
- Limited operating range.
- Mechanical failure likely to cause blockage in pipe.
- Cost.

4.2 Differential Head Type Meters

4.2.1 Basis of Operation

One of the most common methods of measuring flow is with a
Differential Flowmeter. This technique requires the pressure to be
measured on both sides of an imposed restriction in the path of
normal flow. The flow rate of the material can be calculated from
the change in pressure.

Differential pressure devices work on the principle of inducing a

change in pressure by placing a restriction in the line. This
effectively changes some potential energy kinetic energy - this is
detected and measured as a change in pressure.

The principle of increasing kinetic energy by sacrificing potential

energy when constricting the flow is described by mathematics
(according to Bernoulli's streamline energy equation).

The restriction in the pipe in called the primary element. The

secondary element is the differential pressure sensor and
transmitter. This device can measure the differential pressure and
calculate the flow rate. Differential pressure or flow rate information
can then be accessed from this device.

81
The velocity of flow is related to the square root of the differential
pressure.

When the pressure differential is measured, the volumetric or mass

flow rate can be calculated based on:
- fluid properties
- cross-sectional area
- shape of restriction
- adjacent piping

Formulae
The relationship between the flow rate and the change in pressure
can be shown as:

where: v is the velocity

Q is the volumetric flow rate
W is the mass flow rate
k is a constant
h is the differential pressure
ρ is the density of the fluid
A is the cross sectional area of the pipe

Primary Elements
4.2.1 Orifice Plate
For technical details, refer to section 1

4.2.2 Venturi Tube

In a venturi tube, the fluid is accelerated through a nozzle shaped
inflow piece (converging cone) which induces a local pressure
drop. After passing through the cylindrical restriction, it is released
through an expanding section (diffuser) where it returns the flow to
near its original pressure.
The Venturi Tube is often selected because pressure drop is not as
significant as with the orifice plate and accuracy is better
maintained.

82
Due to the relatively high cost of the Venturi Tube, applications are
generally limited to high flow rate fluids, such as main steam lines.

Figure 4.6
Flow measurement with a restriction

The advantages and disadvantages highlight any differences from

the orifice meter and are over and above those listed for that
device.

Advantages
- Less significant pressure drop across restriction.
- Less unrecoverable pressure loss.
- Requires less straight pipe up and downstream.
Disadvantages
- More expensive.
- Bulky - requires large section for installation.

4.2.3 Flow Nozzles

The Flow Nozzle is similar to the venturi but are in the shape of an
ellipse. They have a higher flow capacity than orifice plates.
Another main difference between the flow nozzle and the venturi is
that although they have similar inlet nozzles, the flow nozzle has
no exit section.
Flow Nozzles can handle larger solids and be used for higher
velocities, greater turbulence and high temperature applications.
They are often used with fluid or steam applications containing
some suspended solids, and in applications where the product is
being discharged from service.

83
These devices are more cost effective, but as such they provide
less accuracy than venturis, and have a higher unrecoverable
pressure loss.
The advantages and disadvantages highlight any differences from
the venturi tube and are over and above those listed for that
device.

Figure 4.7
The flow nozzle is preferable for high velocity applications

Advantages
- High velocity applications.
- Operate in higher turbulence.
- Used with fluids containing suspended solids.
- More cost effective than venturis.
- Physically smaller than the venturi.

Disadvantages
- More expensive than orifice plates.
- Higher unrecoverable pressure loss.

4.2.4 Flow Tube

Flow tubes are more compact than the venturi tube, but provide a
higher differential pressure for less unrecoverable pressure loss.
They are primarily a low loss meter and the most common type
would be the Dall tube.

Advantages
- Shorter lay length.
- Lower unrecoverable pressure loss.

Disadvantages
- More complex to manufacture.
- Sensitive to turbulence.
- Accuracy based on flow data.

84
 Figure 4.8
The Dall tube low-loss meter

Application Limitations
It is recommended that when using this type of tube, it should be
calibrated with the piping section in which it is to be used and over
the full range of flows in which it will operate.
These types of flow devices do not necessarily conform to the wide
range of conditions and extensive test data for orifice meters.

4.2.5 Pitot Tube

The Pitot tube measures flow based on differential pressure and is
primarily used with gas flows.
The Pitot tube is a small tube that is directed into the flow stream.
This measures the total pressure (dynamic and static combined). A
second measurement is required, being of static pressure. The
difference between the two measurements gives a value for
dynamic pressure. The flow rate, like other devices, is calculated
from the square root of the pressure.
In calculating the flow rate from the pressure, the calculation is
dependent on such factors as tube design and the location of the
static tap. The Pitot-static probe incorporates the static holes in the
tube system to eliminate this parameter.
The Pitot tube is also used to determine the velocity profile in a
pipe. This is done by measuring points at various distances from
the pipe wall to construct a velocity profile.
The Pitot tube is the primary device. It has the advantage over
orifice meters of practically no pressure drop. Its usefulness is
limited to clean gases and liquids as the sensing element is a
small orifice. Foreign materials tend to plug the openings in the
85
tube, and the classical Pitot tube senses impact pressure at one
point only, thus decreasing accuracy.
Pitot tubes develop a very low differential pressure, which can
often be difficult to measure with the secondary element. Also the
accuracy of the device is dependant on the velocity profile of the
fluid. The velocity profile is also affected by turbulence in the flow
stream.

Figure 4.9
Principle of operation of the Pitot tube

Figure 4.10
Basic form of pitot-static tube

Advantages
- Low cost.
- Low permanent pressure loss.
- Ease of installation into existing systems.
Disadvantages
- Low accuracy.
- Low Rangeability.
- Requires clean liquid, gas or vapour as holes are easily
clogged.
86
4.2.6 Multiport Pitot Averaging
An annubar tube is a multi-impact opening type and improves the
accuracy of this type of measurement. In most industrial
applications this type of multi-impact or averaging is used to
compensate for changes in the velocity profile.
Annubar sensor are inserted perpendicular to the flow stream and
extend the full diameter of the pipe. There is a very low obstruction
to the flow, which causes minimal pressure loss.
Sensing ports are located on both upstream and downstream
sides of the Annubar.
These ports are connected to dual averaging plenums. The
number of ports is proportional to the diameter of the pipe. The
upstream ports produce an average impact (total) pressure and
the downstream ports produce the average reference (static)
pressure. The difference is an accurate and stable dynamic
pressure that is easily converted into flow rate.
Annubars also provide good measurement when located in difficult
piping. They can be located as close as two pipe diameters
downstream of an elbow and still give accurate and repeatable
measurements.

Figure 4.11
Multiport ‘Annubar’ Pitot averaging system

4.2.7 Elbow
A pipe elbow can be used as a primary device. Elbow taps have an
advantage in that most piping systems have elbows that can be
used. In applications where cost is a factor and additional pressure
loss from an orifice plate is not permitted, the elbow meter is a
viable differential pressure device.

87
If an existing elbow is used then no additional pressure drop
occurs and the expense involved is minimal. They can also be
produced in-situ from an existing bend, and are typically formed by
two tappings drilled at an angle of 45o through the bend.
These tappings provide the high and low pressure tapping points
respectively.
Tappings at 22.5o have shown to provide more stable and reliable
readings and are less affected by upstream piping. However 45o
tappings are more suited to bidirectional flow measurement.

Figure 4.12
Elbow meter geometry

A number of factors contribute to the differential pressure that is

produced. Because of the number of variables, it is difficult to
accurately predict the exact flow rate.
Some of these factors are:
- Force of the flow onto the outer tapping.
- Turbulence generated due to cross-axial flow due to the
bend
- Differing velocities between outer and inner radius of flow
- Pipe texture
- Relationship between elbow radius and pipe diameter

Apart from these factors, accuracy from tests means that a

predicted accuracy of less than 5% is possible. On site tests can

88
be performed for more accurate results, with the added advantage
that repeatability is good for this type of measurement.

The disadvantages are that accuracy will be lacking (typically 5%)

and dirty flows can plug the taps. At low-flow velocities, the
differential produced is inadequate for good measurement, and is
therefore only suitable for higher velocities.

Figure 4.13
Flow in a pipe band

Although the elbow meter is not commonly used in industry, it is

very much underrated. The low cost of the meter, together with its
application after completion of pipework can be a major benefit for
low accuracy flow metering applications.
Some suitable applications would include plant air conditioning,
cooling water metering, site flow checkpoints possibly with local
indicators, and check flow applications, where the cost of
magmeters is prohibitive.
For installation, it is recommended that the elbow be installed with
25 pipe diameters of straight pipe upstream and at least 10 pipe
diameters of straight pipe down stream.

Advantages
- Simplified installation.
- Inexpensive.
Disadvantages
- Low accuracy.

4.2.8 Primary element - overview

Advantages
89
 - No moving parts.
- Large range of sizes and opening ratios.
- Suitable for most gases and liquids.
- Well understood and proven.
- Price does not increase dramatically with size.

Disadvantages
- Accuracy is affected by density, pressure and viscosity
fluctuations.
- Erosion and physical damage to the restriction affects
measurement accuracy.
- Cause some unrecoverable pressure loss.
- Viscosity limits measuring range.
- Require straight pipe runs for expected accuracies.

Application Limitations
- Limited accuracy in measurement.
- Low Rangeability of 4:1.

Pressure loss:
When obstructing the flow using the differential pressure method of
sensing, note that they do cause some unrecoverable pressure
loss in the line.

Disturbances:
Differential type instruments that cause a restriction are easily
affected by disturbances to inflow and outflow. Apart from bends in
the pipe, such fittings as T pieces and valves can cause
disturbances to the flow measurement and as such should be
separated from the instrument by a significantly long straight pipe
extension. The length of clean pipe should be greater than 5 x
diameter on the upstream side and no less than 4 x diameter on
the downstream side.

4.2.9 Secondary Element

The secondary element is a differential pressure transmitter. This
device provides the electrical output signal for interfacing to other
instrumentation or control equipment. The output from this device
is proportional to either the differential pressure or the flow rate.

4.2.10 Troubleshooting
One of the most common inaccuracies induced in differential
pressure flowmeters is not allowing enough straight pipe. When
the flow material approaches and passes some change in the pipe
small eddies are formed in the flow stream. These eddies are

90
localised regions of high velocity and low pressure and can start to
form upstream of the change and dissipate further downstream.
Flowmeter sensors detect these changes in pressure and
consequently produce erratic or inaccurate readings for flow rate.
4.3 Velocity Flow Meters

The velocity flow meters include the following types:

- Turbine
- Vortex Shedding
- Swirl
- Conada Effect & Momentum Exchange
- Electromagnetic
- Ultrasonic, Doppler
- Ultrasonic, Transit-Time

4.3.1 Turbine

Basis of Operation

Figure 4.14
Turbine flow meter

(1) End fitting — flange shown;

(2) flowmeter body;
(3) rotation pickup — magnetic, reluctance type shown;
(4) permanent magnet;
91
(5) pickup cold wound on pole piece;
(6) rotor blade;
(7) rotor hub;
(8) rotor shaft bearing — journal type shown;
(9) rotor shaft;
(10) diffuser support and flow straightener;
(11) diffuser;
(12) flow conditioning plate (dotted) — optional with some meters.

Turbine meters have rotor-mounted blades that rotate when a fluid

pushes against them. They work on the reverse concept to a
propeller system. Whereas in a propeller system, the propeller
drives the flow, in this case the flow drives and rotates the
propeller. Since it is no longer propelling the fluid, it is now called a
turbine.

The rotational speed of the turbine is proportional to the velocity of

the fluid.

Different methods are used to convey rotational speed information.

The usual method is by electrical means where a magnetic pick-up
or inductive proximity switch detects the rotor blades as they turn.
As each blade tip on the rotor passes the coil it changes the flux
and produces a pulse. Pulse rate is directly proportional to the flow
rate.

As the rotation of the turbine is measured by means of non-

contact, no tapping points are required in the pipe. Pressure is
therefore not a problem, and in fact pressures of up to 9300psi can
be applied without any problem, but this of course does depend on
pipe diameter and materials of construction.

Temperature limitations are only imposed by the limitations of the

materials of construction. To reduce losses or changes in process
temperature, turbine flowmeters are available which can be
subjected to wide temperature variations.

Turbine meters require a good laminar flow. In fact 10 pipe

diameters of straight line upstream and no less than 5 pipe
diameters downstream from the meter are required. They are
therefore not accurate with swirling flows.

They are not recommended for use with high viscosity fluids due to
the high friction of the fluid which causes excessive losses as the

92
turbine becomes too much of an obstruction. The viscosity of the
liquid must be known for use of this type of meter.

They are also subject to erosion and damage. Each meter must be
calibrated for its application.

Selection and Sizing

Turbine meters are sized by volumetric flow rate, however the

main factor that affects the meter is viscosity.

Typically, larger meters are less affected by viscosity than smaller

meters. This may indicate that larger meters would be preferred; in
fact the opposite is true. By using a smaller meter, operation is
more likely to occur towards the maximum permitted flow rate, and
away from the non-linear response at low flows.

Turbine meters are specified with minimum and maximum linear

flow rates that ensure the response is linear and the other
specifications are met. For good Rangeability, it is recommended
that the meter be sized such that the maximum flowrate of the
application be about 70 to 80% of that of the meter.

Density changes have little effect on the meters’ calibration.

K-Factor

The turbine meter measures volumetric flow, however the pulses

produced vary depending on the meter. The variation is accounted
for by a K-factor.

The K-factor is the number of pulses per unit volume. It is primarily

determined by the size and type of the turbine meter. Due to
manufacturing tolerances, the actual K-factor can vary between
similar models.

93
 Figure 4.15
Typical calibration curve for a turbine meter

Advantages
- High accuracy, repeatability and Rangeability for a defined
viscosity andmeasuring range.
- Temperature range of fluid measurement: -220oC to
+350oC.
- Very high-pressure capability: 9300psi.
- Measurement of non-conductive liquids.
- Capability of heating measuring device..
- Suitable for very low flow rates.

Disadvantages
- Not suitable for high viscous fluids.
- Viscosity must be known.
- 10 diameter upstream and 5 diameter downstream of
straight pipe is required.
- Not effective with swirling fluids.
- Only suitable for clean liquids and gases.
- Pipe system must not vibrate.
- Specifications critical for measuring range and viscosity.

Application Limitations
As turbine meters rely on the flow, they do absorb some pressure
from the flow to propel the turbine. The pressure drop is typically
around 20 to 30 kPa at the maximum flow rate and does vary
depending on flow rate.

It is a requirement in operating turbine meters that sufficient line

pressure be maintained to prevent liquid cavitation. The minimum
94
pressure occurs at the rotor, however the pressure recovers
substantially are after the turbine.

If the backpressure is not sufficient, then it should be increased or

a larger meter chosen to operate in a lower operating range. This
does have the limitation of reducing the meter flow range and
accuracy.

Summary
Turbine meters provide excellent accuracy, repeatability and
rangeability for a defined viscosity and measuring range, and are
commonly used for custody transfer applications of clean liquids
and gases.

4.3.2 Vortex Shedding

Vortex flowmeters can measure liquid, gas or steam and use the
principle of vortex shedding. Vortex shedding occurs when an
obstruction is placed in the flowing stream. The obstruction is
referred to as a bluff body and causes the formation of swirls,
called vortices, downstream from the body.

Figure 4.15
Principle of operation of vortex meter

Differential pressure changes occur as the vortices are formed and

shed. This pressure variation is used to actuate the sealed sensor
at a frequency proportional to the vortex shedding. For continuous

95
flow, a series of vortices generates electrical pulses with a
frequency that is also proportional to the flow velocity. The velocity
can then be converted to volumetric flow rate.

The output of a vortex flowmeter depends on the K-factor. The K-

factor relates to the frequency of generated vortices to the fluid
velocity.
Vortex Frequency
Fluid velocity = _____________________
K− Factor

The K-factor varies with the Reynolds number, however it is

virtually constant over a broad range of flows. Vortex flowmeters
provide very linear flow rates when operated within the flat range.

Figure 4.16

96
 Relationship between K-Factor and Reynolds number
4.3.3 Swirl

A different type of vortex meter is that of the precession or swirl

type. In this device, an internal vortex is forced into a helical path
through the device. A thermistor is typically used to detect a
change in temperature as the vortices pass. Again, the output
signal is proportional to the flow rate.

A flow straightener is used at the outlet from the meter. This

isolates the meter from any downstream piping effects that may
affect the development of the vortex.
This type of measuring device has a Rangeability of about 10:1
and is used mainly with gases. Because of the higher tolerance in
manufacture of this type of meter, it is more expensive then
comparative meters.

Figure 4.17
Construction of a typical vortex precession (swirl) meter

4.3.4 Electromagnetic

4.3.4.1 Basis of Operation

Electromagnetic flowmeters, also known as magmeters, use
Faradays’ law of electromagnetic induction to sense the velocity of
fluid flow.

97
Faradays law states that moving a conductive material at right
angles through a magnetic field induces a voltage proportional to
the velocity of the conductive material. The conductive material in
the case of a magmeter is the conductive fluid.
The fluid therefore must be electrically conductive, but not
magnetic.

4.3.4.2 Power generators/magmeters - what’s the connection?

If we consider power generators or tachometers that are used for

speed measurement, then these operate on the same principle.
Electrically conductive process fluid is fundamentally the same as
the rotor in a generator. The fluid passes through a magnetic field
induced by coils that are positioned around a section of pipe.

The process fluid is electrically insulated from the pipe with a

suitable lining, in the case of a metal pipe, so that the generated
voltage is not dissipated through the pipeline. The electrodes are
located in the pipe and a voltage is generated across these
electrodes that is directly proportional to the average velocity of the
liquid passing through the magnetic field.

The coils are energised with ac power or pulsed dc voltage, so

consequently the magnetic field and resultant induced voltage
responds accordingly. The generated voltage is protected from
interference, amplified and converted into a dc current signal by
the transmitter. Line voltage variations are accounted for by the
sensing circuits.

98
 Figure 4.17
Principle of the electromagnetic meter

4.3.4.3 The Magmeter

The advantages of magnetic flowmeters are that they have no
obstructions or restrictions to flow, and therefore no pressure drop
and no moving parts to wear out.

They can accommodate solids in suspension and have no

pressure sensing points to block up. The magnetic flowmeter
measures volume rate at the flowing temperature independent of
the effects of viscosity, density, pressure or turbulence. Another
advantage is that many magmeters are capable of measuring flow
in either direction.

Most industrial liquids can be measured by magnetic flowmeters.

These include acids, bases, water, and aqueous solutions.
However, some exceptions are most organic chemicals and
refinery products that have insufficient conductivity for
measurement. Also pure substances, hydrocarbons and gases
cannot be measured.

In general the pipeline must be full, although with the later models,
level sensing takes this factor into account when calculating a flow
rate.

Magnetic flowmeters are very accurate and have a linear

relationship between the output and flow rate. Alternatively, the
flow rate can be transmitted as a pulse per unit of volume or time.

The accuracy of most magnetic flowmeter systems is 1% of full

scale measurement.

This takes into account both the meter itself and the secondary
instrument. Because of its linearity, the accuracy at low flow rates
exceeds that of such devices as the Venturi tube. The magnetic
flowmeter can be calibrated to an accuracy of 0.5% of full scale
and is linear throughout.

5.6.5 Selection and Sizing - Liners

The principle of operation of the magmeter requires the generation
of a magnetic field, and the detection of the voltage across the
flow. If the pipe is made of a material with magnetic properties,
then this will disrupt the magnetic field and this effectively short
circuits the magnetic field. Similarly if the inside of the pipe is
99
conductive, then this will short circuit the electrodes used to detect
the voltage across the flow.

The meter piping must be manufactured from a non-magnetic

material such as stainless steel in order to prevent short-circuiting
of the magnetic field.

The lining of the meter piping must also be lined with an insulating
material to prevent short-circuiting of the electric field.

The liner has to be chosen to suit the application, particularly the

resistance it has to the following:
- chemical corrosion
- erosion
- abrasion
- pressure
- temperature
Commonly used magnetic flowmeter liner materials
- Teflon PFA
- Polyurethane
- Neoprene
- Hard rubber
- Soft rubber
- Fused aluminum oxide

A Summary of the characteristics of the various lines are:

Teflon (PTFE):
- Widely used due to its high temperature rating.
- Anti-stick properties reduce problems with build-up.
- Approved for food and beverage environments.
- Resistant to many acids and bases.
Neoprene
- Good abrasion resistance.
- Good chemical resistance.
Soft Rubber
- Relatively inexpensive.
- High resistance to abrasion.
- Used mainly for slurry applications.
Hard rubber
- Inexpensive.
- General purpose applications.
- Used mainly for water and soft slurries.

5.6.6 Installation Techniques

100
For correct operation of the magmeter, the pipeline must be full.
This is generally done by maintaining sufficient backpressure from
downstream piping and equipment. Meters are available that make
allowances for this problem, but are more expensive and are
specialised. This is mainly a problem in gravity feed systems.

Magmeters are not greatly affected by the profile of the flow, and
are not affected by viscosity or the consistency of the liquid. It is
however recommended that the meter be installed with 5
diameters of straight pipe upstream and 3 diameters of straight
pipe downstream from the meter.

Applications requiring reduction in the pipe diameter for the meter

installation, need to allow for the extra length of reducing pipe. It is
also recommended that in those applications that the reducing
angle not be greater than 8o, although manufacturers’ data should
be sought.

Grounding is another important aspect when installing magmeters,

and manufacturers’ recommendations should be adhered to. Such
recommendations would require the use of copper braid between
the meter flange and pipe flange at both ends of the meter. These
connections provide a path for stray currents and should also be
grounded to a suitable grounding point. Magmeters with built in
grounding electrodes eliminate this problem, as the grounding
electrode is connected to the supply ground.

5.6.7 Typical Applications

Magmeters are used in many applications as most liquids and
slurries are suitable conductors. They are also the first to be
considered in corrosive and abrasive applications. They can also
be used for very low flow rates and small pipe diameters.

5.6.8 Advantages
- No restrictions to flow.
- No pressure loss.
- No moving parts.
- Good resistance to erosion.
- Independent of viscosity, density, pressure and turbulence.
- Good accuracy.
- Bi-directional.
- Large range of flow rates and diameters.

5.6.9 Disadvantages
- Expensive.

101
 - Most require a full pipeline.
- Limited to conductive liquids.

5.6.10 Application Limitations

As mentioned earlier, a magnetic flowmeter consists of either a
lined metal tube, usually stainless steel because of its magnetic
properties, or an unlined non-metallic tube. The problem can arise
if the insulating liners and electrodes of the magnetic flowmeter
become coated with conductive residues deposited by the flowing
fluid.

Erroneous voltages can be sensed if the lining becomes

conductive.
Maintaining high flow rates reduces the chances of this happening.
However, some manufacturers do provide magmeters with built in
electrode cleaners.

Block valves are used on either side of ac-type magmeters to

produce zero flow and maintain a full pipe to periodically check the
zero calibration limit. Dc units do not have this requirement.

4.3.5 Ultrasonic, Transit-Time and Doppler

There are two types of ultrasonic flow measurement:

- Transit time measurement
- Doppler effect

The fundamental difference is that the transit-time method should

be used for clean fluids, while the Doppler reflection type used for
dirty, slurry type flows.

5.8.1 Transit time

The transit-time flowmeter device sends pulses of ultrasonic

energy diagonally across the pipe. The transit-time is measured
from when the transmitter sends the pulse to when the receiver
detects the pulse.

Each location contains a transmitter and receiver. The pulses are

sent alternatively upstream and downstream and the velocity of the
flow is calculated from the time difference between the two
directions.

102
 Figure 4.18
Transit time measurement

5.8.2 Installation Techniques

Designs are available that allow installation and removal of the
transducers without interrupting the process flow. However there
are three main options available:
- Fitted section of pipe
- Clamp on
- Transducers installed in-situ

The first option is where the manufacturer supplies a section of

pipe fitted with the transducers factory mounted. These units have
the advantage of being calibrated by the manufacturer to meet
specifications. Allowances need to be made when fitting this
section of pipe - something that can complicate existing
installations.

Clamp-on transducers have the added advantage of being easy to

install. They are mounted outside of the existing pipe. Since no
section of pipe need to be installed then this type of flowmeter is
easily retrofitted onto an existing system. They can be installed on
metal, plastic and ceramic pipes.

Because they are portable and non-intrusive, clamp-on devices

provide a good means of determining flow rates of unknown flows
in existing installations.

A cheaper option is to install the transducers into the pipe work.

This does require tapping into the pipe and care needs to be taken
to ensure the correct angles and tolerances are adhered to. This
method generally requires calibration by the user once installed.

103
 FIGURE 4.19
Minimum straight run requirements for a 1% accuracy of a single-path transit
time flowmeter

5.8.3 Application Limitations

Clamp-on designs are limited because of the differing mediums in
which the ultrasonics signals pass through. For optimum results, a
sound-conductive path is required between the transducer and the
process fluid inside the pipe. Couplings are available for reducing
these effects but are quite expensive.

104
5.8.4 Typical Applications
Transit-time ultrasonic flow measurement is suited for clean fluids.
Some of the more common process fluids consist of water,
liquefied gases and natural gas.

5.8.5 Doppler Effect

The Doppler effect device relies on objects with varying density in
the flow stream to return the ultrasonic energy. With the Doppler
effect meter, a beam of ultrasonic energy is transmitted diagonally
through the pipe. Portions of this ultrasonic energy are reflected
back from particles in the stream of varying density. Since the
objects are moving, the reflected ultrasonic energy has a different
frequency. The amount of difference between the original and
returned signals is proportional to the flow velocity.

Figure 4.20
Doppler effect

It is quite common for only one sensor to be used. This contains

both the transmitter and receiver. These can also be mounted
outside of the pipe.

5.8.6 Application Limitations

As the Doppler flowmeter relies on reflections from the flow
stream, it therefore requires sufficiently sized solids or bubbles. It
is also required that the flow be fast enough to maintain a suitable
quantity of solids and bubbles in suspension.

Higher frequency Doppler flowmeters are available, but are limited

to cleaner fluids.

5.8.7 Summary - General

Most ultrasonic flowmeters are mounted on the outside of the pipe
and thus operate without coming in contact with the fluid. Apart
from not obstructing the flow, they are not affected by corrosion,

105
erosion or viscosity. Most ultrasonic flowmeters are bi-directional,
and sense flow in either direction.

5.8.8 Advantages
- Suitable for large diameter pipes.
- No obstructions, no pressure loss.
- No moving parts, long operating life.
- Fast response.
- Installed on existing installations.
- Not affected by fluid properties.

5.8.9 Disadvantages
- Accuracy is dependent on flow profile.
- Fluid must be acoustically transparent.
- Errors cause by build up in pipe.
- Only possible in limited applications.
- Expensive.
- Pipeline must be full.

5.8.10 Application Limitations

Turbulence or even the swirling of the process fluid can affect the
ultrasonic signals.

In typical applications the flow needs to be stable to achieve good

flow measurement, and typically allowing sufficient straight pipe up
and downstream of the transducers does this. The straight section
of pipe upstream would need to be 10 to 20 pipe diameters with a
downstream requirement of 5 pipe diameters.

For the transit time meter, the ultrasonic signal is required to

traverse across the flow, therefore the liquid must be relatively free
of solids and air bubbles. Anything of a different density (higher or
lower) than the process fluid will affect the ultrasonic signal.

5.8.11 Summary
Doppler flowmeters are not high accuracy or high performance
devices, but do offer an inexpensive form of flow monitoring. Their
intended operation is for dirty fluids and find applications in
sewage, sludge and waste water processes.

Being dependent on sound characteristics, ultrasonic devices are

dependent on the flow profile, and are also affected by
temperature and density changes.

106
4.4 Mass Flow Meters

Mass flow measurement gives a more accurate account of fluids,

and is not affected by density, pressure and temperature (unlike
volumetric measurements).

Although most meters can infer mass flow rate from volumetric
flow measurements, there are a number of ways to measure mass
flow directly:
- The Coriolis meter
- Thermal mass flowmeter

4.4.1 The Coriolis Meter

The Coriolis Effect

The basis of the Coriolis meter is Newtons’ Second Law of Motion,
where:
Force = Mass x Acceleration.

The conventional way to measure the mass of an object is to

weigh it. In weighing, the force is measured with a known
acceleration (9.81m/sec2). This type of measuring principle is not
easy or possible with fluids in motion, particularly in a pipe.

However, it is possible to manipulate the above formula and apply

a known force and measure, instead, the acceleration to determine
the mass.

Figure 4.21
Principle of Coriolis effect

107
The Coriolis effect causes a retarding force on a rotating section of
pipe when flow is moving outward, conversely producing an
advance on the section of pipe for flow moving towards the axis of
rotation.

Figure 4.22
Application of Coriolis force to a meter

When the full section of pipe is moved about its axis in an

oscillatory motion, the outgoing section of pipe is retarded (or
decelerated) and the return section is advanced (or accelerated),
producing a twist in the pipe.

Coriolis Meter
The force is applied to oscillate the flow pipes and the Coriolis
effect is the principle used to determine the acceleration due to the
torque (the amount of twisting).

Sensors are used to measure the amount of twist in the flow tubes
within the meter as a result of the flow tube vibration and deflection
due to the mass flow. The amount of twist measured is proportional
to the mass flow rate and is measured by magnetic
sensors mounted on the tubes.

Developments on the looped pipe Coriolis meter were made to

keep to the pipes straight. This is done by making the pipes
straight and parallel. The force is applied by oscillating the pipes at
the resonant frequency. This has the advantage of reducing
pressure loss in the pipeline.

108
 Figure 4.23
Coriolis meter construction

Straight Through Meter

A development to the looped typed Coriolis meter is the straight
through pipe version, which has the added advantage of lower
pressure loss.
The rotational movement in this type of meter is provided by
vibrating the pipes and the Coriolis force develops in the pipes.
The pipes are vibrated at their resonant frequency and sensors are
used to detect the movement of the pipe. For no flow the sensors
detect the same movement, however when liquid flows there is a
difference between the oscillations of the two pipes. This is caused
as the flow is accelerated on the inlet and decelerated on the
outlet. As before with twist, this difference in the phase of the
oscillations is proportional to mass flow.

Advantages
- Direct, in-line mass flow measurement.
- Independent of temperature, pressure, density, conductivity
and viscosity.
- Sensor capable of transmitting mass flow, density and
temperature information.
- High density capability.
- Conductivity independent.
- Suitable for hydrocarbon measurements.
- Suitable for density measurement.

Disadvantages
- Cost.
- Affected by vibration.
- Installation costs.
- Adjustment of zero point.
109
Application Limitations
- High temperature.
- Vibration.
- Amount of gas in fluid.
- Restricted to low flow rates.
- Limited to pipe sizes of up to 150mm.

Summary
Coriolis meters provide direct, in-line and accurate mass flow
measurements that are independent of temperature, pressure,
viscosity and density. Mass flow, density and temperature can be
accessed from the one sensor. They can also be used for almost
any application when calibrated.

For critical control, mass flow rate is the preferred method of

measurement and because of their accuracy Coriolis meters are
becoming very common for applications requiring very tight
control. Apart from custody transfer applications, they are used for
chemical processes and expensive fluid handling.

4.4.2 Thermal Mass Flowmeters

The two main types of thermal mass flow measuring devices are:
- Thermal Anemometer
- Temperature rise flowmeter

Thermal anemometer

The thermal anemometer works by measuring the heat dissipation

from a probe inserted in the line. The amount of heat taken from
the probe is dependent on the fluid velocity and density, but is also
a direct measure of the mass flow rate. The temperature is also
measured for the calculation. They are also referred to as ‘Hot wire
probes’.

The probe can either be constant current or constant temperature.

In the constant current type, a fixed current is passed through the
probe which causes heating in the probe. As the flow rate varies,
so does the amount of heat taken from the probe and hence the
temperature changes. The temperature is measured to derive the
flow.

110
 Figure 4.24
Thermal mass flowmeters

For the constant temperature type, a feedback loop is required to

maintain a constant temperature. As the change of flow affects the
temperature, the current needs to be regulated to maintain probe
temperature. The flow rate is determined by the power required to
heat the probe.

In comparing the constant current and constant temperature types

it is shown that constant temperature devices have a faster
response to flow changes.

These devices are primarily used for gases and are dependent on
flow profile. They are therefore limited if the flow profile changes as
they only measure at one point in the flow stream. Their limitations
are similar to pitot tubes, which are also an insertion device into a
flow stream.

To achieve laminar flow, 10 diameters of straight pipe are required

upstream of the sensor. Later developments of these sensors
incorporate a conditioning nozzle which concentrates the flow onto
the sensor.

The temperature probe must protrude into the flow stream, and
therefore may be easily damaged by corrosion and erosion. In
addition the robustness of the system is compromised by the
protrusions into the fluid stream, increasing the chances of
leakage.
111
Advantages
- Fast response times, < 0.5milliseconds.

Disadvantages
- Require 10 diameters of straight pipe upstream.
- Have similar limitations to pitot tubes.

Temperature rise flowmeter - insertion type

Temperature rise flowmeters work on the principle of heating the

flow stream. By heating the flow stream at one point, the
temperature can be measured both upstream and downstream of
the heating point. Calculating the difference between the
temperatures gives information about the flow rate.

Figure 4.25
Principle of ‘Temperature Rise’ method

This method requires the measurement of actually heating the

process fluid. It is therefore limited to gas applications at low flow
rates.

As with the hot wire probe, the temperature sensors and the heater
must protrude into the flow stream, and therefore may be easily
damaged by corrosion and erosion. Also the robustness of the
system is compromised by the protrusions into the fluid stream,
increasing the chances of leakage.

Disadvantages
- Suitable for low gas flows only.
- Subject to erosion and corrosion.
- More tapping points, increased chances of leakage.

Temperature rise flowmeter - external type

112
Developments of the insertion type of sensing have moved the
heating and sensing elements to outside the pipe to overcome the
problems with tapping points. By limiting the tapping points, the
chance of leakage (and associated maintenance) is greatly
reduced, if not eliminated.

Figure 4.26
Thermal flowmeter with external elements and heater

This type of sensing mainly applies to small pipe diameters.

For larger pipe diameters, a sample of the flow can be taken and
sensing applied in this way.

Advantages
- Non contact, non intrusive sensing
- No obstruction to flow
- Reduced maintenance

Disadvantages
- Suitable for low gas flows only
- Subject to erosion and corrosion

Summary
Thermal mass flowmeters are mainly used to measure the flow of
clean gases with known heat capacities. They are commonly used
in the refining and chemical industries.

4.5 Flow Switches

Description

113
The uses a thermal differential technique to sense changes in
the heat transfer characteristics of a media. Figure 1 shows the
outline of the flow switch.

FIGURE 4.27 FLOW SWITCH OUTLINE DIAGRAM STANDARD

The sensor consists of a pair of matched, Resistance Temperature

Detectors (RTD's) encased in twin 316L series stainless steel
tubes. One RTD is self-heated using a constant DC current. The
other RTD is unheated to provide an accurate process temperature
reference. The thermal differential created between the heated
and reference RTD pair is a function of the density and/or velocity
of the media with which the sensor is in contact. Other physical
properties may have a secondary effect as well.

The differential is greatest at a no flow (or dry condition) and

decreases as the rate of flow increases (or wet condition).

The sensor excitation method relies on constant current to the

heated and reference sensors. Thus power to the heated sensor is
not constant but changes linearly with temperature as the sensor
resistance changes. Temperature compensation is accomplished
by using the amplified reference sensor voltage which also
changes linearly with temperature, as a dynamic reference. During
calibration dry/no flow and wet/full flow conditions are impressed
across the trip point potentiometer. Since this reference is not
fixed but is set with respect to the reference sensor voltage, as
temperature changes the trip point potentiometer voltage changes
with temperature exactly the same as that of the heated sensor
voltage with which it is being compared. Thus full temperature
compensation is achieved with non constant power.

Flow Switching

When the sensor is inserted into a liquid or gas the heated RTD is
strongly affected by the velocity of the medium. Flow past the
114
heated RTD changes the heat transferred from the surface of the
sensor. This cooling effect reduces the temperature of the sensor.

The flow switch compares this change to a preset flow trip point to
switch the output. Figure 2 shows the flow switch signal change vs.
flow rate for air, light hydrocarbon liquids, and water.

The signal change vs velocity has the same general shape for all
three media but the change is larger for air and the sensitive range
is different for each.

For air and most gaseous media the range is 0.1 to 500 feet per
second (FPS).

For most liquid media the flow switch range is 0.01 to 5 FPS.

Figure 4.28 Flow switch

115
 MAXIMUM
VELOCITY (FT/SEC) RANGE

FIGURE 4.29 FLOW SWITCH FLOW RESPONSE FOR THREE MEDIA

4.6 Flow Transmitters

The 2-wire transmitter that receives power and transmits its

measurement over this pair of wires. It is capable of
communicating digitally with a hand-held interface using the same
wires.
The flow transmitter is designed for compatibility with the hand
held Interface. This communicator allows interrogation,
configuration, and testing of the transmitter. It communicates with
the transmitter whether it is connected directly remotely in the
control cabinet or intermediate junction box. Communication is
digital using the same lead wires that carry the 4-20 mA differential
pressure signal

116
 Figure 4.30 Differential Pressure Transmitter

Operation

When the instrument is piped with impulse lines running from

upstream and downstream sides of the orifice plate, process
pressures from the respective lines are transmitted through an
isolating diaphragm and silicone oil fill fluid to a sensing diaphragm
in the center of the capsule.
Capacitance plates on both sides of the sensing diaphragm detect
the position of the diaphragm and convert the differential pressure
into a 4-20 mA signal.
The flow transmitter communicates with the Interface using
standard frequency shift keying, a widely accepted communication
technique. The Interface uses high frequency signals
superimposed on the 4-20 mA transmitter output to communicate
over the loop. Because the net energy added to the loop is small,
communication does not disturb the 4-20 mA signal at all.
The instrument can be re-ranged with or without the
communicator.
If the Interface unit is not available, range can be set with buttons
located under the metal certification label.
Range settings can take place on line provided an 8246-A-3M
(3-valve, zeroing manifold) or 8246-A-5M (5-valve, zeroing and
line blowdown manifold) are used to isolate the impulse lines from
the process.

117
 CHAPTER 5
Orientation of Instrumentation and Controls

5.1 Basic Measuring and Indicating Instruments

Readouts and Related Devices

Secondary systems are a part of any measurement installation for
handling primary element signals and the variables necessary to
correct flow from flowing to base conditions. These elements fall
into three main categories: mechanical, pneumatic, and electronic.
All have applications in flow measurement. The choice can depend
on a number of parameters, not the least of which may be
personal preference based on a given industry or company's
experience. The fastest growing segments are the electronic
systems designed to take advantage of the rapidly growing
availability and value of computers.

ELECTRONICS
Several stages of development have taken place in the move to
electronics.

The present generation of transducers and computers is well

received by users, more and more of whom are converting to
electronics each year. There are several reasons for this user
acceptance. Operating service (uptime) provided is equal to or
better than mechanical and pneumatic types. Many additional
capabilities are possible (e.g., smart transducers, etc.). Minimum
maintenance is required. Trained personnel are available to install
and maintain the units, and power requirements have been
reduced to the point that auxiliary power sources such as solar-
charged batteries may be used for remote locations.

Figure 5-1 Typical temperature transducer. Devices such as this, along with
computers and other equipment, are vital parts of a metering system.

118
Simple computers may calculate a flow rate and totalize flow for a
meter. Or computers can be operating centers for measurement,
control, and communications in complex multimeter systems.
Computers can develop the complete volume calculation and print
appropriate hard copy or feed a central control or computer center
with the complete accounting procedures.
They can provide real-time operation and control information for
metering systems.

Their primary limitation is cost justification versus alternative ways

to achieve desired measurement over a given service life.

For varying flow, however, the basic equation requires the

variables to be interpreted on a continuing basis with the readout
system's frequency faster than the flow system change. Such
changes can be quite rapid, and the frequency response
requirement demands use of an electronic system for accurate
flow measurement.

Figure 5-2 Typical orifice meter installation.

RELATED DEVICES
Most related devices have an accuracy in the general range of
±0.5 to ±1% of full scale. This makes it important to choose
transducers with the right ranges; measurements should be in the
upper two-thirds of device ranges. The higher the differential the
more accurate the meter reading, provided flow does not exceed
the differential device's range. Many users, not recognizing the
effects auxiliary instrumentation can have on the accuracy
obtained by a given meter, compromise flow accuracy accordingly.
Overall accuracy obtained includes the inaccuracies of each of the
auxiliary devices and how they are used, as well as the primary
meter accuracy. Sometimes the auxiliary devices may control the
119
accuracy of the results more than the basic meter. For example,
with gases (particularly near their critical points), a change of one
pound can represent several percent in flow. This says two things:
1) it would be better to measure at some other location where
conditions are farther away from critical points; or 2) the accuracy
required for pressure measurement must be increased several fold
to maintain the same limits for the corrected flow measurement.

Pressure measurement for liquid flow is straightforward. Liquids

generally are less sensitive to their pressure measurement.
However, in areas near the liquid critical point, density changes
significantly, and pressure does affect flow measurement accuracy.
Location of the pressure tap for a meter is based on the meter
calibration in the same manner as one of the differential pressure
taps for an orifice flow meter with gas flow. The tap into the line
should be at a point specified so that flow past the properly made
tap creates no undue turbulence, which can affect the reading. The
ideal point to measure pressure (at the point of velocity or volume
determination) is usually not possible or at least not practical with
most meters. When such mechanical problems make it impossible
to install a pressure-measurement tap at the proper point, then
corrections may be required to account for the difference between
the correct point and the actual point. Sometimes the difference is
simply ignored if the difference does not affect density or flow
calculations seriously. The orifice equation for gas has an
expansion factor in it to make the required correction. The
difference can also be accounted for as part of basic meter-system
calibration.

Pressure transducers must be calibrated on a routine basis to

maintain accurate measurement. The standard most commonly
120
used is a dead-weight tester or precision gauge for higher
pressures, a manometer for lower pressures.

Temperature transducers present problems similar to pressure

transducers. Since actual volume flow normally is not at base
conditions, a measurement of the flowing temperature is required
to correct for the difference. Accurate measurement of temperature
is more difficult than it appears since the transducers normally
require insertion into the flowing stream and thus disturb smooth
flow, which consequently disturbs a meter's operation if it is
improperly installed.

Therefore, temperature is normally measured at some point

downstream of the meter after making sure that temperature will
be essentially the same as the temperature in the meter.

The effect of ambient conditions on the readout equipment is also

important. Radiation from the sun and conduction from pipeline
heat can affect temperature readings by changing the temperature
of thermowells and/or affecting transducer mechanics. For utmost
accuracy, the instrument environment should be controlled with
heating and cooling, shading, or insulation, depending on the
required flow accuracy and the effect that temperature has on the
121
fluid properties and flow measurement. Fluids near critical points
are prime candidates for this treatment, whereas other less critical
fluids generally require no unusual treatment. Smart transducers
have helped minimize some of these ambient effects at less overall
cost than some of the other treatments possible.

Differential pressure is the most important variable for differential

head meters, since most errors in flow measurement with
differential meters come from this measurement. These errors are
so critical because differential pressure is the major variable in
calculating flow. The maximum differential used with these meters
is in the range of several hundred inches of water (i.e., less than a
10 psi drop).

Quite often, static pressures may run hundreds of pounds, so the

measuring device has a static pressure load on
it of about 1,000 psia, yet it is trying to measure a difference in
pressure of 1% or less of its static range. This requires the
differential device to be rugged enough to withstand the high
pressure requirement, yet sensitive enough to measure a very
small pressure difference.

To minimize the differential problems (consistent with the required

flow range), operate with the differential at higher values provided
the strength limit of the pressure-drop creator is not exceeded.
Because of the cost of lost pressure, differential pressure devices
commonly used are in the 100 to 200 maximum of inches-of-water
range.

The devices used include manometers (used at low static

pressures), diaphragm bellows, and mercury-filled meters. These

122
devices must be calibrated against manometers or dead weights.
They are usually tested and calibrated at atmospheric pressure
and then rezeroed at line pressures. Some test devices that
operate at line pressures are available, but their use is often
restricted to laboratory work rather than field calibration.

Maintenance of differential devices consists of periodic calibration

and, if necessary, replacement of driving mechanisms. In dirty
service, periodic cleaning may be necessary, or the use of seal
pots or isolating diaphragms may be required to prevent
contamination.
Where wide ranges of flows are expected, multiple transducers
can be used on a single meter to expand its range. For example, a
more accurate low differential device, such as a 20-inches-of-water
unit, can be mani-folded into the same meter as a 200-inch unit.
This combination expands the range of flow from 3 to 1 (on a 100-
inch unit) to approximately 10 to 1 at similar accuracies. If ranges
beyond this are required, then a second or third meter with proper
valving can be used with meters switched in and out as the flow
varies. Combinations of this sort allow an almost infinite flow range
to be handled.
As previously stated, for the most precise flow measurement, the
use of the smart differential devices is an investment of value to
minimize calibrations and the effects of ambient conditions on the
device.

Relative Density or Specific Gravity

Reducing fluid measurements from flowing conditions to base
conditions requires identification of fluid composition. The most
useful parameter for this is specific gravity or relative density of the
fluid. Correlations in the petroleum industry are based on these
measurements, and data for other mixtures are expressed in these
terms. For pure products, the need for specific gravity reduces
itself to the relationship of specific gravity at flowing conditions to
base conditions, which corrects for the effects of pressure and
temperature on the pure product. Quite often a formula is available
expressing the effects of pressure and/or temperature, and specific
gravity correction can be made with suitable measurements.

The several definitions of specific gravity used in the flow

measurement business are important to understand.

For natural gas, the definitions in AGA-3 are the weight per unit
volume of gas compared to the weight per unit volume of air at the
same conditions of pressure and temperature. This definition of

123
.real specific gravity. ignores the corrections for compressibility
when these weighings are made at atmospheric pressures, since
such corrections are relatively small. However, this yields a
specific gravity different by a small amount from the ratio of
molecular weights (which is equal to the ideal specific gravity).

In non-natural-gas measurements, these definitions are not made.

And the normal definition used outside of the natural gas industry
for specific gravity is the ideal AGA-3 definition (i.e., the ratio of
molecular weights).

In liquid measurement with the English system of units in the

United States, the definition of relative density (specific gravity) is
different in that the weight per unit volume of the liquid is compared
to the weight per unit volume of water at 60°F. Water at 60°F has a
defined weight set by the International Steam Tables, so that a
liquid specific gravity is directly convertible to density by multiplying
the weight of water at 60°F times the specific gravity of the fluid.

δf= (SG)(Ww,)

where: δf = flowing density (or specific weight);

SG = specific gravity;
Ww = weight of water at 60°F.

This calculation is not possible with natural gas since there is no

specification for the base air conditions, and hence no specific
weight may be assigned.

Figure 5-3 Recording gas gravitometer using the indirect weighing method.

When specific gravity alone does not sufficiently represent

composition for flow calculations, then an analysis is required. This

124
can happen when variable components make up a sample with the
same specific gravity.

Natural gases and mixed petroleum liquids exemplify the problem.

Sometimes there is a need to know the constituent makeup for
pricing information if each component has a separate value.
Corrections may be made for non-hydrocarbon constituents in the
streams.

Sampling is a science unto itself, and great care must be taken to

get a representative portion of the flowing stream for testing.
Samples should be taken from sample probes installed in the lines
extending away from the pipe walls into an area where good
turbulence exists. A homogenous mix should be present at this
sample point. Getting a sample into a container, transporting it,
and transferring it to the chromatograph offers many chances for
introducing errors by distorting the sample characteristics. For this
reason, in-line chromatographs with short sample lines running
directly to the unit are typically used where practical.

Fluids difficult to sample include: light hydrocarbon liquids, gases

at atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature, saturated
gases, water and/or hydrocarbons, gases containing hydrogen
sulfide, condensing gases or vaporizing liquids, crude oils
containing water, and emulsions. In these cases, special
procedures and equipment are required for sampling. But even
with these considerations recognized, getting good samples
requires perseverance and often some luck. In the most sensitive
cases, direct sampling into the analysis equipment is required. It is
no field for an amateur to enter. For example, analysis values
involved in the petroleum industry effect the ex-change of money
and purchasers don't care to pay for crude oil when water has
been measured as crude oil because of improper sampling.

125
 Figure 5-4 Typical gas sampling system.

Likewise, natural gas improperly sampled may result in an

inaccurate energy calculation, so the money is paid for a product
not actually being delivered.

NATURAL GAS SAMPLING

Many different methods have been approved and used in the gas
industry to sample natural gas with varying success. Recognizing
this, the industry with the support of the Gas Processors
Association (GPA), the American Petroleum Institute (API), the
Gas Research Institute (GRI) and the Mineral Management
Services (MMS) has been sponsoring testing at the Southwest
Research Institute (SWRI) to completely evaluate the gas sample
question. The sampling results are used as direct multipliers for
volume and determination of heat value. The inclusive tests and
related work had not been completed at the time this book was
written. Resulting information should be carefully reviewed when
available in order to have the latest quality information and
procedures for gas sampling.
Some of the evaluations that have been studied and made
available are the three methods of sampling presently used and
covered in the standards:
Spot sampling;
Automatic composite sampling systems; and
Sampling into an online chromatograph.

These studies have been subdivided into these spot-sampling

areas: (1) equipment used; (2) physics of the gas to be sampled;
(3) requirement of maintaining the sample temperature above dew

126
points; (4) effects of sample-system material that comes into
contact with the sample; (5) effects of the type of gas to be
sampled on the choice of the process; (6) cleaning required; and
(7) care of the sample after it is obtained.

When this work is completed the committee will write a much more
complete standard on the problems of getting a good sample so
that the flow measurement will be improved. This will cover flows
as simple to sample as methane-rich streams that have been
dehydrated and cleaned to such complex samples as multiphase
flows. The value of this work is the empirical data that will be taken
to prove the decisions made some of which may require totally
new and different approaches.
Some progress reports show that root causes of gas-sample
distortion were found to include poor sampling systems and
procedures, surface effects, thermal dynamic problems, purge
problems, and leaks.

From work and experience to date, it is clear that to obtain

undistorted gas samples or to minimize distortion, attention should
be paid to equipment cleanliness (particularly reused equipment),
temperature of the sample equipment surfaces, hydrocarbon and
water dew points, temperature at the sampled gas, the flowing
thermodynamic state of the gas, (temperature, pressure, and
composition) and the flow path of the gas (i.e., restrictions of the
flowing cross-sectional area).

The appropriate method for a particular flow condition should be

chosen based on all of the above. Some of the results indicate that
present sampling systems may over- or underestimate the total
heat value and density of the gas.

The basic problem being addressed is getting the answer correct.

Most exchange of natural gas is now based on total heat content,
not just volume as in years past. So the control of system
economics is based on total heat flows within the system,
not just a volume balance.

Analysis allows calculation of parameters important to flow

measurement, such as specific gravity, heating value,
compressibility factor, inert content, and density. Calculations are
based on mixture laws and are accurate at base conditions, but
conversion to flowing conditions is not easy and can, in certain
circumstances, introduce errors where the mixture laws break

127
down because of shrinkage (such as mixtures of light hydrocarbon
liquids or two-phase gas flows).

The most common analysis instrument is the chromatograph.

Based on standardized samples, chromatographs can be
calibrated to cover wide ranges of fluids. Easily maintained, their
calibration can be checked with a standard sample with a similar
component makeup. The units come in models that can be applied
continuously or intermittently when a sample is available. Most are
permanently installed, but portable units can be used as line
monitors at strategic locations until a problem arises elsewhere;
then the portable unit can he taken to the problem site for on-the-
spot analysis.

Figure 5-5 Schematic of principal elements of Thomas-type calorimeter.

CALORIMETRY
Where heating value is needed, a calorimeter can be installed to
continuously monitor a stream. Or samples can be taken at meter
locations and individual samples tested at a centrally located
calorimeter. After all inputs have entered a pipeline, a single unit is
often used to determine the heating value at all downstream
locations. The choice between chromatograph and densitometer
depends on product value (quantity and cost) and the contractual
requirement for corrections (i.e., most require correction for heat
value, while some only require that a minimum heat value be
maintained).

128
The Flow Meters for Liquids & Gases measure flow based on a
pressure differential created across a built-in calibrated nozzle.
The meter is self-contained and complete.

5.2 Process Instruments

The process instruments are the following:
a. “Flow.”
b. “Level.”
c. “Pressure.”
d. “Temperature.”

5.2.1 FLOW
Common devices for flow measurement fall into the following
categories:
a. Differential-head meters measure flow inferentially from the
differential pressure caused by flow through a primary element.
Flow is proportional to the square root of the differential pressure
produced. This differential is sensed by diaphragms, bellows, or
manometers.

b. Variable-area meters (rotameters) work on the principle that a

float within a vertical tapered tube will assume a position that is a
function of the flow rate through the tube from the bottom. The float
must have a density greater than that of the measured fluid. The
annular area through which the flow must pass is the difference
between the internal area of the taper tube at the point of balance
and the area of the float head, Since the internal area of the tube
129
increases constantly and is continuously variable from bottom to p,
where as the float head area remains constant, the term variable
area is used to describe this type of meter. At a constant
differential pressure, flow is directly proportional to area.

c. Magnetic meters are obstructionless meters that measure

the volumetric rate of flow of any liquid that has the required
electrical conductivity. Rate is determined using Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction.

d. Turbine meters measure volumetric fluid flow with a

pulse train output, the frequency of which is picked up magnetically
from a rotor located in the flow stream and is linearly
related to flow rate.

e. Positive-displacement meters measure flow by mechanically

trapping successive volumetric segments of the liquid passing
through the meter body.

f. Vortex meters use an obstruction in the flowing stream to

generate a vortex train of high- and low-pressure areas.

g. Special meters include devices such as mass (namely,

Coriolis and thermal), target, and sonic meters, which are often
Used for special applications. The manufacturers oft hese
devices should be consulted regarding specific applications.

ACCESSIBILITY
All locally mounted flow instruments should be readily accessible
from grade, platforms, fixed walkways, or fixed ladders. A rolling
platform may be used where free access is available to the space
below the instruments.

LOCAL INDICATION
Where local indication is desired and nonindicating transmitters
are used, output indicators should be provided. In applications
where flow can be manually controlled at a control-valve station,
flow indication should be clearly visible and readable from the
valve location to permit manual control when necessary. This flow
gauge should not be used to calibrate the transmitter.

VIBRATION
Most instruments are susceptible to damage, abnormal
wear, or malfunction if mounted in a location where they are
subject to vibration. If any part of the flow system or equipment

130
is subject to vibration, the affected instruments should
be provided with vibration-free supports.

PULSATION
Measurement of pulsating flow is difficult and should be avoided.
Head-type flowmeters and instruments with mechanical
movements, such as positive-displacement meters and turbines,
should not be used in pulsating-flow applications.
The measurement is not dependable, and the pulsing may
contribute to premature wear of the mechanical components.

PIPING
Process connections to the instruments should be furnished and
installed in accordance with applicable piping and material
specifications. All pipe should be deburred after cutting and blown
clean of cuttings and other foreign material before assembly. As an
alternative to pipe, tubing of suitable material may be used.

5.2.1.1 DIFFERENTIAL-PRESSURE METERS

Primary Elements
Differential pressure is the most commonly used method of flow
measurement. Primary elements used to generate the differential
pressure are generally one of the types described in 5.2.1.1
through 5.2.1.5.

5.2.1.1.1 Orifice Plate

The sharp- (square-) edged concentric orifice plate is the most
frequently used element because of its low cost and adaptability
and the availability of established coefficients.

5.2.1.1.2 Flow Nozzles

Flow nozzles are used less frequently than are orifice plates. Their
principal advantages are good repeatability, low permanent head
loss and approximately 65 percent greater flow capacity for a given
diameter than can be obtained under the same conditions with an
orifice plate, and use of one type of transmitter regardless of pipe
size. A straight run of upstream and downstream piping is required
for a flow nozzle .

5.2.1.1.3 Elbow Meters

Elbow meters are used in installations where velocity is sufficient
and high accuracy is not required. Advantages of elbow meters
include good repeatability, high level of economy, ease of

131
installation, ability to be bidirectional, very low pressure loss,
minimum requirement for upstream piping, and use of one type of
transmitter regardless of pipe size.

5.2.1.1.4 Venturi and Flow Tubes

Venturi and flow tubes are used where high capacity and minimum
head loss are critical factors.

5.2.1.1.5 Pitot Tubes and Pitot Venturis

Pitot tubes and pitot venturis are used where minimum pressure
drop is required and accuracy is not of prime concern.

5.2.1.2 Differential Measuring Devices

Several types of measuring devices are used to determine the
differential produced by the primary element. Flow is proportional
to the square root of the differential; therefore, to maintain
accuracy at low flow readings, a range greater than 3: 1 is not
recommended. Multiple transmitters or microprocessor-based
transmitters may be used to increase range. To calibrate the flow
measuring or differential device, a manometer or precision test
gauge should be used to read the differential input. The calibration
devices should be graduated in the same units as the meter range
(for example, inches of water). Pneumatic outputs may be read on
the same type of device. Electronic devices require a precision
voltmeter or ammeter. The most commonly used differential-
pressure measurement devices are described in 5.2.1.2.1 and
5.2.1.2.2.

5.2.1.2.1 Diaphragm Transmitters

Differential-pressure transmitters of the diaphragm type are
extensively used in refinery units. To provide over-range protection
and dampening, the body or capsule of the transmitter is filled with
liquid. The transmission signal may be either pneumatic or
electronic. Line mounting is preferred if the location is accessible
and has minimum vibration. Gas meters are mounted above the
line to allow any condensate to drain back. Liquid meters are
mounted below the line to prevent gas or vapor from being trapped
in the sensing lines, which could cause errors from unequal static
heads.

5.2.1.2.2 Bellows Meters

In a bellows meter, the bellows is opposed by a calibrated spring
system and is filled to prevent rupturing when the bellows is over
pressured and to provide pulsation damping.
Bellows meters can be line mounted or remotely mounted at grade

132
or on platforms with adequate support.

Installation
Installation of differential-pressure flow devices is generally
requires consideration of the factors described in 5.2.1.3.1 and
5.2.1.3.2.

5.2.1.3.1 Meter Location

Close-coupled mounting is preferred for transmitters. When close
coupling is not available, the meter should be mounted at a
convenient height of 4 or 5 feet (1.2 or 1.5 meters) above grade,
platforms, walkways, or other permanent means of access.

5.2.1.3.2 Impulse Lines

Impulse lines for remote devices should be as short as possible, 3
feet for close-coupled transmitters and preferably not more than 20
feet (6 meters). For liquid measurement the lines should slope
down at least 1 inch per foot from the orifice taps.
Meter piping should be designed and installed in accordance with
the piping specification for the service involved.
It is preferable to use Type 304 or better stainless steel tubing with
a minimum outside diameter of inch (15 millimeters) for meter
impulse leads. In special cases or where user preference dictates,
%-inch (15-millimeters) schedule 80 or heavier pipe may be used.

5.2.1.4 VARIABLE-AREA METERS

Variable-area meters are available as indicators, transmitters,
recorders, local controllers, totalizers, and many combinations of
these, with or without alarms. They are often used as purge meters
for the sensing elements of other instrumentation and process
equipment.

5.2.1.4.1 Installation
A variable-area meter should be installed at a location that
is free from vibration and has sufficient clearance for occasional
float removal for service or inspection. The meter
should be readable and readily accessible for operation and
maintenance. In general, when a meter is to be used in regulating
service, it should be placed as close as possible upstream of the
throttling point. Variable-area meters must always be mounted
vertically, with the outlet connection at the top of the meter and the
inlet connection at the bottom.

Piping connections for variable-area meters are shown in Figure 6.

All piping should be properly supported, and care must be taken to

133
avoid any strain on the meter body.

Figure 5.6 Piping connections for variable-area meters

5.2.1.5 MAGNETIC FLOWMETERS

A magnetic flowmeter measures the volumetric rate of flow of any
liquid that has adequate electrical conductivity.
Most petroleum hydrocarbons have insufficient conductivity to be
measured with a magnetic flowmeter; therefore, use in petroleum
industry applications is limited to certain water, acids, emulsions,

134
and other conductive liquids. A magnetic flowmeter consists of two
parts-a primary element, installed directly in the process line, and a
secondary element, the electronic transmitter. The meter
generates a signal proportional to the rate of flow.

The process fluid must generally have a conductivity greater than

2 micromhos per centimeter. (Special-conductivity units are
available for fluids with a conductivity as low as 0. 1 micromhos
per centimeter.)

5.2.1.5.1 Installation
Considerable care must be exercised when the magnetic
flowmeter's primary element is installed in the pipeline. Special
care must be taken to prevent damage to the liner and to ensure
that grounding requirements are met. The manufacturer's
installation recommendations should be followed, including
consideration of upstream and downstream piping requirements.
The transmitter is built on a rugged piece of pipe, but it should be
handled as a precision instrument.
The transmitter should be accessible from grade or from a platform
with enough space around it to permit removal of at least the top
housing if necessary. Sufficient access should be available for
removal of any inspection plates.
The magnetic flow transmitter tube may be installed in any position
(vertical, horizontal, or at an angle), but it must run full of liquid to
ensure accurate measurement. If the tube is mounted vertically,
flow should be from bottom to top to ensure that the pipe is full. If
the tube is mounted horizontally, the electrode's axis should not be
in a vertical plane. A small chain of bubbles moving along the top
of the flow line can prevent the top electrode from contacting the
liquid. Vertical mounting with a straight run on the inlet side and
upward flow is recommended if an abrasive slurry is being
measured. This arrangement distributes wear more evenly.

5.2.1.6 TURBINE METERS

Turbine meters are used where their accuracy and rangeability
are required. Their major application is for custody transfer and in-
line product blending. The pulse outputs of turbine meters may be
scaled for direct totalization in engineering units. Outputs from
turbine meters are suitable for control or recording applications
and are ideally suited for batch control applications. Compensation
for nonlinearities due to viscosity is also available.

5.2.1.6.1 Installation
Turbine meters are installed directly in the process line. The line

135
should be relatively free from vibration. Meters with integrally
mounted, direct-reading registers should be positioned so that they
can be easily read and maintained.
Turbine meters are normally installed in horizontal lines but may be
installed in vertical up flow lines. It is necessary to specify the
position in which the meter is to be calibrated. Calibration for the
installed position is required.

5.2.1.6.2 Piping
The accuracy and repeatability of measurements from turbine
meters depend on the upstream and downstream piping. In
addition to sufficiently long straight runs upstream and
downstream, straightening vanes are required for high accuracy.

It may be necessary to isolate or disassemble the meter for

maintenance purposes by using block valves.

5.2.1.6.3 Strainers
All turbine meter installations should have strainers to prevent
damage to the meter rotor. The strainer must be capable of
removing particles of a size that might damage the rotor and
bearings. The strainer should be located upstream of the required
meter run.

5.2.1.7 POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT METERS

Positive-displacement meters measure flow by mechanically
trapping successive volumetric segments of the liquid passing
through the meter. The number of segments is converted to shaft
rotation. A gear train and calibrator convert shaft rotation to the
appropriate volumetric units.

5.2.1.7.1 Installation
Positive-displacement meters are installed directly in the process
piping and can be a source of vibration. Adequate foundations
should be provided (refer to the manufacturer’s recommendations).
Positive-displacement meters are normally installed in horizontal
lines. Certain types are specifically designed for vertical lines.
Meters should be installed so that the meter case or body is not
subject to piping strain. The piping should be arranged so that the
meter is always full of liquid.
Adequate back pressure may be required to eliminate the
possibility of vapor release.
For continuous process services, a bypass around a positive-
displacement meter is recommended. For custody transfer,
bypasses are not permitted. Positive-displacement meters should

136
always be installed with an adequate strainer to prevent foreign
matter from damaging the meter or causing excessive wear; the
manufacturer’s recommendation on mesh size should be
observed. Where excessive amounts of debris are entrained in the
fluid, strainer pressure drop should be monitored.
The installation of a positive-displacement meter should be
designed to avoid air or vapor in the piping. Where the design
does not allow for this, air eliminators should be considered.
Air eliminators can leak or have inadequate capacity to protect the
meter from slugs of air or vapor; such eliminators should be
removed and replaced.

5.2.1.8 VORTEX METERS

A vortex train is generated when a bluff-body obstruction is placed
in a liquid or gas stream. This train of high- and low-pressure areas
can be measured by sensors on the body or the pipe wall. The
frequency of pressure changes is linear to the velocity of the fluid
stream. Since flow in any pipeline is a function of cross-sectional
area and velocity, a direct relationship exists between frequency
and flow rate.

5.2.1.8.1 Installation
Vortex meters are installed directly in the process piping
and are normally supported by the piping. They may be installed in
any orientation. A vortex meter should be in stalled so that the
meter body is not subjected to piping strain. In liquid applications,
the piping should be arranged so that the meter is kept full.
Block and bypass valves should be provided when operating
conditions do not permit shutdown.

5.2.1.9 MASS FLOWMETERS

5.2.1.9.1 Mass Flowmeter-Coriolis
Coriolis mass flowmeters measure mass units directly. Fluid flow
through a tube vibrating at its natural frequency produces a
Coriolis force. The resulting tube deflections are measured and
signaled proportionally to generated mass flow.
A Coriolis meter can be used with liquids, dry gases and
superheated steam.

5.2.1.9.2 Mass Flowmeter-Thermal

Thermal mass flowmeters are generally of two types-those that
measure the rate of heat loss to a stream from a heated body, and
those that measure the temperature rise of a stream as it passes
over or through a hot body.

137
5.2.2 LEVEL
The general application of the commonly used level instruments
are devices for indicating, recording, and controlling the liquid
levels.
A wide variety of level instrumentation is currently available.
Selection and proper installation depends on a number of
variables, such as (a) the type of vessel, fluid, or material involved
(namely, solids, granules, liquids, or a liquid-liquid or liquid-foam
interface), (b) process conditions (namely, pressure, temperature,
specific gravity, boiling point, viscosity, and pour point), (c) what
the instrument is to accomplish (monitoring, on-off or modulating
control, or alarm), and (d) whether the signal is to be electronic or
pneumatic.

Six types of instruments are covered:

a. Locally mounted indicating gauges (see 3.3), including tubular
gauge glasses, armored gauge glasses, and magnetic gauges.
b. Level transmitters (see 3.4), including displacement, differential-
pressure, hydrostatic-head, nuclear, ultrasonic, and capacitance/
radio-frequency types.
c. Locally mounted controllers (se3e. 5), including displacement,
ball-float, and differential-pressure types.
d. Level switches (see 3.6).
e. Tank gauges (see 3.7).
f. Accessories (see 3.8), including seals, purges, and weather
protection.

INTRODUCTION
Certain general procedures, practices, and precautions apply
to practically all of the instruments discussed in this section.
Where applicable, the material discussed in 3.2.2 through 3.2.9
should be considered a part of each of the subsequent
discussions.

ACCESSIBILITY
All locally mounted liquid level instruments, including gauge
glasses, should be readily accessible from grade, platforms, fixed
walkways, or fixed ladders. For maintenance purposes, rolling
platforms are frequently used when free access is available in the
area below the instruments.

READABILITY
In all applications in which a liquid level is regulated bay control
valve, some indication of the level a gauge glass, receiver

138
pressure gauges, or another indicator-should be clearly readable
from operating location.

5.2.2.1 CONNECTIONS TO VESSELS

Level-instrument connections must be made directly to vessels
and not to process flow lines or nozzles (continuous or intermittent)
unless the fluid velocity in the line is less than 2 feet (0.6 meter)
per second.
Connections and interconnecting piping should be installed
so that no pockets or traps can occur. Where pockets
are unavoidable, drain valves should be provided at low
points. The minimum recommended size for drain valves is
% inch.

5.2.2.2 MULTIPLE-INSTRUMENT MOUNTING

When two or more instruments, including gauge glasses, are
required for any application (such as a gauge glass and controller
or a gauge glass and alarm switch), the instruments should be
mounted so that the number of openings in the vessel is kept to a
minimum. Suggested methods are covered in 3.3.3.3 and 3.4.2.3.
Block valves are generally used between a vessel nozzle
and a standpipe.

VIBRATION
Some level instruments are susceptible to damage or malfunction
if they are subjected to vibration. To minimize vibration effects,
such instruments should be mounted on a rigid support adjacent
but not connected to the source of vibration.
Such an arrangement requires flexible tubing or conduit
connections between the source of vibration and the instrument.
Additionally, shockproof mounts may be considered.
Instruments should be carefully selected, since some instruments
are less susceptible to vibration effects.

DRAINS AND VENTS

Drain valves K inch in size should be installed on the bottom
connection to level instruments. In hazardous services, drains and
toxic-vapor vents should be piped away from the instruments to a
safe disposal area. Vent valves are not generally necessary but
may be installed when desired. Plugged vent connections should
be provided on all installations where vent valves are not provided.

5.2.2.3 Locally Mounted Indicating Gauges

139
Locally mounted indicating devices include armored gauge
glasses, magnetic gauges, and differential-pressure level
indicators.

Figure 5.7-Gauge-Glass Assemblies

5.2.2.4 MAGNETIC GAUGES

Application
Magnetic gauges are used to gauge liquids (a) where glass failure
is likely to occur due to fluids being handled, and (b) where the
release of toxic gases, flammable liquids, and so forth is to be
avoided. Typical construction consists of a float inside a sealed
140
nonmagnetic chamber, and an indicator mounted outside the
chamber, actuated or coupled magnetically to indicate level.
Mounting to the vessel is usually accomplished by means of
flanged connections and valves, similar to the mounting of flanged
external displacement units.

5.2.2.5 Level Transmitters

Level transmitters include pneumatic and electrical output systems
that use a wide variety of measurement principles, including
displacement, differential pressure, nuclear radiation, ultrasound,
radar and capacitance/radio frequency.
Transmitters or transducers for electronic instruments should not
be located too close to hot lines, vessels, or other equipment.

5.2.2.5.1 Mounting of External-Cage Displacement

Transmitters on Vessels
For installations of external-cage displacement transmitters,
connections to vessels should be made by means of nozzles,
block valves, and pipe fittings selected for the service.
Transmitter and controller installations should be provided with
gauge glasses in parallel. A separate set of taps for independent
level indication is normally recommended.

141
 Figure 5.8 External-Cage Displacement Instrument

5.2.2.5.2 DIFFERENTIAL-PRESSURE TRANSMlTTERS

Differential-pressure transmitters respond more quickly than do
external-cage displacement transmitters and require less range for
stable control.

5.2.2.5.3 HYDROSTATIC HEAD TRANSMITTERS

Installation
Hydrostatic head may be transmitted either by means of a bubbler
tube and pressure transmitter or by means of a diaphragm or
bellows-actuated transmitter mounted directly on the vessel. The
latter type of transmitter should be mounted on a flanged nozzle at
a point where it will not be subject to blocking by sediment.

142
 Figure 5.9 Typical Stilling Well

5.2.2.6 ULTRASONIC LEVEL TRANSMlTTERS

Operation
Ultrasonic transmitters measure the time required for sound waves
to travel through space. A sound transmitter (transducer) converts
an electrical pulse to sound waves that reflect off the level surface
being measured. The reflected signal is detected by either the
same or another transducer.
Since the speed of sound through the medium above the level
surface can be determined, the measured time from signal
transmission to reception is proportional to the level.
The speed of sound varies with the temperature, composition, and
elevation of the vapor space.

Installation
Ultrasonic units should not be installed in areas with strong
electrical fields (motors, relays, electric generators, and so forth).

143
5.2.2.7 CAPACITANC LEVEL TRANSMlTTER
Operation
A capacitor consists of two conductive plates separated by an
insulator. Its capacitance is a function of the area of the plates, the
spacing between them, and the dielectric constant of the insulator.

Figure 5.10 Typical Installations of Differential-Pressure-Level Instruments

A capacitance level transmitter consists of a vertical sensing

element that is inserted into the vessel in which the level is to be
measured. The sensing element may be either plain (bare metal)
or sheathed with an insulating material and serves as one of the
plates of the capacitor.

If the vessel is an electrical conductor and the material (liquid or

granular) being measured is an insulator, a plain sensing element
is normally used. In this case, the vessel serves as the other plate.
Since the dielectric constant of the material being measured is
144
different from that of the air, vapor or gas being displaced, the
electrical capacitance between the sensing element and tank
varies with level.

If the material being measured is an electrical conductor, an

insulated sensing element is used. In this case, the element serves
as one plate, the sheath serves as the insulator, and the material
being measured replaces the tank as the other plate. The size of
the capacitor plate, and therefore its capacity, varies with level.

More sophisticated circuits, which measure both capacitance and

resistance current, can correct for sensor buildup and composition
changes. When a liquid-liquid interface is measured and one
phase is aqueous, the water phase is measured, since the change
in capacitance of the insulating phase is relatively insignificant.

Installation
The sensing element must be vertical and must not be in contact
with the vessel wall or internals. Applications in which both the
container walls and the medium are nonconductive may require a
counter electrode (ground reference) made from a conductive
material. The need for and type of ground reference should be
reviewed with the manufacturer.

The user should review the design of the sensing element's seal
for fire safety and should review the design of electrical and
electronic circuitry to ensure that it meets explosion proof or
intrinsic safety requirements or both.

145
 Figure 5.11 Vessel's liquid level

5.2.2.8 Level Switches

GENERAL
The basic considerations for instruments used to initiate high- or
low-level alarm signals.

INSTALLATION OF FLOAT SWITCHES

A typical installation of high- and low-level alarm switches with a
parallel gauge glass is shown in Figure 5.12.

Level switches used as protective devices should have separate

connections to the vessel, independent of other instruments.

146
 Figure 5.12 Arrangement of High- and Low-Level Alarm Switches With
Parallel Gauge Glass

5.2.2.9 OVERFILL PROTECTION

The automatic tank gauging system for tanks give the high high
level signal to protect the tank against overfill.

147
5.2.3 PRESSURE
The instruments covered are pressure gauges and switches,
pressure transmitters, and locally mounted controllers and
recorders.

APPLICATION PRACTICE
Hydrocarbons or other process fluids that may be hazardous
or otherwise undesirable in the control room in the event of
leakage should not be piped to any instruments located in a central
control room. It is industry practice to transmit the pressure of such
fluids either electrically or pneumatically to receiving instruments.

ACCESSIBILITY
All locally mounted pressure instruments should be readily
accessible from grade, platforms, fixed walkways, or fixed ladders.

Figure 5.13 Piping for Pressure Instruments That

Share a Common Process Connection

LOCAL INDICATION
148
Where local indication is desired and nonindicating (electronic
and pneumatic) transmitters, switches, and locally mounted
pressure controls are used, these instruments should be
supplemented with directly connected process pressure gauges
(see Figure 19), output indicators, or both.

VIBRATION
If any part of the pressure system or equipment is subject to
vibration, the instrument should be mounted on a vibration-free
remote support.
Coiled tubing, armored hose, or a capillary system should be
provided between the pressure source and the instrument.

PULSATION
Instruments that measure the pulsating pressures of reciprocating
pumps and compressors should be equipped with pulsation
dampeners to prevent premature failure of the movements or the
pressure elements.
Figure 20 indicating pressure gauges with liquid-filled cases should
also be considered for pulsating-service applications .

Figure 5.14 Piping for Pressure Gauges in Pulsating, Corrosive,

Slurry, or Freezing Fluid Service

5.2.3.1 Pressure Gauges and Switches

CONNECTIONS
Indicating Bourdon-tube pressure gauges and switches for
flush mounting on local field-instrument panels should be
back connected. Surface- and field-mounted gauges and
switches should be bottom connected. For mechanical
strength, the recommended connection size is 1/2 inch.

149
5.2.3.2 Pressure Transmitters
CONNECTIONS
The process connection for pressure transmitter is generally
3/4 inch in size, with the first block valve conforming to applicable
process piping specifications. The most common size for
instrument connections is 1/2 inch.

INSTALLATION CONSIDERATIONS
The installation of a pressure transmitter requires careful weighing
of a variety of factors. It is important to know the physical
characteristics and operating conditions of the process fluid.
Following are some guidelines (see Figure 24):
a. Impulse piping should be as short as possible.
b. Larger, heavier transmitters should be supported by means
other than the process connection.
c. Placement of taps on the bottom of the line should be avoided
because of the possible presence of sediment or scale.
d. Transmitters in liquid or condensable-vapor service such as
steam should be self-venting (that is, mounted below the process
connection, with all lines sloping toward the instrument) to prevent
gas from being trapped in the instrument.
e. Transmitters in gas service should be self-draining (that is,
mounted above the process connection, with all lines sloping
toward the process connection) to prevent liquid from being
trapped in the instrument.
f. The installation must protect the transmitter from both ambient
and process temperatures. If the process temperature is outside
the transmitter's limits, the following measures can be used to
ensure that the temperature at the transmitter is within the
manufacturer's specifications:
l. Providing a sufficient length of uninsulated piping to lower or
raise the temperature of the process fluid at the transmitter.
2. Purging the transmitter. When purging, piping of sufficient
diameter to minimize friction effects should be used.
3. Using a diaphragm seal and capillary to transmit pressure
to the transmitter.

5.2.3.3 DIFFERENTIAL-PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS

Differential pressure is measured with a differential-pressure
transmitter. If purging is necessary for low-differential services,
special care should be taken to ensure that the purge rate does
not cause erroneous readings. A differential-pressure transmitter
can be used to measure low gauge pressure by leaving the
transmitter's low-pressure connection open to the atmosphere.

150
Figure 5.15 Typical Installation of Pressure Transmitters for Gas, Liquid, and
Steam Service

5.2.4 TEMPERATURE
The installation of devices which measure and display temperature
in refinery process services and to do the following:
a. Display the temperature at the point of measurement.
b. Use the temperature for local control of the process
variable.
c. Transmit the temperature to a remote location for
indication, recording, alarm, and/or control at that point.

5.2.4.1 Thermowells
Direct exposure of temperature-sensing devices to process fluids
is usually impractical. Thermowells (see Figures 5.16) are
employed in temperature measurement to protect thermal
elements.

INSERTION LENGTH
The insertion length, U (see Figure 5.16), is the distance from the
free end of the temperature-sensing element or well, up to but not
including the external threads or other means of attachment to a
vessel or pipe.

151
IMMERSION LENGTH
The immersion length is the distance from the free end of the
temperature-sensing element or well to the point of immersion in
the medium whose temperature is being measured.

The immersion length required to obtain optimum accuracy and

response time is a function of factors such as the type of sensing
element, available space, the design of the mechanical
connection, and well strength requirements.
It is recommended to follow the manufacture recommendations.

MATERIALS
The materials selected for thermowells must be suitable for the
temperature and corrosion environment encountered.
For general services in which carbon steel piping is normally used,
the minimum quality material usually specified is Type 304 or Type
3 16 stainless steel.

CONSTRUCTION
Typical thermowell construction and installation details are shown
in Figures 5.16A, B & C. Thermowells may be screw mounted, as
shown in Figure 5.16.

152
 Figure 5.16 thermowell installation

5.2.4.2 Thermocouple Temperature Instruments

The thermocouple materials most commonly used in the refining
industry are listed in Table 1.

153
 Table 1

Installation
Thermocouples are generally installed in thermowells to minimize
temperature lag (response time), the thermocouple must be in
contact with the bottom of the well.

Thermocouple Transmitters
Thermocouple transmitters can be mounted in the thermocouple
head or in the control room. Two types of field mounted
transmitters are available. One is mounted directly on the
thermowell, and one is mounted remotely from the thermowell.

5.2.4.3 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DEVICES

Resistance temperature devices (RTD's) operate on the principle
of change in electrical resistance on the wire as a function of
temperature. Two types of wire are generally used in resistance
elements: Nickel is used for temperatures up to 600°F (315"C),
and platinum is used for temperatures up to 1500°F (800°C). A
third type, copper, is used in large motor windings for temperatures
up to 300°F (150°C).

5.2.4.4 Dial Thermometers for Local Temperature

Measurement
Dial thermometers are the most common thermometers in
industrial use. They are frequently of the bimetallic type with
circular dials and are available in a wide range of temperature
scales and styles. Dial thermometers that use filled systems are
also available. The most common type has an angle orientation
are should be taken to ensure readability of the dial from a
convenient location while protecting it from damage by falling
objects and the like.

5.2.4.5 Filled-System Temperature Instruments

A filled thermal system is a closed system that contains a fluid fill
(the temperature-sensitive medium) and is composed of a bulb, an
154
expandable service (for example, Bourdon tube, diaphragm,
capsule, bellows), and a capillary tube operatively connecting the
two. Special attention should be paid to bulb insertion length to
ensure that the entire sensitive length is placed in the active zone.

APPLICATIONS
The use of filled-system devices is limited by the capillary tubing
that maybe employed and the maximum temperature to which the
bulb may be exposed. Systems with compensation are built to self-
adjust for changes in temperature either of the case or of the
capillary and case. This self-adjustment assures accurate
measurement of the temperature where the bulb is located.
Dimensional, functional, and physical characteristics vary
depending on the manufacturer.

5.2.4.6 TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTERS

Temperature transmitters may use any one of several types of
filled systems, together with pneumatic transmitters and amplifiers,
to convert the measured temperature to an air signal.

INSTALLATION GUIDELINES
In all installations of filled-system temperature instruments, it is
necessary to protect the bulb and capillary tubing from mechanical
damage. It is usually desirable to use armored capillary tubing and
to support the tubing run between the bulb and the controller or
transmitter to protect it from accidental damage. The capillary
tubing should not be cut, opened, or pinched in any manner. For
safety purposes, the vent hole on the top of the bulb packing gland
should be free from obstructions.

5.3 Alarm and Shutdown Systems

All processes must be provided with various alarms and shutdown

system. The alarms are necessary to warn plant personnel of
operating problems and dangerous conditions. Most process
system are provided with special automatic controls that shut the
system down in the event of a dangerous process condition.

5.3.1 Alarm Systems

Whenever an abnormal process condition occurs, it is important

that the operator be warned immediately. An abnormal condition
means that the process variable has exceeded either the high
operating limit, or the low operating limit. In either case, this is
called an off-limit condition. When the process is operating

155
normally, it means that the process variable is within the high and
low operating limits.

In Figure 5.17, we have a process variable being charted over a

period of time. In this example, we see that normal operation is
established by the controller setpoint. A high limit and a low limit
are established to keep the process variable within the normal
operating condition. The process remained at the set point until
0800 hours, then it increased gradually until the high limit point,
then high limit alarm was activated to warn the operator to return
the process variable below the high limit and into the normal
operating range. Instead of returning to the setpoint however, the
process variable deviated from the normal operating range until it
exceeded the low limit at 1000 hours. When this happened, the
low limit alarm was activated to warn the operator again.

Figure 5.17 Abnormal process conditions

Now let us see how alarm systems are constructed so that

operators can be warned of abnormal process conditions. In all
cases, operators will be warned by either an audible alarm or a
visible alarm. An audible alarm means that the operators will hear
a sound from a horn, bell, or buzzer. A visible alarm means that the
operators will see an indicator with a continuous or flashing light.
Usually, the audible alarm will attract the operator's attention, while
the visible alarm will indicate what part of the process is off-limit.

156
As shown in Figure 5.18, a typical alarm system informs the
operator in the control room of abnormal process conditions in the
field. In this case, we see that the level in the process vessel has

Figure 5.18 Alarm system

gone past the high limit. This condition causes a float-operated

switch to activate an audible alarm and a visible alarm in the
control room.

As you can see, the alarm system performs a very simple and
important function. It is basically an ON-OFF control circuit that
uses a limit-sensing device connected to a warning device.
Depending on the process variable, the limit sensing device will
be:

 A pressure switch
 A float-operated switch
 A temperature switch
 A flow-actuated switch

Each of these devices responds to a specific process condition

and acts to close an electrical switch mechanism. Once the switch
contacts have been closed, an electrical circuit is energised to
activate the alarm devices.

As previously mentioned, alarms include horns, bells, and buzzers

to produce an audible sound. They also include visible indicators
as shown in Figure 5.19. The two most common types of visible
alarms are the bullseye indicators and backlighted nameplates. In
both cases, lights may be either lit continuously or set to flash on

157
and off when the process goes off-limit. By reading the location for
the off-limit condition, an operator will know what corrective action
to take.
Figure 5.19 Visible alarms

158
In process operations, the alarm system is often called an
annunciation. The simplest annunciation sequence is shown in
Figure 1-4. In this sequence, the abnormal process condition trips
the limit switch. This in turn activates the annunciation system with
its audible and visible alarms. In some cases the alarms will stay
on until the process condition returns to normal. In other cases, the
alarms can be

turned off by the operator and reset for the next off-limit condition.

Figure 1.4 Annunciator sequence

If the system has automatic shutdown controls, shutdown

indicators will also be placed in the control room. These devices
will act as shutdown alarms and will include the same audible and
visible devices as mentioned previously.

Where automatic shutdown controls are used. As shown in Figure

1-5 it takes two process off-limit conditions to activate the complete
sequence of events. In this case, when the process reaches the
high limit, the high limit switch is tripped activating the high limit
alarm. If the operator is not able to restore the process to the
normal condition, it will continue to rise to a higher value. At a
predetermined value above the high limit, the automatic shutdown
159
controls will begin the shutdown procedure. This new limit is called
the high/high limit. At the same time, a high/high limit switch would
be tripped, activating a shutdown indicator in the control room. In
this way, the operator would be informed that the process is being
shutdown automatically. This same procedure is used when
low/low limits are reached during process operations.

160
 ACTIVATE
SHUTDOWN
PROCEDURES

Figure 1.5 Alarm and shutdown sequence

1.5 Shutdown Controls

Most process system are provided with special automatic controls

that shut the system down in the event of a dangerous process
condition. These controls are necessary when the process cannot
be brought back to normal during an off-limit condition. When this
happens, the control system automatically takes the process
through an orderly shutdown. During this period, alarms will also
be activated to warn the operators that an emergency shutdown is
in progress.

These emergency shutdown operations are usually initiated by the

same sensing devices used for the alarm and annunciation
systems. In some process units, separate off-limit sensing devices
are placed in parallel with the alarm system as an additional safety
measure. These devices are set to activate various control valves,
solenoid valves, and electrical switchgear that will shut the affected
process equipment down. In this case, you will see that any of
three different off-limit conditions will be sufficient to shut the
compressor down and prevent damage to the equipment. In each
161
case, an alarm will be activated to warn the operators of the
shutdown and to indicate the cause of the shutdown.

Cause and Effect Diagram

C & E diagrams are the Master documents for recording the

executive actions of each IPF Initiator. They include Final
Elements with their associated tag numbers and also show logic
functions such as interlocks, time delays, enables, etc.

These are controlled documents, which require to be maintained

as built with any changes approved in accordance with the Plant
Change Proposal procedure

Function of C&E Diagram

The main function of C&E diagram is to help trouble shooting

Troubleshooting is the process of finding the cause of a system or

equipment failure.

For production and control personnel it can mean finding the

reason for a process upset condition and correcting it.

Every piece of equipment can malfunction and needs repair.

Every process experiences upset conditions and needs correction.

Some examples of every day plant malfunctions include:

 Compressor shuts down without any first out indication.

 Heater trips on flame out.
 Chemical pump fails to deliver normal discharge pressure.
 Level transmitter on a vessel gives false indication.
 Pressure safety valve pops (releases gas) at normal operating
conditions.
 Exchanger shows high DP - indicating plugging on tube side.

Troubleshooting Aids

The following items are used as troubleshooting aids:

 Written records and drawings.

Test and measuring instruments.
 People- engineers, technicians and other trained and
experienced people.
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Troubleshooting Scenario

We must ask our self this question “Why is the discharge pressure
not normal on the chemical pump discharge” to prompt a
discussion.

The list of answers must include:

 Check that pump has adequate suction liquid level/pressure.

 Check suction strainer.
 Check that the pump is not air/vapour locked.
 Check discharge pressure gauge.
 Check pump coupling.
 Check pump motor is running and rotation is correct.

It is not possible to resolve the problem without further

investigation and information.

This list most include:

 Plugged suction line

 Plugged suction strainer
 Pump motor in reverse
 Broken coupling
 Pump air/vapour locked

Action steps must decide on:

 What checks will be carried out on the pump

 What material will be required
 What tools will be required
 What personnel and disciplines will be needed to assist
 What permits will be required
 What safety and personnel protective equipment will be
needed.

We must complete a final action list showing the tools, equipment

spare parts etc that will be needed to prepare for the pump repair.

Because the pump failed to pump yesterday due to a plugged

strainer does not mean that the problem today is the same.

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 CHAPTER 6
Instruments and Controls

6.1 Control Philosophy

Manual Control
Without automatic controllers, all regulation tasks will have to be
done manually. For example: To keep constant the temperature of
water discharged from an industrial gas-fired heater, an operator
has to watch a temperature gauge and adjust a gas control valve
accordingly (Figure 6.1a). If the water temperature becomes too
high, the operator has to close the gas control valve a bit - just
enough to bring the temperature back to the desired value. If the
water becomes too cold, he has to open the valve again.

Figure (6.1a) Manual Control

Automatic Control
To relieve our operator from the tedious task of manual control,
we automate the controls - i.e. we install a PID controller (Figure
6.1b). The controller has a Set Point (SP) that the operator can
adjust to the desired temperature.

We also have to automate the control valve by installing an

actuator (and perhaps a positioner) so that the Controller's Output
(CO) can change the valve's position.

And finally, we'll provide the controller with an indication of the

temperature or Process Variable (PV) by installing a temperature
transmitter. The PV and CO are mostly transmitted via 4 -
20mAsignals.

164
So, when everything is up and running, our PID controller
compares the process variable to its set point and then calculates
the difference between the two signals, also called the Error (E).

Then, based on the error, a few adjustable settings and its internal
structure (described below), the controller calculates an output that
positions the control valve. If the actual temperature is above its
set point, the controller will reduce the valve position and vice
versa.

Figure 6.1b Automatic Control

For review the following are fundamental elements of any control

loop:

1. Sensing element
2. Measuring element
3. Controller element
4. Final control element

Two or more of these functions may be combined and placed in a

single enclosure, but this is not usually the case.

165
 Figure 6.1c Control loop

6.2 Control Theory

The block diagram in Figure 6.1c shows the basic instruments in a typical
process control loop. The sensor responds to changes in the process
variable and sends this information to a transmitter. The transmitter
changes the process information to a standard pneumatic or electronic
signal and sends it to a controller. The controller uses the signal from the
transmitter to compute the corrective action to be taken by the final
control device. The indicator provides the process operators with a
continuous indication of the process conditions.

6.3 Controller Principles

This chapter reviews the basic principles of process control.
As a result of studying this chapter, and after having completed the
relevant exercises, the student should be able to:
• Clearly explain the concepts of:
- On-off Control
- Modulating Control
- Open Loop Control
- Ratio Control
• List the ten most common acronyms and basic terminology used
in the process control (e.g. PV, MV, OP);

166
• Describe the differences between a reverse and a direct acting
controller;
• Indicate what deadtime is and how it impacts on a process.

6.3.1 ON-OFF Control

The oldest strategy for control is to use a switch giving simple on-
off control, as illustrated in Figure 6.2. This is a discontinuous form
of control action, and is also referred to as two- position control.
The technique is crude, but can be a cheap and effective method
of control if a fairly large fluctuation of the process variable (PV) is
acceptable.
A perfect on-off controller is 'on' when the measurement is below
the setpoint (SP) and the manipulated variable (MV) is at its
maximum value.
Above the SP, the controller is 'off' and the MV is a minimum.

Figure 6.2 Graphical Example of ON-OFF Control

6.3.2 Modulating Control

If the output of a controller can move through a range of values,
this is modulating control. Modulation Control takes place within a
defined operating range only.
That is, it must have upper and lower limits. Modulating control is a
smoother form of control than step control. It can be used in both
open loop and closed loop control systems.

6.3.3 Open Loop Control

In open loop control, the control action (Controller Output Signal
OP) is NOT a function of the Process Variable (PV). The open loop
control does not self correct when the PV drifts, and this may result
in large deviations from the optimum value of the PV.

167
Use of Open Loop Control
This control is often based on measured disturbances to the inputs
to the system. The most common type of open loop control is
feedforward control.

In this technique the control action is based on the state of a

disturbance input without reference to the actual system condition.
i.e. the system output has no effect on the control action, and the
input variables are manipulated to compensate for the impact of
the process disturbances.

Figure 6.3 Concept of FeedForward Control

6.3.4 Closed Control Loop

In closed loop control, the objective of control, the PV, is used to
determine the control action. The concept of this is shown in Figure
6.4 and the principle is shown in Figure 6.6.

This is also known as feedback control and is more commonly

used than feed forward control. Closed loop control is designed to
achieve and maintain the desired process condition by comparing
it with the desired condition, the Set Point Value (SP), to get an
Error Value (Err).

168
 Figure 6.4 Concept of Feedback Control

6.3.4.1 Reverse or Direct Acting Controllers

As the controller's corrective action is based on the magnitude-in-
time of the Error (ERR); which is derived from either SP-PV or PV-
SP it is of no concern to the P, I or D functions of the controller
which algorithm is used as the algorithms only change the sign of
the Error term.

However; if we refer to Figure 6.5 (Water Level Control), which

illustrates a controller, performing the same function, but in
different ways:
• In case one we Manipulate the OUTLET flow through V2 to
control the tank level; this is DIRECT action.
Where as the PV increases (Tank Filling) the OP increases
(Opening the outlet valve more) to drain the tank faster.
Direct Acting = PV ⇑→ OP ⇑ then Err = PV - SP

• In case two we control the INLET flow through V1 to control the

tank level; this is REVERSE action.
Where as the PV increases (Tank Filling) the OP decreases
(Closing the inlet valve more) to reduce the filling rate.
Reverse Acting = PV ⇑ → OP ⇓ then Err = SP - PV

The controller output changes, by the same magnitude and sign,

based on the resultant Error value and sign.

169
 Figure 6.5 Direct and Reverse Acting Controllers

Figure 6.6 Manual Feedback Control

6.3.5 Control Modes in Closed Loop Control

Most closed loop controllers can be controlled with three control
modes, either combined or separately.

These modes are:

- Proportional (P)
- Integral (I)
- Derivative (D)

The purpose of each of these control modes is as follows:

170
Proportional Control
This is the main and principal method of control. It calculates a
control action proportional to the ERROR (ERR). Proportional
control cannot eliminate the ERROR completely.

Integral Control (Reset)

This is the means to eliminate the remaining ERROR or OFFSET
value, left from the Proportional action, completely. This may result
in reduced stability in the control action.

Derivative Control (Rate)

This is sometimes added to introduce dynamic stability to the
control LOOP.

6.3.5.1 Proportional Control

The proportional control mode changes the controller output in

proportion to the error (Figure 6.7). The adjustable setting here is
called the Controller Gain (Kc), sometimes also referred to as a
PID controller's P-setting or its proportional setting.

The control action is proportional to both the controller gain and

the error. A higher controller gain will increase the amount of output
action and so will a larger error.

Figure 6.7 Proportional Control Action

Although most controllers use controller gain (Kc) as the

171
proportional setting, some controllers use Proportional Band (PB),
which is expressed in percent. Table 1 shows the relationship
between Kc and PB.

Controller Gain (Kc) Proportional Band (PB) %

0.1 1000
0.2 500
0.5 200
1 100
2 50
5 20
10 10

PB = 100%
Kc

Table 1. Relationship between Kc and PB

The use of proportional control alone has a large drawback -

Offset. Offset is a sustained error that cannot be eliminated by
proportional control alone. For example, let's consider controlling
the water level in the tank in Figure 6.8 with a proportional-only
controller.

As long as the flow out of the tank remains constant, the level
(which is our process variable in this case) will remain at its set
point.

Figure 6.8 Level control

172
But, if the operator should increase the flow out of the tank, the
tank level will begin to decrease due to the imbalance between
inflow and outflow. While the tank level decreases the error
increases and our proportional controller increases the controller
output proportional to this error (Figure 6.9). Consequently, the
valve controlling the flow into the tank opens wider and more water
flows into the tank.

As the level continues to decrease, the valve continues to open

until it gets to a point where the inflow matches the outflow. At this
point the tank level remains constant, and so does the error.

Then, because the error remains constant our P-controller will

keep its output constant and the control valve will hold its position.
The system now remains at balance with the tank level remaining
below its set point. This residual error is called Offset.

Figure 6.9 P-Control

With our P-controller the offset will remain until the operator
manually applies a bias to the controller's output to remove the
offset. It is said that the operator has to manually "Reset" the
controller. Or we can add Integral action to our controller.

6.3.5.2 Integral Control

The concept of manual reset as described above led to the
development of automatic reset or Integral Control, as we know it
today.

The integral control mode of a controller produces a long term

corrective change in controller output, driving the error or
offset to zero.

Integral action appears as a ramp of which the slope is determined

by the size of the error, the controller gain and the Integral Time
(Ti), also called the I-setting of the controller (Figure 6.9).

173
 Figure 6.10 Integral Control Action

Most controllers use integral time in minutes as the unit for integral
control, but some others use integral time in seconds, Integral
Gain in Repeats / Minute or Repeats / Second. Table 2 compares
the different integral units.

Integral Time Integral Gain

Minutes Seconds Rep / Minute Rep / Second
0.05 3 20 0.333
0.1 6 10 0.167
0.2 12 5 0.0833
0.5 30 2 0.0333
1 60 1 0.0167
2 120 0.5 0.00833
5 300 0.2 0.00333
10 600 0.1 0.00167
20 1200 0.05 0.00083
Table 2, Integral Control Units
Integral control eliminates offset. Figure 6.10 shows the same level
control setup as before, but this time we have used a PI controller.

A PI controller simply adds together the output of the P and I

modes of the controller. The integral action raises the controller
output far enough to bring the level back to its set point.
174
 Figure 6.11 PI-Control

6.3.5.3 Derivative Control

The third control action in a PID controller is derivative. Derivative
control is rarely used in controllers. It is very sensitive to
measurement noise and it makes tuning very difficult if trial and
error methods are applied. Nevertheless, derivative control can
make a control loop respond faster and with less overshoot.

The derivative control mode produces an output based on the rate

of change of the error (Figure 6.11).

Derivative action is sometimes called Rate. Its action is dependent

on the rate of change (or slope) of the error. It has an adjustable
setting called Derivative Time (Td), which is the D-setting of the
controller.

Two units are used for the derivative setting of a controller:

Minutes and seconds.

Figure 6.12 Derivative Control Action

175
Derivative control appears to have predictive or anticipative
capabilities. Technically this is not true, but PID control does
provide more control action sooner than possible with P or PI
control. To see this, compare the initial controller response of
Figure 6.13 (PID control) with that in Figure 6.11 (PI control). Also
note how derivative control reduces the time it takes for the level to
return to its set point. Also note that with derivative control the
controller output appears noisier. This is due to the derivative
control mode's sensitivity to measurement noise.

Figure 6.13. PID control

6.3.6 Auto-Manual Switching

Automatic control loop systems incorporate a facility for changing

control from automatic to manual operation or vice versa. When
making a change to the mode an operator must aim to achieve the
change-over with the minimum disturbance of the process. In other
words the controller signal must not jump up or down at the time of
change-over, the transfer must be bumpless. The following points
are intended as a guide, experience will tell an operator the best
way to handle individual processes:

- Ensure that the plant is stable

- Note the controller signal lever.
- Adjust whatever controls or hand valve are available so that
the new signal will be close to the existing signal. (Some
controllers have special position switches which make this
possible by comparing signals during adjustment)
- Make the change-over as rapidly as possible
- Watch the process measured value, until it settles at the
desired value. Make the necessary adjustments to regain
stable control.

If during the operation, the process appears to be going out of

control, do not hesitate to use the manual mode to bring it back
under control.
176
When a system is in the manual mode its output signal is fixed
permanently at one value and will not follow any variations of
measured value. This is an important fact for an operator to
remember when a process is on manual control. He must check its
condition far more often than when it is on automatic control Fig.
6.1b shows a typical control loop with the four fundamental
elements previously mentioned. They are designated as (a)
sensing, (b) measuring, (c) controlling and (d) final control
elements.

6.3.7 Cascade Control

In some process systems, it is sometimes necessary to have faster

and more accurate control than that provided by the simple closed
loop. When necessary, a cascade control loop can be used. The
cascade control loop improves the control system response to
changes in the process variable and other variables that may affect
it.

As shown in Figure 6.14, a temperate transmitter transmits the

temperature measurement to the temperature controller. This
controller is the primary controller in the control loop. The
temperature controller uses a setpoint that is established by the
process operator. By comparing the setpoint with the actual
process temperature, the primary controller produces an output
signal that is transmitted to the secondary controller. This signal
then becomes the setpoint for the secondary controller. This
setpoint signal tells the secondary controller whether the process
temperature is at the proper value, or if the control valve should
change the steam flow to the heater.

The steam flow controller is the secondary controller in the loop. It

receives a measurement signal from the steam flow transmitter
which is then compared with the controller setpoint. The secondary
controller now knows whether the process temperature is correct,
or whether it needs to be changed. It also knows the rate of steam
flow to the heater coils. By comparing this information, it
determines the control valve position.

177
 Cascade Control
of Heat Exchanger
F
T Prim
I
I
S ary
C RS P
C
P

F T
T T

Heat
Exchan
ger Retur
Proc n
ess

Figure 6.14 Cascade temperature control

6.3.8 Final Control Element

Manual valves require an operator to position them to control a
process variable.
Valves that must be operated remotely and automatically require
special devices to move them. These devices are called actuators.
Actuators may be pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric solenoids or
motors.

Remote operation of a valve is easily managed by one of the

following four types of actuators :
a. Pneumatic
b. Hydraulic
c. Solenoid
d. Electric motor Actuators

6.3.8.1 Pneumatic Actuators

A simplified diagram of a pneumatic actuator is shown in Figure35.
It operates by a combination of force created by air and spring
force. The actuator positions a control valve by transmitting its
motion through the stem.

178
 Figure 6.15 Pneumatic Actuator: Air-to-Close/Spring-to-Open

A rubber diaphragm separates the actuator housing into two air

chambers. The upper chamber receives supply air through an
opening in the top of the housing.
The bottom chamber contains a spring that forces the diaphragm
against mechanical stops in the upper chamber. Finally, a local
indicator is connected to the stem to indicate the position of the
valve.
The position of the valve is controlled by varying supply air
pressure in the upper chamber. This results in a varying force on
the top of the diaphragm. Initially, with no supply air, the spring
forces the diaphragm upward against the mechanical stops and
holds the valve fully open. As supply air pressure is increased from
zero, its force on top of the diaphragm begins to overcome the
opposing force of the spring. This causes the diaphragm to move
downward and the control valve to close. With increasing supply
air pressure, the diaphragm will continue to move downward and
compress the spring until the control valve is fully closed.
Conversely, if supply air pressure is decreased, the spring will
begin to force the diaphragm upward and open the control valve.
Additionally, if supply pressure is held constant at some value
between zero and maximum, the valve will position at an
intermediate position. Therefore, the valve can be positioned

179
anywhere between fully open and fully closed in response to
changes in supply air pressure.
A positioner is a device that regulates the supply air pressure to a
pneumatic actuator. It does this by comparing the actuator’s
demanded position with the control valve’s actual position. The
demanded position is transmitted by a pneumatic or electrical
control signal from a controller to the positioner. The pneumatic
actuator in Figure 6.15 is shown in Figure 6.16 with a controller
and positioner added.

The controller generates an output signal that represents the

demanded position. This signal is sent to the positioner. Externally,
the positioner consists of an input connection for the control signal,
a supply air input connection, a supply air output connection, a
supply air vent connection, and a feedback linkage. Internally, it
contains an intricate network of electrical transducers, air lines,
valves, linkages, and necessary adjustments. Other positioners
may also provide controls for local valve positioning and gauges to
indicate supply air pressure and control air pressure (for pneumatic
controllers). From an operator’s viewpoint, a description of
complex internal workings of a positioner is not needed. Therefore,
this discussion will be limited to inputs to and outputs from the
positioner.

In Figure 6.16, the controller responds to a deviation of a

controlled variable from setpoint and varies the control output
signal accordingly to correct the deviation. The control output
signal is sent to the positioner, which responds by increasing or
decreasing the supply air to the actuator. Positioning of the
actuator and control valve is fed back to the positioner through the
feedback linkage. When the valve has reached the position
demanded by the controller, the positioner stops the change in
supply air pressure and holds the valve at the new position. This,
in turn, corrects the controlled variable’s deviation from setpoint.
For example, as the control signal increases, a valve inside the
positioner admits more supply air to the actuator.

180
 Figure 6.16 Pneumatic Actuator with Controller and Positioner

As a result, the control valve moves downward. The linkage

transmits the valve position information back to the positioner. This
forms a small internal feedback loop for the actuator. When the
valve reaches the position that correlates to the control signal, the
linkage stops supply air flow to the actuator. This causes the
actuator to stop. On the other hand, if the control signal decreases,
another valve inside the positioner opens and allows the supply air
pressure to decrease by venting the supply air. This causes the
valve to move upward and open.
When the valve has opened to the proper position, the positioner
stops venting air from the actuator and stops movement of the
control valve.
An important safety feature is provided by the spring in an
actuator. It can be designed to position a control valve in a safe
position if a loss of supply air occurs. On a loss of supply air,

181
the actuator in Figure 36 will fail open. This type of arrangement is
referred to as "air-to-close, spring-to-open" or simply "fail-open."
Some valves fail in the closed position. This type of
actuator is referred to as "air-to-open, spring-to-close" or "fail-
closed." This "fail-safe" concept is an important consideration in
nuclear facility design.

6.3.8.2 Hydraulic Actuators

Pneumatic actuators are normally used to control processes
requiring quick and accurate response, as they do not require a
large amount of motive force. However, when a large amount of
force is required to operate a valve (for example, the main steam
system valves), hydraulic actuators are normally used. Although
hydraulic actuators come in many designs, piston types are most
common.

Figure 6.17 Hydraulic Actuator

A typical piston-type hydraulic actuator is shown in Figure 6.17. It

consists of a cylinder, piston, spring, hydraulic supply and return
line, and stem. The piston slides vertically inside the cylinder and
separates the cylinder into two chambers. The upper chamber
contains the spring and the lower chamber contains hydraulic oil.
The hydraulic supply and return line is connected to the lower
chamber and allows hydraulic fluid to flow to and from the lower
chamber of the actuator.
182
The stem transmits the motion of the piston to a valve.
Initially, with no hydraulic fluid pressure, the spring force holds the
valve in the closed position.
As fluid enters the lower chamber, pressure in the chamber
increases. This pressure results in a force on the bottom of the
piston opposite to the force caused by the spring. When the
hydraulic force is greater than the spring force, the piston begins to
move upward, the spring compresses, and the valve begins to
open. As the hydraulic pressure increases, the valve continues to
open. Conversely, as hydraulic oil is drained from the cylinder, the
hydraulic force becomes less than the spring force, the piston
moves downward, and the valve closes. By regulating amount of
oil supplied or drained from the actuator, the valve can be
positioned between fully open and fully closed.

The principles of operation of a hydraulic actuator are like those of

the pneumatic actuator. Each uses some motive force to overcome
spring force to move the valve. Also, hydraulic actuators can be
designed to fail-open or fail-closed to provide a fail-safe feature.

6.3.8.3 Electric Solenoid Actuators

A typical electric solenoid actuator is shown in Figure 6.18. It
consists of a coil, armature, spring, and stem.

Figure 6.18 Electric Solenoid Actuator

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The coil is connected to an external current supply. The spring
rests on the armature to force it downward. The armature moves
vertically inside the coil and transmits its motion through the stem
to the valve.
When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field forms around
the coil. The magnetic field attracts the armature toward the center
of the coil. As the armature moves upward, the spring collapses
and the valve opens. When the circuit is opened and current stops
flowing to the coil, the magnetic field collapses. This allows the
spring to expand and shut the valve.
A major advantage of solenoid actuators is their quick operation.
Also, they are much easier to install than pneumatic or hydraulic
actuators. However, solenoid actuators have two disadvantages.
First, they have only two positions: fully open and fully closed.
Second, they don’t produce much force, so they usually only
operate relatively small valves.

6.3.8.4 Electric Motor Actuators

Electric motor actuators vary widely in their design and
applications. Some electric motor actuators are designed to
operate in only two positions (fully open or fully closed). Other
electric motors can be positioned between the two positions. A
typical electric motor actuator is shown in Figure 6.19. Its major
parts include an electric motor, clutch and gear box assembly,
manual
handwheel, and stem connected to a valve.

Figure 6.19 Electric Motor Actuator

The motor moves the stem through the gear assembly. The motor
reverses its rotation to either open or close the valve. The clutch
and clutch lever disconnects the electric motor from the gear
assembly and allows the valve to be operated manually with the
handwheel.
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Most electric motor actuators are equipped with limit switches,
torque limiters, or both. Limit switches de-energize the electric
motor when the valve has reached a specific position. Torque
limiters de-energize the electric motor when the amount of turning
force has reached a specified value. The turning force normally is
greatest when the valve reaches the fully open or fully closed
position. This feature can also prevent damage to the actuator or
valve if the valve binds in an intermediate position.

6.4 Loop Configuration

Loop Configuration is the way of setting up displays, operator

access and calculations for control and simulation.
The Configuration has five topics:
· SELECTING CONFIGURATION LEVEL
· LEAVING CONFIGURATION LEVEL
· SELECTING A CONFIGURATION PARAMETER
· CHANGING THE PASSWORDS
· CONFIGURATION NAVIGATION DIAGRAM
· CONFIGURATION PARAMETER TABLES.

In Configuration level you set up the fundamental characteristics of

the controller, which are:
· The type of control (PID or On-Off)
· Input type and range
· User calibration
· Alarms configuration
· Output functions
· Passwords.

SELECTING A CONFIGURATION PARAMETER

The configuration parameters are arranged in lists as follows:
Instrument list
Input list
User calibration list
Alarm list
AA list (relay output)
1A list (logic output)
Password list
Exit.

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To step through the list headers, press the Page button .
You will eventually return to the initial Instrument list.
To step through the parameters within a list, press the Scroll
Button . When you reach the end of the list you will return to the
list header.

From within a list, you can return to the list header at any time by
pressing the Page button .

Parameter names
For an explanation of each parameter, see the configuration
parameter tables.

To changed the value of a selected parameter, use the buttons.

The diagram shows all the lists headers and parameters that
potentially can be present in the controller.

CHANGING THE PASSWORDS

There are two passwords. They are stored in the Password
configuration list and can be selected and changed in the same
manner as any other configuration parameter.

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CONFIGURATION PARAMETER TABLES

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188
189
*In place of the dashes, the last three characters indicate the alarm
type. If an alarm is not configured the displayed name will differ:
e.g. for the first alarm AL 1’ will be shown.

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*In place of the dashes, the last three characters indicate the alarm
type. If an alarm is not configured the displayed name will differ:
e.g. for the first alarm ‘AL 1’ will be shown

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6.5 Periodic Calibration of the Controllers

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF USER CALIBRATION?

The basic calibration of the controller is highly stable and set for
life.
User calibration allows you to offset the ‘permanent’ factory
calibration to either:
1. Calibrate the controller to the your reference standards
2. Match the calibration of the controller to that of a particular
transducer or sensor input
3. Calibrate the controller to suit the characteristics of a particular
installation
4. Remove long term drift in the factory set calibration.
User calibration works by introducing zero and span offsets onto
the factory set calibration.

Controller calibration verification is recommended on an annual

basis.

Equipment needed:
1. Calibrated millivolt source & Ice bath or a calibrated
internally compensated thermocouple reference
2. Calibrated gage
3. Calibration record card
4. Calibration sticker

Temperature Verification:
1. Place controller and test instrument on a flat surface.
2. Connect units to appropriate power source.
3. Turn on power to each unit and allow 30 minutes for
warming.
4. Connect the test instrument to the controller.
5. If using a millivolt source, input appropriate mV levels from
table 1, otherwise input the temperatures from table 1 one at
a time. A minimum of three temperature points should be
tested.
6. Record and compare the temperature values.
7. Establish stable level.
8. Compare level with calibrated standard.
9. Repeat at 3 point’s minimum across the scale of the gage.
10. Record and compare the levels.

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Controller Evaluation
11. Determine if the controller meets required accuracy (see
notes 1&2).
12. If controller does not meet accuracy requirements,
proceed to Calibration Procedure below.
13. If controller does meet accuracy requirements, complete
and attach a calibration sticker.
14. File record of calibration.
15. Return controller to service.

Table 1
Millivolt Temp.
0 32°F
1.942 100°F
4.906 200°F
7.947 300°F
11.023 400°F
14.108 500°F
17.186 600°F
20.253 700°F
23.317 800°F
26.396 900°F
29.484 999°F

NOTE 1: Controller accuracy is +/-3°F.

NOTE 2: Vacuum gage accuracy is +/- 2% full scale.

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