DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND DIE MANUFACTURING OF CAM SHAFT

ABSTRACT

The camshaft and its associated parts control the opening and closing of the two valves.
The associated parts are push rods, rocker arms, valve springs and tappets. This shaft also
provides the drive to the ignition system. The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft
through timing gears. Cams are made as integral parts of the camshaft and are designed in
such a way to open the valves at the correct timing and to keep them open for the
necessary duration.
In our project a cam shaft is designed for PS 24/2 stationary engine a multi cylinder
engine by using theoretical calculations. Cam profile is designed by using the
calculations. A 3D model of the Camshaft is created using modeling software
Unigraphics NX10. Static Structural and Modal analysis is done on the camshaft using
materials Structural Steel, and Aluminum Alloy 7475 to determine stresses and
displacements.

Core & Cavity is extracted for the cam shaft. CNC Program is generated for both core
and cavity using roughing and finishing processes. A prototype of the cam shaft is
manufactured by preparing the die and manufacturing process casting process.

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 INTRODUCTION

A cam is a rotating or sliding piece in a mechanical linkage used especially in

transforming rotary motion into linear motion or vice versa. It is often a part of a rotating
wheel (e.g. an eccentric wheel) or shaft (e.g. a cylinder with an irregular shape) that
strikes a lever at one or more points on its circular path. The cam can be a simple tooth,
as is used to deliver pulses of power to a steam hammer, for example, or an eccentric disc
or other shape that produces a smooth reciprocating (back and forth) motion in the
follower, which is a lever making contact with the cam.

Overview

The cam can be seen as a device that translates from circular to reciprocating (or
sometimes oscillating) motion. A common example is the camshaft of an automobile,
which takes the rotary motion of the engine and translates it into the reciprocating motion
necessary to operate the intake and exhaust valves of the cylinders.

The opposite operation, translation of reciprocating motion to circular motion, is done by

a crank. An example is the crankshaft of a car, which takes the reciprocating motion of
the pistons and translates it into the rotary motion necessary to operate the wheels.

Cams can also be viewed as information-storing and -transmitting devices. Examples are
the cam-drums that direct the notes of a music box or the movements of a screw
machine's various tools and chucks. The information stored and transmitted by the cam is
the answer to the question, "What actions should happen, and when?" (Even an
automotive camshaft essentially answers that question, although the music box cam is a
still-better example in illustrating this concept.)

Certain cams can be characterized by their displacement diagrams, which reflect the
changing position a roller follower would make as the cam rotates about an axis. These
diagrams relate angular position to the radial displacement experienced at that position.

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Several key terms are relevant in such a construction of plate cams: base circle, prime
circle (with radius equal to the sum of the follower radius and the base circle radius),
pitch curve which is the radial curve traced out by applying the radial displacements
away from the prime circle across all angles, and the lobe separation angle (LSA - the
angle between two adjacent intake and exhaust cam lobes). Displacement diagrams are
traditionally presented as graphs with non-negative values. A camshaft is a shaft to
which a cam is fastened or of which a cam forms an integral part.

History

An early cam was built into Hellenistic water-driven automata from the 3rd century BC.
The camshaft was later described in Iraq (Mesopotamia) by Al-Jazari in 1206. He
employed it as part of his automata, water-raising machines, and water clocks such as the
castle clock. The cam and camshaft later appeared in European mechanisms from at least
the 14th century, or possibly earlier.

Computer animation of a camshaft operating valves

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2. Uses

In internal combustion engines with pistons, the camshaft is used to operate poppet
valves. It then consists of a cylindrical rod running the length of the cylinder bank with a
number of oblong lobes protruding from it, one for each valve. The cams force the valves
open by pressing on the valve, or on some intermediate mechanism as they rotate.

3. Material

Camshafts can be made out of several different types of material. These include;

Chilled iron castings: this is a good choice for high volume production. A chilled iron
camshaft has a resistance against wear because the camshaft lobes have been chilled,
generally making them harder. When making chilled iron castings, other elements are
added to the iron before casting to make the material more suitable for its application.

Billet Steel: When a high quality camshaft is required, engine builders and camshaft
manufacturers choose to make the camshaft from steel billet. This method is also used for
low volume production. This is a much more time consuming process, and is generally
more expensive than other methods. However the finished product is far superior. When
making the camshaft, cnc lathes, cnc milling machines and cnc camshaft grinders will be
used. Different types of steel bar can be used. One example is EN40b. When
manufacturing a camshaft from EN40b, the camshaft will also be heat treated. the method
of heat treatment is gas nitriding, which changes the micro-structure of the material. It
gives a surface hardness of 55-62 on the HRC. These types of camshafts can be used in
high performance engines.

4. Timing in internal combustion engines

The relationship between the rotation of the camshaft and the rotation of the crankshaft is
of critical importance. Since the valves control the flow of air/fuel mixture intake and
exhaust gases, they must be opened and closed at the appropriate time during the stroke
of the piston. For this reason, the camshaft is connected to the crankshaft either directly,

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via a gear mechanism, or indirectly via a belt or chain called a timing belt or timing
chain. In some designs the camshaft also drives the distributor and the oil and fuel
pumps. Also on early fuel injection systems, cams on the camshaft would operate the fuel
injectors.

In a two-stroke engine that uses a camshaft, each valve is opened once for each rotation
of the crankshaft; in these engines, the camshaft rotates at the same rate as the crankshaft.
In a four-stroke engine, the valves are opened only half as often; thus, two full rotations
of the crankshaft occur for each rotation of the camshaft.

The timing of the camshaft can be advanced to produce better low end torque or it can be
retarded to produce better high end torque.

5. Duration

Duration can often be confusing because manufacturers may select any lift point to
advertise a camshaft's duration and sometimes will manipulate these numbers. The power
and idle characteristics of a camshaft rated at .006" will be much different than one rated
the same at .002". Whenever duration is quoted, be sure to note the lift at which it is
given.

Many performance engine builders gauge a race profile's aggressiveness by looking at the
duration at .020", .050" and .200". The .020" number determines how responsive the
motor will be and how much low end torque the motor will make. The .050" number is
used to estimate where peak power will occur, and the .200" number gives an estimate of
the power potential.

In general, duration determines how many crankshaft degrees a camshaft maintains more
than a given tappet lift.

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6. Camshaft position

Depending on the location of the camshaft, the cams operate the valves either directly or
through a linkage of pushrods and rockers. Direct operation involves a simpler
mechanism and leads to fewer failures, but requires the camshaft to be positioned at the
top of the cylinders. In the past when engines were not as reliable as today this was seen
as too much bother, but in modern gasoline engines the overhead cam system, where the
camshaft is on top of the cylinder head, is quite common. Some engines use two
camshafts each for the intake and exhaust valves; such an arrangement is known as a
double or dual overhead cam (DOHC), thus, a V engine may have four camshafts.

7. Maintenance

The rockers or cam followers sometimes incorporate a mechanism to adjust and set the
valve play through manual adjustment, but most modern auto engines have hydraulic
lifters, eliminating the need to adjust the valve lash at regular intervals as the valvetrain
wears, and in particular the valves and valve seats in the combustion chamber.

Sliding friction between the surface of the cam and the cam follower which rides upon it
is considerable. In order to reduce wear at this point, the cam and follower are both
surface hardened, and modern lubricant motor oils contain additives specifically to
reduce sliding friction. The lobes of the camshaft are usually slightly tapered, causing the
cam followers or valve lifters to rotate slightly with each depression, and helping to
distribute wear on the parts. The surfaces of the cam and follower are designed to "wear
in" together, and therefore when either is replaced, the other should be as well to prevent
excessive rapid wear. In some engines, the flat contact surfaces are replaced with rollers,
which eliminate the sliding friction and wear but adds mass to the valvetrain.

The camshaft uses lobes (called cams) that push against the valves to open them as the
camshaft rotates; springs on the valves return them to their closed position. This is a
critical job, and can have a great impact on an engine's performance at different speeds.
On the next page of this article you can see the animation we built to really show you the
difference between a performance camshaft and a standard one.

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 In this article, you will learn how the camshaft affects engine performance. We've got
some great animations that show you how different engine layouts, like single overhead
cam (SOHC) and double overhead cam (DOHC), really work. And then we'll go over a
few of the neat ways that some cars adjust the camshaft so that it can handle different
engine speeds more efficiently.

Camshaft Basics
The key parts of any camshaft are the lobes. As the camshaft spins, the lobes open and
close the intake and exhaust valves in time with the motion of the piston. It turns out that
there is a direct relationship between the shape of the cam lobes and the way the engine
performs in different speed ranges.

To understand why this is the case, imagine that we are running an engine extremely
slowly -- at just 10 or 20 revolutions per minute (RPM) -- so that it takes the piston a
couple of seconds to complete a cycle. It would be impossible to actually run a normal
engine this slowly, but let's imagine that we could. At this slow speed, we would want
cam lobes shaped so that:

 Just as the piston starts moving downward in the intake stroke (called top dead center, or
TDC), the intake valve would open. The intake valve would close right as the piston
bottoms out.
 The exhaust valve would open right as the piston bottoms out (called bottom dead center,
or BDC) at the end of the combustion stroke, and would close as the piston completes the
exhaust stroke.

When you increase the RPM, the 10 to 20 RPM configuration for the camshaft does not
work well. If the engine is running at 4,000 RPM, the valves are opening and closing
2,000 times every minute, or 33 times every second. At these speeds, the piston is
moving very quickly, so the air/fuel mixture rushing into the cylinder is moving very
quickly as well.

When the intake valve opens and the piston starts its intake stroke, the air/fuel mixture in
the intake runner starts to accelerate into the cylinder. By the time the piston reaches the

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 bottom of its intake stroke, the air/fuel is moving at a pretty high speed. If we were to
slam the intake valve shut, all of that air/fuel would come to a stop and not enter the
cylinder. By leaving the intake valve open a little longer, the momentum of the fast-
moving air/fuel continues to force air/fuel into the cylinder as the piston starts its
compression stroke. So the faster the engine goes, the faster the air/fuel moves, and the
longer we want the intake valve to stay open. We also want the valve to open wider at
higher speeds -- this parameter, called valve lift, is governed by the cam lobe profile.

Any given camshaft will be perfect only at one engine speed. At every other engine
speed, the engine won't perform to its full potential. A fixed camshaft is, therefore,
always a compromise. This is why carmakers have developed schemes to vary the cam
profile as the engine speed changes.

There are several different arrangements of camshafts on engines. We'll talk about some
of the most common ones. You've probably heard the terminology:

 Single overhead cam (SOHC)

 Double overhead cam (DOHC) 4
 Pushrod

Camshaft Configurations

Single Overhead Cam

This arrangement denotes an engine with one cam per head. So if it is an inline 4-
cylinder or inline 6-cylinder engine, it will have one cam; if it is a V-6 or V-8, it
will have two cams (one for each head).

The cam actuates rocker arms that press down on the valves, opening them.
Springs return the valves to their closed position. These springs have to be very
strong because at high engine speeds, the valves are pushed down very quickly,
and it is the springs that keep the valves in contact with the rocker arms. If the
springs were not strong enough, the valves might come away from the rocker arms
and snap back. This is an undesirable situation that would result in extra wear on
the cams and rocker arms.

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On single and double overhead cam engines, the cams are driven by the crankshaft,
via either a belt or chain called the timing belt or timing chain. These belts and
chains need to be replaced or adjusted at regular intervals. If a timing belt breaks,
the cam will stop spinning and the piston could hit the open valves.

Damage from a piston striking a valve

The picture above shows what can happen when a piston hits an open valve.

Double Overhead Cam

A double overhead cam engine has two cams per head. So inline engines have
two cams, and V engines have four. Usually, double overhead cams are used on
engines with four or more valves per cylinder -- a single camshaft simply cannot fit
enough cam lobes to actuate all of those valves.

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The main reason to use double overhead cams is to allow for more intake and
exhaust valves. More valves means that intake and exhaust gases can flow more
freely because there are more openings for them to flow through. This increases the
power of the engine.

The final configuration we'll go into in this article is the pushrod engine.

Pushrod Engines
Like SOHC and DOHC engines, the valves in a pushrod engine are located in the
head, above the cylinder. The key difference is that the camshaft on a pushrod
engine is inside the engine block, rather than in the head.

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 A pushrod engine

The cam actuates long rods that go up through the block and into the head to move
the rockers. These long rods add mass to the system, which increases the load on
the valve springs. This can limit the speed of pushrod engines; the overhead
camshaft, which eliminates the pushrod from the system, is one of the engine
technologies that made higher engine speeds possible.

The camshaft in a pushrod engine is often driven by gears or a short chain. Gear-
drives are generally less prone to breakage than belt drives, which are often found
in overhead cam engines.

Manufacturing Process
Step 1

The process of creating a camshaft begins with raw 8620 billet

steel.

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Step 2

The raw steel range from 2.125" to 2.5" in diameter and are 20ft
in length.

Step 3

The raw steel bars are then turned on a lathe to remove the
rough surface and then cut into into the proper lengths
depending on the engine size.

Step 4

At this stage, the steel begins the process of becoming a

camshaft as both the journals and lobes are cut and evenly
spaced out.

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Step 5

The Camshafts are then stack up and are prepared for the copper
plating.

Step 6

The copper plating is done to keep the steel from becoming

brittle and helps straighten the camshaft after the heat treating
process.

Step 7

Once the copper is applied, the journals are lathe down to the
thickness that is needed.

Step 8

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 This process creates a smooth finish.

Step 9

Next, a special lobe milling machine is used to create the lift for
the cam. These CNC machines use computerize programs that
allow the manufacture to create the desired lobe and are precise
at .0001 of an inch.

Step 10

Once the the cams are roughly cut, they are placed in a furnace
for heat treating. This process hardens the steel making the cam
less likely to warp or snap when put under the stress of an
engine.

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Step 11

After the heat treating, the journals go through their final

grounding stage and are milled to the correct dimensions.

Step 12

Following the journals are the lobes. They are grounded and
polished to provide a smooth surface which reduces friction in
the engine, freeing up horsepower.

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Final Step

The last process uses a computerized scanner that checks

the tolerences on the cams. Making sure that every lobe
and journal are exactly the same.

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 ABOUT STATIONARY ENGINE
A stationary engine is an engine whose framework does not move. They are used to
drive immobile equipment, such as pumps, generators, mills or factory machinery. The
term usually refers to large immobile reciprocating engines, principally stationary steam
engines and, to some extent, stationary internal combustion engines. Other large
immobile power sources, such as steam turbines, gas turbines, and large electric motors,
are categorized separately.
Stationary engines were once widespread in the era when each factory or mill generated
its own power, and power transmission was mechanical (via line shafts, belts, gear trains,
and clutches). Applications for stationary engines have declined since electrification has
become widespread; most industrial uses today draw electricity from an electrical
grid and distribute it to various individual electric motors instead.
Engines that operate in one place, but can be moved to another place for later operation,
are called portable engines. Although stationary engines and portable engines are both
"stationary" (not moving) while running, preferred usage (for clarity's sake) reserves the
term "stationary engine" to the permanently immobile type, and "portable engine" to the
mobile type.
Applications:-
Electricity generation
Before mains electricity and the formation of nationwide power grids, stationary engines
were widely used for small-scale electricity generation. Whilst large power stations in
cities used steam turbines or high-speed reciprocating steam engines, in rural
areas petrol/gasoline, paraffin/kerosene or fuel oil powered internal combustion engines
were cheaper to buy, install and operate, since they could be started and stopped quickly
to meet demand, left running unattended for long periods of time and did not require a
large dedicated engineering staff to operate and maintain. Due to their simplicity and
economy, hot bulb engines were popular for high-power applications until the diesel
engine took their place from the 1920s. Smaller units were generally powered by spark-
ignition engines, which were cheaper to buy and required less space to install.

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Most engines of the late-19th and early-20th centuries ran at speeds too low to drive
a dynamo or alternator directly. As with other equipment, the generator was driven off
the engine's flywheel by a broad flat belt. The pulley on the generator was much smaller
than the flywheel, providing the required 'gearing up' effect. Later spark-ignition engines
developed from the 1920s could be directly coupled.
Up to the 1930s most rural houses in Europe and North America needed their own
generating equipment if electric light was fitted. Engines would often be installed in a
dedicated 'engine house', which was usually an outbuilding separate from the main house
to reduce the interference from the engine noise. The engine house would contain the
engine, the generator, the necessary switchgear and fuses, as well as the engine's fuel
supply and usually a dedicated workshop space with equipment to service and repair the
engine. Wealthy households could afford to employ a dedicated engineer to maintain the
equipment, but as the demand for electricity spread to smaller homes, manufacturers
produced engines that required less maintenance and that did not need specialist training
to operate.
Such generator sets were also used in industrial complexes and public buildings-
anywhere where electricity was required but mains electricity was not available.
Most countries in the Western world completed large-scale rural electrification in the
years following World War II, making individual generating plants obsolete for front-line
use. However, even in countries with a reliable mains supply, many buildings are still
fitted with modern diesel generators for emergency use, such as hospitals and pumping
stations. This network of generators often forms a crucial part of the national electricity
system's strategy for coping with periods of high demand.
Pumping stations
The development of water supply and sewage removal systems required the provision of
many pumping stations. In these, some form of stationary engine (steam-powered for
earlier installations) is used to drive one or more pumps, although electric motors are
more conventionally used nowadays.
Canals
For canals, a distinct area of application concerned the powering of boat lifts and inclined
planes. Where possible these would be arranged to utilise water and gravity in a balanced

18
system, but in some cases additional power input was required from a stationary engine
for the system to work. The vast majority of these were constructed (and in many cases,
demolished again) before steam engines were supplanted by internal combustion
alternatives.
Cable haulage railways
Industrial railways in quarries and mines made use of cable railways based on
the inclined plane idea, and certain early passenger railways in the UK were planned with
lengths of cable-haulage to overcome severe gradients.
For the first proper railway, the Liverpool and Manchester of 1830, it was not clear
whether locomotive traction would work, and the railway was designed with steep 1 in
100 gradients concentrated on either side of Rainhill, just in case. Had cable haulage been
necessary, then inconvenient and time-consuming shunting would obviously have been
required to attach and detach the cables. Fortunately, the Rainhill gradients proved not to
be a problem, and in the event, locomotive traction was determined to be a new
technology with great potential for further development.
The steeper 1 in 50 grades from Liverpool down to the docks were operated by cable
traction for several decades until locomotives improved. Cable haulage continued to be
used where gradients were even steeper.
Cable haulage did prove viable where the gradients were exceptionally steep, such as the
1 in 8 gradients of the Cromford and High Peak Railway opened in 1830. Cable railways
generally have two tracks with loaded wagons on one track partially balanced by empty
wagons on the other, to minimise fuel costs for the stationary engine. Various kinds
of rack railway were developed to overcome the lack of friction of conventional
locomotives on steep gradients.
These early installations of stationary engines would all have been steam-powered
initially.

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 DESIGN
CALCULATIONS

20
 DESIGN CALCULATIONS

Cam design:
Designing cam for PS 24/2 stationary engine
Bore: 127mm stroke: 146.05mm
 Diameter of cam shaft = 0.16 X Bore X 12.7
=0.16 X 127 X 12.7 = 258.064mm
 Base circle diameter of cam lobe = 3 + camshaft dia + 20
= 3 + 258.064 + 20 = 281.064mm
 Width of cam lobe = (0.09 X bore) + 6 mm
= (0.09 X 127) + 6 = 29.22 mm
 Taking angle between cam lobes = 1080 ( for narrow cam lobes)

Total fore acting on cam lobe:

Consider dP= 0435 X d = 0.435 X 127 = 55.245mm
dS= (dP/8) + 6.35 = (55.245/8) + 6.35 = 13.255mm

Pmax = 0.60505 MPa (for cam angle Ɵ=135o) = 0.60505 N/mm2

We know that, t = K X dP X √(Pmax / ft)

= 0.44*55.245*√(0.60505/56)
=0.44*55.245*0.10394
=2.41181
1.4𝐹 2𝑑
ft = 𝑡 2 (1 − 3𝑑 𝑠 )
𝑝
1.4𝐹 2∗13.255
56 = 2.411812 (1 − 3∗55.245)
1 1.4
= (0.159954)
𝐹 56 ∗ 2.411812
1
= 0.000752112
𝐹
F = 1329.58N
Valve lift L= dp/4
= 55.24/4
= 13.811mm

Spring elastic force Fe = L*K

= 13.811*0.42
= 5.8006N
Total force acting on the cam = 1329.5892 - 5.8006
= 1323.78861N

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MODELING

22
 INTRODUCTION TO CAD

Computer-aided design (CAD), also known as computer-aided design and drafting

(CADD), is the use of computer technology for the process of design and design-
documentation. Computer Aided Drafting describes the process of drafting with a
computer. CADD software, or environments, provide the user with input-tools for the
purpose of streamlining design processes; drafting, documentation, and manufacturing
processes. CADD output is often in the form of electronic files for print or machining
operations. The development of CADD-based software is in direct correlation with the
processes it seeks to economize; industry-based software (construction, manufacturing,
etc.) typically uses vector-based (linear) environments whereas graphic-based software
utilizes raster-based (pixelated) environments.

CADD environments often involve more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of
technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information, such as
materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-specific
conventions.

CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves,
surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) objects.

CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including

automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design,
prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to produce computer animation for
special effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals. The modern ubiquity and
power of computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers are
designed using techniques unheard of by engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous
economic importance, CAD has been a major driving force for research in computational
geometry, computer graphics (both hardware and software), and discrete differential
geometry.

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The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is often called computer-
aided geometric design (CAGD).

Current computer-aided design software packages range from 2D vector-based drafting

systems to 3D solid and surface modellers. Modern CAD packages can also frequently
allow rotations in three dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from any
desired angle, even from the inside looking out. Some CAD software is capable of
dynamic mathematic modeling, in which case it may be marketed as CADD —
computer-aided design and drafting.

CAD is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting and design of all
types of buildings, from small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and
industrial structures (hospitals and factories).

CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D drawings of

physical components, but it is also used throughout the engineering process from
conceptual design and layout of products, through strength and dynamic analysis of
assemblies to definition of manufacturing methods of components. It can also be used to
design objects.

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 UNIGRAPHICS

 Software used for modeling are UNIGRAPHICS NX10

ABOUT UNIGRAPHICS:-

Design In the design environment, we have invested in all aspects of modeling

including significant enhancements to feature modeling, freeform modeling, and
synchronous technology, in a new layout environment for 2D conceptual design,
as well as in core functionality such as visualization and user interaction. We have
continued to invest in your core workflows. With NX 9, we introduced the
concept of Synchronous Technology in 2D sketching, which removed the need to
pre-create constraints to get logical changes, automatically recognized
relationships such as tangency, and used similar approaches to 3D conditions such
as symmetry and parallelism. We have further invested in this technology with a
number of enhancements that expand the flexibility which Synchronous
Technology in 2D delivers. This technology can make editing 2D drawings and
imported profiles such as DXF quick and easy, saving you time and money and
increasing your ability to reuse legacy data. To ensure good quality data, we have
introduced a 2D geometry optimization tool that allows you to clean imported 2D
data removing overlapping objects, fixing small gaps in profiles, etc. With NX 10
we have included a number of key projects that enhance performance, making use
of your computer hardware to multi-thread display regeneration after an update,
and giving you tools to modularize your design for faster update. For users with
large feature trees that contain many operations, Part Modules has been enhanced
to allow you to easily structure your feature tree into manageable portions,
allowing you to be in control of exactly what is updated and when.

Other enhancements to feature modeling include: • A new set of aerospace design

features for the creation of airframe structures. • Improved pattern tools. •
Increased capability to identify missing faces when modifying parametric models.

For those of you who develop complex freeform geometry, NX 9.0.1 introduced

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NX Realize Shape, a new approach to creating highly stylized models. We have
continued to invest in this technology adding new construction tools to allow
increased flexibility when creating organic shapes. NX 10 introduces NX Layout,
an easy to use 2D conceptual design environment which is fully integrated into
the NX Drafting application. NX Layout provides a number of dedicated tools to
support 2D design and layout. You can explore concepts in 2D and then use that
data to generate 3D models and assemblies. With NX 9 we introduced the
Microsoft Ribbon approach for user interaction. With NX 10 we have
implemented a number of enhancements following your feedback to make the
user interaction model more efficient. In addition to these changes we have
introduced support for dual monitors. If you work on two monitors, you can now
position the navigators on the second monitor, and use your primary monitor
purely for graphics. NX 10 also introduces support for touch devices; with the
new roles and the multi-gesture support for using NX on a touch panel or touch
enabled PC, you can be more productive than ever.

CAE Highlights of the NX CAE 10 release include: • A new multiphysics

environment to connect two or more solvers to streamline the process of
performing complex, multiphysics simulations. • The ability to solve thermo-
mechanical problems in loosely-coupled or tightly-coupled modes. Simulation
modeling and results visualization enhancements include: • Adaptive meshing
capability for better convergences and accuracy of structural, thermal, and
multiphysics solutions. • New expression functions, quantities, and an evaluation
system that simplify the task of defining interdependent loads and boundary
conditions. • The ability to extract relationships in results data during
postprocessing to develop a greater understanding of the model’s physical
behavior. Structural analysis enhancements include: • The ability to simulate
complex phenomena in composites like delamination and progressive failure. •
Integrated, end-to-end vibro-acoustics workflow to increase productivity for
automotive NVH analysis. • A new environment for the LMS Samcef Solver
Suite, which offers a nonlinear finite element solver for structural analysis
covering a wide range of applications in the aerospace, defense, and automotive
26
industries. Thermal analysis enhancements include: • The ability to define thermal
boundary conditions with symbolic expressions containing quantities that can be
evaluated only at solve time and updated as needed during the solution sequence.

• An adaptive time stepping scheme to handle sharp changes in temperature at

boundary conditions. Flow analysis enhancements include: • The ability to create
a boundary layer mesh in the finite element model file with the NX Advanced
Fluid Modeling module. This allows greater control over a boundary layer mesh,
because you can visualize it and use all the mesh controls and quality checks you
normally would with any FE mesh. • The ability to export the boundary layer
mesh to a CFD general notation system (CGNS) file for use with other CFD
solvers. • Mesh wrapping capability to generate fluid bodies from models for
which you have mesh data but no geometry. • Extensions to the parallel flow
solver for homogeneous gas mixture and tracer fluids, high-speed flows, shear
stress transport (SST) and K-omega turbulence models, and non-Newtonian
fluids. • Two-phase, immiscible fluid simulation enhancements that include the
ability to simulate two liquids or gases and simulate open volume enclosures,
such as the filling or emptying of a tank. Simulation process automation
enhancements include NX Open support for the Python scripting language to
automate simulation workflows.

CAM NX Manufacturing has also been enhanced to improve productivity when

generating manufacturing data. NX CAM 10 introduces new industry-specific
capabilities for part manufacturing that enable faster programming and better
quality machining of parts. Mold and die machining Optimized roughing: The
new roughing strategy in NX is especially useful for more complex parts that
require different cutting strategies for different regions. NX automatically adjusts
the cutting method region-by-region and level-by-level, ensuring improved
cutting conditions in each machined area. Cut region control for rest milling: The
interactive cut region control functions have been extended to cover Flowcut, so
you can specify a range of cut patterns for steep, shallow and flat areas. To ensure
that the best cutting method is used for each corner or valley, you can preview,

27
change, and reorder the regions before generating tool paths. Prismatic part
machining Group features: Using feature-based machining, holes are identified,
filtered and grouped automatically. Holes sharing similar attributes are
programmed together so that they share tools. On the shop floor, the optimized
machining process can reduce machining time and increase accuracy. Chamfer
milling of holes: You can now apply the powerful hole-milling approach to a
common feature with a minimum of programming input. NX 10 enables you to
automatically calculate the correct tool offset for chamfering multiple holes and
generating a circular milling tool path.

Efficient drilling paths: The new optimized sequencing in NX enables you to

improve drilling operations by specifying the desired drilling pattern and selecting
the best start position. The subsequent operation can start where the previous one
ended, reversing the cutting direction, and thus further maximizing performance
of the machine tool. Complex part machining Swarf cutting of blades: We have
enhanced swarfing in the NX Turbomachinery Milling module so that you can
now achieve exact alignment of the tool with the blade geometry. You can finish
complex blades with a single pass using the entire length of the tool, which can
produce a high-quality surface finish. 5-axis machining of rotary parts: The
enhanced strategies in NX 10 make it simple to create efficient 5-axis machining
operations for large rotary parts, such as aircraft engine casings. Select a single
edge and NX will generate all the necessary operations to machine cylindrical
faces or chamfer an edge. CMM Inspection NX CMM 10 features powerful
programming capabilities that let you create accurate and safe inspection paths
automatically. The results analysis module enables you to import and compare
multiple results sets to improve the quality control process. Automatic collision
avoidance enhancement: The expanded automated collision avoidance methods
include adjustment of the inspection pattern. For example, a touch point
positioned too close to another surface will be automatically moved far enough to
avoid any interference. Scanning paths automated: New automated inspection
programming capabilities in NX CMM enable the use of PMI to create inspection
scanning paths. This helps to significantly speed up the inspection process
28
compared to the currently available touch point method. Saved analysis result:
NX 10 enables you to use NX CMM to analyze measured results by bringing
them back into the graphics system to compare against the as-modeled geometry.
You can also compare subsequent measurements against previous measurements
as manufacturing processes are refined and quality is improved.

Line Designer Line Designer is a new application in NX 10 that provides

manufacturing line design capabilities for automotive assembly manufacturing.
The advanced parametric engine in NX enables you to easily design flexible
layouts of production lines. You can also perform accurate impact analysis and
drive efficient change management by using the parametric resources. The
integrated Siemens PLM Software platform lets you use Teamcenter and
Tecnomatix software to manage the designs, and validate and optimize
manufacturing processes. Help and search NX 10 Help is now provided as a web
application which allows you to more easily serve a single copy of the help to
multiple users.

3D MODEL OF CAMSHAFT

29
Fig. Front view of cam shaft

30
Fig. left side view of cam shaft

Fig. Top view of cam shaft

31
 INTRODUCTION TO FEA

Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was first developed in 1943 by R. Courant, who utilized
the Ritz method of numerical analysis and minimization of variational calculus to obtain
approximate solutions to vibration systems. Shortly thereafter, a paper published in 1956
by M. J. Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp established a broader
definition of numerical analysis. The paper centered on the "stiffness and deflection of
complex structures".

By the early 70's, FEA was limited to expensive mainframe computers generally owned
by the aeronautics, automotive, defense, and nuclear industries. Since the rapid decline in
the cost of computers and the phenomenal increase in computing power, FEA has been
developed to an incredible precision. Present day supercomputers are now able to
produce accurate results for all kinds of parameters.

FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed
for specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing product refinement. A
company is able to verify a proposed design will be able to perform to the client's
specifications prior to manufacturing or construction. Modifying an existing product or
structure is utilized to qualify the product or structure for a new service condition. In case
of structural failure, FEA may be used to help determine the design modifications to meet
the new condition.

There are generally two types of analysis that are used in industry: 2-D modeling, and 3-
D modeling. While 2-D modeling conserves simplicity and allows the analysis to be run
on a relatively normal computer, it tends to yield less accurate results. 3-D modeling,
however, produces more accurate results while sacrificing the ability to run on all but the
fastest computers effectively. Within each of these modeling schemes, the programmer
can insert numerous algorithms (functions) which may make the system behave linearly
or non-linearly. Linear systems are far less complex and generally do not take into
account plastic deformation. Non-linear systems do account for plastic deformation, and
many also are capable of testing a material all the way to fracture.

32
FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes which make a grid called a mesh. This
mesh is programmed to contain the material and structural properties which define how
the structure will react to certain loading conditions. Nodes are assigned at a certain
density throughout the material depending on the anticipated stress levels of a particular
area. Regions which will receive large amounts of stress usually have a higher node
density than those which experience little or no stress. Points of interest may consist of:
fracture point of previously tested material, fillets, corners, complex detail, and high
stress areas. The mesh acts like a spider web in that from each node, there extends a mesh
element to each of the adjacent nodes. This web of vectors is what carries the material
properties to the object, creating many elements.

Types of Engineering Analysis

Structural analysis consists of linear and non-linear models. Linear models use simple
parameters and assume that the material is not plastically deformed. Non-linear models
consist of stressing the material past its elastic capabilities. The stresses in the material
then vary with the amount of deformation as in.

Vibrational analysis is used to test a material against random vibrations, shock, and
impact. Each of these incidences may act on the natural vibrational frequency of the
material which, in turn, may cause resonance and subsequent failure.

Fatigue analysis helps designers to predict the life of a material or structure by showing
the effects of cyclic loading on the specimen. Such analysis can show the areas where
crack propagation is most likely to occur. Failure due to fatigue may also show the
damage tolerance of the material.

Heat Transfer analysis models the conductivity or thermal fluid dynamics of the
material or structure. This may consist of a steady-state or transient transfer. Steady-state
transfer refers to constant thermo properties in the material that yield linear heat
diffusion.

33
Results of Finite Element Analysis

FEA has become a solution to the task of predicting failure due to unknown stresses by
showing problem areas in a material and allowing designers to see all of the theoretical
stresses within. This method of product design and testing is far superior to the
manufacturing costs which would accrue if each sample was actually built and tested.
In practice, a finite element analysis usually consists of three principal steps:

1. Preprocessing: The user constructs a model of the part to be analyzed in which the
geometry is divided into a number of discrete sub regions, or elements," connected
at discrete points called nodes." Certain of these nodes will have fixed
displacements, and others will have prescribed loads. These models can be
extremely time consuming to prepare, and commercial codes vie with one another
to have the most user-friendly graphical “preprocessor" to assist in this rather
tedious chore. Some of these preprocessors can overlay a mesh on a preexisting
CAD file, so that finite element analysis can be done conveniently as part of the
computerized drafting-and-design process.
2. Analysis: The dataset prepared by the preprocessor is used as input to the finite
element code itself, which constructs and solves a system of linear or nonlinear
algebraic equations
Kijuj = fi

where u and f are the displacements and externally applied forces at the nodal
points. One of FEA's principal advantages is that many problem types can be addressed
with the same code, merely by specifying the appropriate element types from the library.

3. Postprocessing: In the earlier days of finite element analysis, the user would pore
through reams of numbers generated by the code, listing displacements and
stresses at discrete positions within the model. It is easy to miss important trends
and hot spots this way, and modern codes use graphical displays to assist in
visualizing the results. A typical postprocessor display overlays colored contours

34
 representing stress levels on the model, showing a full field picture similar to that
of photo elastic or moiré experimental results.

INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS

ANSYS is general-purpose finite element analysis (FEA) software package. Finite

Element Analysis is a numerical method of deconstructing a complex system into very
small pieces (of user-designated size) called elements. The software implements
equations that govern the behaviour of these elements and solves them all; creating a
comprehensive explanation of how the system acts as a whole. These results then can be
presented in tabulated, or graphical forms. This type of analysis is typically used for the
design and optimization of a system far too complex to analyze by hand. Systems that
may fit into this category are too complex due to their geometry, scale, or governing
equations.

ANSYS is the standard FEA teaching tool within the Mechanical Engineering
Department at many colleges. ANSYS is also used in Civil and Electrical Engineering, as
well as the Physics and Chemistry departments.

ANSYS provides a cost-effective way to explore the performance of products or

processes in a virtual environment. This type of product development is termed virtual
prototyping.

With virtual prototyping techniques, users can iterate various scenarios to optimize the
product long before the manufacturing is started. This enables a reduction in the level of
risk, and in the cost of ineffective designs. The multifaceted nature of ANSYS also
provides a means to ensure that users are able to see the effect of a design on the whole
behavior of the product, be it electromagnetic, thermal, mechanical etc.

35
Generic Steps to Solving any Problem in ANSYS:

Like solving any problem analytically, you need to define (1) your solution
domain, (2) the physical model, (3) boundary conditions and (4) the physical
properties. You then solve the problem and present the results. In numerical
methods, the main difference is an extra step called mesh generation. This is the
step that divides the complex model into small elements that become solvable in
an otherwise too complex situation. Below describes the processes in terminology
slightly more attune to the software.

Build Geometry

Define Material Properties

Generate Mesh

Apply Loads

Obtain Solution

Present the Results

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Young’s
Density Poisson’s Strength
Modulus
(Kg/mm3) Ratio (MPa)
(MPa)
Structural
200000 0.00000787 0.313 290
Steel
Aluminum
70300 0.00000281 0.33 490
alloy 7475

36
 STATIC STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF CAM SHAFT

MATERIAL - STEEL ALLOY

Save NX Model as .iges format

→→Ansys → Workbench→ Select analysis system → static structural → double click

→→Select geometry → right click → import geometry → select browse →open part →
ok→→ select mesh on work bench → right click →edit

Model imported

37
Double click on geometry → select MSBR → edit material →

Select mesh on left side part tree → right click → generate mesh →

Meshed model

Select static structural right click → insert → select pressure and displacement →
Select displacement → select required area → click on apply → put X,Y,Z component
zero →

Displacement applied to cam shaft

38
Select pressure → select required area → click on apply → enter pressure value→

Pressure applied on cam profile

Select solution right click → solve →

Solution right click → insert → deformation → total → Solution right click → insert
→ strain → equivant (von-mises) →
Solution right click → insert → stress → equivant (von-mises) →
Right click on deformation → evaluate all result
STRUCTURAL STEEL

Total deformation in camshaft for structural steel material

39
Stress in camshaft for structural steel material

Strain in camshaft for structural steel material

40
 ALUMINUM ALLOY 7475

Total deformation in camshaft for aluminium alloy 7475 material

Stress in camshaft for aluminium alloy 7475 material

Strain in camshaft for aluminium alloy 7475 material

41
 INTRODUCTION TO CASTING
Casting is one of the oldest procedures done on metals. Many products are formed
using this method. Here is an attempt to share the knowledge of casting.

Casting is one of four types: sand casting, permanent mold casting, plaster casting and
Die casting. All these types of castings have their own advantages and disadvantages.
Depending on the properties of the product requited, one of the casting is selected.

Sand Casting: Sand casting is the oldest casting of the above. This method of casting
is in use since 1950.The texture of the product depends on the sand used for casting.
The end product is given smooth finishing at the end. Usually iron, steel, bronze,
brass, aluminium, magnesium alloys which often include lead, tin, and zinc are used.

Permanent mold casting: Permanent mold casting uses two pieces of mold. This molds
are joined together and molten metal is pored into this mold. The hot metal is allowed
to cool and the mold pieces are separated. Some products have metal extrusion which
are removed by flash grind or by hand. Tin, lead and Zinc are commonly moulded
using this method.

Plaster casting: Plaster casting is one of the easiest methods. How ever it is used for
metals with low melting point like Coper, Zinc and Aluminum. This is the easiest
process because mold can be made easily in case it brakes in the procedures.

Die casting: Die casting is done by introducing molten metal into the mold at high or
low pressure. Earlier only low-pressure die-casting was used but now a days high
pressure die casting is used more extensively. Molds are well designed to give
complex products with stunning accuracy and smooth finishing. They are made of
high quality steel as steel has higher melting point. These molds can be reused
thousands of times. Casts can be single cavity that produces only a single component,
multiple cavity that produces multiple identical parts at a time, unit die that produces
different parts and combination die that produces different parts in one go. Usually
zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter and tin based alloys are used for
die casting.

42
 Using die casting we can make products with pore-free products that do not allow
gas to pass though them and making them strong. Two types of machines are used
for die-casting. Cold-chamber and hot-chamber die-casting.

Hot-chamber die casting is used for high-fluidity metals. First the molten metal is
collected using goose neck and then the metal is shot into the mold. The advantage
of this method is the cycles/min are increased. But the disadvantage is that high
melting point metals and aluminum pick-sup iron particles.

Cold chamber die casting is used where hot-chamber can not be used. In this
process the molten metal is transferred to the injector and then the injector injects
the metal into the mold. Metals with high melting points can be die casted using
this process but the disadvantage is it is slow than hot-chamber process.

INTRODUCTION TO DIE CASTING

Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten metal under
high pressure into a mold cavity, which is machined into two hardened tool steel dies.
Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper,
aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter and tin based alloys. Depending on the type of
metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used.

The casting equipment and the metal dies represent large capital costs and this tends to
limit the process to high volume production. Manufacture of parts using die casting is
relatively simple, involving only four main steps, which keeps the incremental cost per
item low. It is especially suited for a large quantity of small to medium sized castings,
which is why die casting produces more castings than any other casting process. Die
castings are characterized by a very good surface finish (by casting standards) and
dimensional consistency.

Two variants are pore-free die casting, which is used to eliminate gas porosity defects;
and direct injection die casting, which is used with zinc castings to reduce scrap and
increase yield.

43
Cast metals

The main die casting alloys are: zinc, aluminium, magnesium, copper, lead, and tin;
although uncommon, ferrous die casting is possible. Specific dies casting alloys include:
ZAMAK; zinc aluminium; aluminium to, e.g. The Aluminum Association (AA)
standards: AA 380, AA 384, AA 386, AA 390; and AZ91D magnesium. The following is
a summary of the advantages of each alloy:

 Zinc: the easiest alloy to cast; high ductility; high impact strength; easily plated;
economical for small parts; promotes long die life.
 Aluminium: lightweight; high dimensional stability for complex shapes and thin
walls; good corrosion resistance; good mechanical properties; high thermal and
electrical conductivity; retains strength at high temperatures.
 Magnesium: the easiest alloy to machine; excellent strength-to-weight ratio;
lightest alloy commonly die cast.
 Copper: high hardness; high corrosion resistance; highest mechanical properties
of alloys die cast; excellent wear resistance; excellent dimensional stability;
strength approaching that of steel parts.
 Lead and tin: high density; extremely close dimensional accuracy; used for
special forms of corrosion resistance. Such alloys are not used in foodservice
applications for public health reasons.

Maximum weight limits for aluminium, brass, magnesium, and zinc castings are
approximately 70 pounds (32 kg), 10 lb (5 kg), 44 lb (20 kg), and 75 lb (34 kg),
respectively.

The material used defines the minimum section thickness and minimum draft required for
a casting as outlined in the table below. The thickest section should be less than 13 mm
(0.5 in), but can be greater.

Metal Minimum section Minimum draft

Aluminium alloys 0.89 mm (0.035 in) 1:100 (0.6°)

44
Brass and bronze 1.27 mm (0.050 in) 1:80 (0.7°)
Magnesium alloys 1.27 mm (0.050 in) 1:100 (0.6°)
Zinc alloys 0.63 mm (0.025 in) 1:200 (0.3°)

Equipment

There are two basic types of die casting machines: hot-chamber machines and cold-
chamber machines.These are rated by how much clamping force they can apply. Typical
ratings are between 400 and 4,000 st (2,500 and 25,000 kg).

Hot-chamber machines

Schematic of a hot-chamber machine

Hot-chamber machines, also known as gooseneck machines, rely upon a pool of molten
metal to feed the die. At the beginning of the cycle the piston of the machine is retracted,
which allows the molten metal to fill the "gooseneck". The pneumatic or hydraulic
powered piston then forces this metal out of the gooseneck into the die. The advantages
of this system include fast cycle times (approximately 15 cycles a minute) and the
convenience of melting the metal in the casting machine. The disadvantages of this
system are that high-melting point metals cannot be utilized and aluminium cannot be
used because it picks up some of the iron while in the molten pool. Due to this, hot-
chamber machines are primarily used with zinc, tin, and lead based alloys.

45
Cold-chamber machines

A schematic of a cold-chamber die casting machine.

These are used when the casting alloy cannot be used in hot-chamber machines; these
include aluminium, zinc alloys with a large composition of aluminium, magnesium and
copper. The process for these machines start with melting the metal in a separate furnace.
Then a precise amount of molten metal is transported to the cold-chamber machine where
it is fed into an unheated shot chamber (or injection cylinder). This shot is then driven
into the die by a hydraulic or mechanical piston. This biggest disadvantage of this system
is the slower cycle time due to the need to transfer the molten metal from the furnace to
the cold-chamber machine.

Open tooling and injection nozzleComplete working cell

46
DIES

The ejector die half

The cover die half

Two dies are used in die casting; one is called the "cover die half" and the other the
"ejector die half". Where they meet is called the parting line. The cover die contains the
sprue (for hot-chamber machines) or shot hole (for cold-chamber machines), which

47
allows the molten metal to flow into the dies; this feature matches up with the injector
nozzle on the hot-chamber machines or the shot chamber in the cold-chamber machines.
The ejector die contains the ejector pins and usually the runner, which is the path from
the sprue or shot hole to the mold cavity. The cover die is secured to the stationary, or
front, platen of the casting machine, while the ejector die is attached to the movable
platen. The mold cavity is cut into two cavity inserts, which are separate pieces that can
be replaced relatively easily and bolt into the die halves.

The dies are designed so that the finished casting will slide off the cover half of the die
and stay in the ejector half as the dies are opened. This assures that the casting will be
ejected every cycle because the ejector half contains the ejector pins to push the casting
out of that die half. The ejector pins are driven by an ejector pin plate, which accurately
drives all of the pins at the same time and with the same force, so that the casting is not
damaged. The ejector pin plate also retracts the pins after ejecting the casting to prepare
for the next shot. There must be enough ejector pins to keep the overall force on each pin
low, because the casting is still hot and can be damaged by excessive force. The pins still
leave a mark, so they must be located in places where these marks will not hamper the
castings purpose.

Other die components include cores and slides. Cores are components that usually
produce holes or opening, but they can be used to create other details as well. There are
three types of cores: fixed, movable, and loose. Fixed cores are ones that are oriented
parallel to the pull direction of the dies (i.e. the direction the dies open), therefore they
are fixed, or permanently attached to the die. Movable cores are ones that are oriented in
any other way than parallel to the pull direction. These cores must be removed from the
die cavity after the shot solidifies, but before the dies open, using a separate mechanism.
Slides are similar to movable cores, except they are used to form undercut surfaces. The
use of movable cores and slides greatly increases the cost of the dies. Loose cores, also
called pick-outs, are used to cast intricate features, such as threaded holes. These loose
cores are inserted into the die by hand before each cycle and then ejected with the part at
the end of the cycle. The core then must be removed by hand. Loose cores are the most
expensive type of core, because of the extra labor and increased cycle time.[8] Other

48
features in the dies include water-cooling passages and vents along the parting lines.
These vents are usually wide and thin (approximately 0.13 mm or 0.005 in) so that when
the molten metal starts filling them the metal quickly solidifies and minimizes scrap. No
risers are used because the high pressure ensures a continuous feed of metal from the
gate.

The most important material properties for the dies are thermal shock resistance and
softening at elevated temperature; other important properties include hardenability,
machinability, heat checking resistance, weldability, availability (especially for larger
dies), and cost. The longevity of a die is directly dependent on the temperature of the
molten metal and the cycle time. The dies used in die casting are usually made out of
hardened tool steels, because cast iron cannot withstand the high pressures involved,
therefore the dies are very expensive, resulting in high start-up costs. Metals that are cast
at higher temperatures require dies made from higher alloy steels.

Die and component material and hardness for various cast metals
Cast metal
Die Aluminium &
Tin, lead & zinc Copper & brass
component magnesium
Material Hardness Material Hardness Material Hardness
290–330 42–48 38–44
P20[note 1] H13 DIN 1.2367
HB HRC HRC
46–50 42–48 H20, H21, 44–48
Cavity inserts H11 H11
HRC HRC H22 HRC
46–50
H13
HRC
46–52 44–48 40–46
Cores H13 H13 DIN 1.2367
HRC HRC HRC

49
 42–48
DIN 1.2367
HRC
48–52 DIN 1.2367 37–40 DIN 1.2367 37–40
Core pins H13
HRC prehard HRC prehard HRC
46–48
48–52 H13 HRC 42–46
Sprue parts H13 DIN 1.2367
HRC DIN 1.2367 44–46 HRC
HRC
40–44
40–44 42–48 DIN 1.2367 HRC
Nozzle 420 H13
HRC HRC H13 42–48
HRC
46–50 46–50 46–50
Ejector pins H13 H13 H13
HRC HRC HRC
42–48 42–46
Plunger shot 46–50 H13 HRC DIN 1.2367 HRC
H13
sleeve HRC DIN 1.2367 42–48 H13 42–46
HRC HRC
4140
Holder block ~300 HB 4140 prehard ~300 HB 4140 prehard ~300 HB
prehard

The main failure mode for die casting dies is wear or erosion. Other failure modes are
heat checking and thermal fatigue. Heat checking is when surface cracks occur on the die
due to a large temperature change on every cycle. Thermal fatigue is when surface cracks
occur on the die due to a large number of cycles.

50
 Typical die temperatures and life for various cast materials
Brass (leaded
Zinc Aluminium Magnesium
yellow)
Maximum die life [number of
1,000,000 100,000 100,000 10,000
cycles]
Die temperature [C° (F°)] 218 (425) 288 (550) 260 (500) 500 (950)
Casting temperature [C° (F°)] 400 (760) 660 (1220) 760 (1400) 1090 (2000)

Process

The following are the four steps in traditional die casting, also known as high-pressure
die casting, these are also the basis for any of the die casting variations: die preparation,
filling, ejection, and shakeout. The dies are prepared by spraying the mold cavity with
lubricant. The lubricant both helps control the temperature of the die and it also assists in
the removal of the casting. The dies are then closed and molten metal is injected into the
dies under high pressure; between 10 and 175 megapascals (1,500 and 25,400 psi). Once
the mold cavity is filled, the pressure is maintained until the casting solidifies. The dies
are then opened and the shot (shots are different from castings because there can be
multiple cavities in a die, yielding multiple castings per shot) is ejected by the ejector
pins. Finally, the shakeout involves separating the scrap, which includes the gate,
runners, sprues and flash, from the shot. This is often done using a special trim die in a
power press or hydraulic press. Other methods of shaking out include sawing and
grinding. A less labor-intensive method is to tumble shots if gates are thin and easily
broken; separation of gates from finished parts must follow. This scrap is recycled by
remelting it. The yield is approximately 67%.

The high-pressure injection leads to a quick fill of the die, which is required so the entire
cavity fills before any part of the casting solidifies. In this way, discontinuities are
avoided, even if the shape requires difficult-to-fill thin sections. This creates the problem
of air entrapment, because when the mold is filled quickly there is little time for the air to
escape. This problem is minimized by including vents along the parting lines, however,

51
even in a highly refined process there will still be some porosity in the center of the
casting.

Most die casters perform other secondary operations to produce features not readily
castable, such as tapping a hole, polishing, plating, buffing, or painting.

Inspection

After the shakeout of the casting it is inspected for defects. The most common defects are
misruns and cold shuts. These defects can be caused by bold dies, low metal temperature,
dirty metal, lack of venting, or too much lubricant. Other possible defects are gas
porosity, shrinkage porosity, hot tears, and flow marks. Flow marks are marks left on the
surface of the casting due to poor gating, sharp corners, or excessive lubricant.

Lubricants

Water-based lubricants, called emulsions, are the most commonly used type of lubricant,
because of health, environmental, and safety reasons. Unlike solvent-based lubricants, if
water is properly treated to remove all minerals from it, it will not leave any by-product
in the dies. If the water is not properly treated, then the minerals can cause surface defects
and discontinuities. There are four types of water-based lubricants: oil in water, water in
oil, semi-synthetic, and synthetic. Oil in water is the best, because when the lubricant is
applied the water cools the die surface by evaporating while depositing the oil, which
helps release the shot. A common mixture for this type of lubricants is thirty parts water
to one part oil, however in extreme cases a ratio of 100:1 is used.

Oils that are used include heavy residual oil (HRO), animal fats, vegetable fats, and
synthetic fats. HROs are gelatinous at room temperature, but at the high temperatures
found in die casting, they form a thin film. Pigments are added to control the emulsions
viscosity and thermal properties; these include graphite, aluminium, and mica. Other
chemical additives are used to inhibit rusting and oxidation. Emulsifiers are added to
water-based lubricants, so that oil based additives can be mixed into the water; these
include soap, alcohol esters, and ethylene oxides.

52
Historically, solvent-based lubricants, such as diesel fuel and kerosene, were commonly
used. These were good at releasing the part from the dies, but a small explosion occurred
during each shot, which led to a build-up of carbon on the mold cavity walls. However,
they were easier to apply evenly than water-based lubricants.

Variants

Acurad

Acurad was a die casting process developed by General Motors in the late 1950s and
1960s. The name is an acronym for accurate, reliable, and dense. It was developed to
combine a stable fill and directional solidification with the fast cycle times of the
traditional die casting process. The process pioneered four breakthrough technologies for
die casting: thermal analysis, flow and fill modeling, heat treatable and high integrity die
castings, and indirect squeeze casting.

The thermal analysis was the first done for any casting process. This was done by
creating an electrical analog of the thermal system. A cross-section of the dies were
drawn on teledeltos paper and then thermal loads and cooling patterns were drawn onto
the paper. Water lines were represented by magnets of various sizes. The thermal
conductivity was represented by the reciprocal of the resistivity of the paper.

The Acurad system employed a bottom fill system that required a stable flow-front.
Logical thought processes and trial and error were used because computerized analysis
did not exist yet; however this modeling was the precursor to computerized flow and fill
modeling.

The Acurad system was the first die casting process that could successfully cast low-iron
aluminum alloys, such as A356 and A357. In a traditional die casting process these alloys
would solder to the die. Similarly, Acurad castings could be heat treated and meet the
U.S. military specification MIL-A-21180.

53
Finally, the Acurad system employed a patented double shot piston design. The idea was
to use a second piston (located within the primary piston) to apply pressure after the shot
had partially solidified around the perimeter of the casting cavity and shot sleeve. While
the system was not very effective, it did lead the manufacturer of the Acurad machines,
Ube Industries, to discover that it was just effective to apply sufficient pressure at the
right time later in the cycle with the primary piston; this is indirect squeeze casting.

Pore-free

When no porosity is required for a casting then the pore-free casting process is used. It
is identical to the standard process except oxygen is injected into the die before each shot
to purge any air from the mold cavity. This causes small dispersed oxides to form when
the molten metal fills the dies, which virtually eliminates gas porosity. An added
advantage to this is greater strength. Unlike standard die castings, these castings can be
heat treated and welded. This process can be performed on aluminium, zinc, and lead
alloys.

Heated-manifold direct-injection

Heated-manifold direct-injection die casting, also known as direct-injection die

casting or runnerless die casting, is a zinc die casting process where molten zinc is
forced through a heated manifold and then through heated mini-nozzles, which lead into
the molding cavity. This process has the advantages of lower cost per part, through the
reduction of scrap (by the elimination of sprues, gates and runners) and energy
conservation, and better surface quality through slower cooling cycles.

Semi-solid

Semi-solid die casting uses metal that is heated between its liquidus and solidus, so that it
is "slushy". This allows for more complex parts and thinner walls.

Advantages and disadvantages of die casting

Advantages of die casting:

54
  High productivity.
 Good dimensional accuracy.
 Good surface finish: 2-100 µinch (0.5-2.5 µm) Ra.
 Thin wall parts may be cast.
 Very economical process at high volume production.
 Fine Grain structure and good mechanical properties are achieved.
 Intricate shapes may be cast.
 Small size parts may be produced.

Disadvantages of die casting:

 Not applicable for high melting point metals and alloys (eg. steels)
 Large parts can not be cast.
 High die cost.
 Too long lead time.
 Some gases may be entrapped in form of porosity.

Design aspects of die casting

 Since the metallic mold of a die casting expands when it is filled with a molten
metal and then both the casting and the mold shrinks during cooling the shrinkage
allowances taken in the die mold design are smaller than those in the Sand
casting.
 Parts of 0.05 lb (20 g) to 75 lb (34 kg) may be cast.
 The section thickness of permanent mold casting may vary in the range 0.02” -
0.5” (0.5-12 mm).
 The dimensional tolerances are 0.01-0.03” (0.25-0.75 mm) depending on the
casting section thickness.
 Allowances of 0.004-0.01” (0.1-0.25 mm) are taken for the dimensions crossing
the parting line of the mold.
 The draft angle is commonly about 1%.

55
  Lower (as compared to other casting methods) radii of the part corners may be
achieved by die casting process.
 Changes of the section thickness should be as gradual as possible.
 The parting line should not cross critical dimensions.
 Water-cooled dies may be used for obtaining faster Solidification at a desired
direction.
 The dies are fabricated from Tool and die steels. The die life is determined the
ability of the material to withstand wear caused by the molten alloys and Fatigue
caused by multiple heating and expansion.
 The cores are made of refractory ceramic materials. Sand based cores are not
applicable due to their insufficient strength under pressure applied in die casting.

Core and Cavity

Molds separate into at least two halves (called the core and the cavity) to permit the part
to be extracted. In general the shape of a part must not cause it to be locked into the mold.
For example, sides of objects typically cannot be parallel with the direction of draw (the
direction in which the core and cavity separate from each other). They are angled slightly
(draft), and examination of most plastic household objects will reveal this. Parts that are
"bucket-like" tend to shrink onto the core while cooling, and after the cavity is pulled
away. Pins are the most popular method of removal from the core, but air ejection, and
stripper plates can also be used depending on the application. Most ejection plates are
found on the moving half of the tool, but they can be placed on the fixed half.

56
 CORE & CAVITY EXTRACTION IN NX
Select Mold Wizard.
Select Initialize Project

Fig – Initializing project

Select Part for manufacturing
Enter Shrinkage – 1
Select ok

57
Fig – Camshaft model in the mold wizard

58
Select work piece

Fig – Work piece

Select ok

59
 Fig – Camshaft with work piece

Select Check Regions – Select draw direction as Y direction

Select Face – Select Face Split option
Select datum plane – XZ
Select all faces to divide
Select Calculate
Select Design Parting Surfaces – Select Auto create parting surfaces

60
Select Define Core and Cavity area

Fig – Cavity1 region

61
Fig – Cavity2 region

62
 INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING

The manufacturing of various products is done at different scales ranging from humble
domestic production of say candlesticks to the manufacturing of huge machines including
ships, aeroplanes and so forth. The word manufacturing technology is mainly used for the
latter range of the spectrum of manufacturing, and refers to the commercial industrial
production of goods for sale and consumption with the help of gadgets and advanced
machine tools. Industrial production lines involve changing the shape, form and/or
composition of the initial products known as raw materials into products fit for final use
known as finished products.

Manufacturing Technology
The subject of manufacturing technology is very vast and includes various types of
machines tools required to manufacture finished products which range from simple hand-
held tools, lathe machines, grinders, milling machines to highly versatile and complicated
computerised numerical control or CNC machines and so forth. Of course it also involves
several different techniques of manufacturing which can be a subject matter of different
details discussion and some of these include casting, forging, alloying, welding,
soldering, brazing etc. each of these techniques have their own advantages and limitations
and are a specialized field of knowledge in their own right.

Material Science
Another related discipline which does not necessarily fall strictly within the definition
and scope of manufacturing technology, but can be said to complement the same is
material science. Manufacturing is done by use of metals and materials of different kinds
such as semiconductors and alloys hence the importance and knowledge of the same in
the field of manufacturing technology cannot be underestimated at any cost. Material
science basically deals with the property of materials and their behaviour under different
circumstances and environments which is extremely useful and necessary if those
materials are to be worked around to manufacture any sort of finished products using
them.

63
Any person wanting to specialize in the area of manufacturing technology needs to
master various principles and techniques many of which have been mentioned in the
preceding sections. Usually the training starts from learning the very basics of machine
workshop including tools and simple procedures such as filing, drilling, boring, honing
etc. and goes on to the use of more complicated tools and techniques involving the use of
heavy and versatile machine tools.

With the advancement of science and technology, even manufacturing has been reaching
new frontiers and specialized needs such as light and strong materials for spacecrafts
have led to the development of newer materials which are stronger than steel yet many
times lighter than the same. Combined with other branches of engineering such as
computing, electronics, automation etc. this branch of mechanical engineering is certainly
set to break all barriers in the coming future.
Process manufacturing is the production of goods that are typically produced in bulk
quantities, as opposed to discrete and countable units. Process manufacturing industries
include chemicals, food and beverage, gasoline, paint and pharmaceutical.

The production of process goods usually requires inputs for thermal or chemical
conversion, such as heat, time and pressure. The product typically cannot be
disassembled to its constituent parts. For example, once it is produced, a soft drink cannot
be broken down into its ingredients.

The term contrasts with discrete manufacturing, which involves products that can be
counted and labeled on an individual basis. Examples of discrete manufacturing
industries include automotives, equipment, appliances, apparel, toys and electronics such
as televisions and computers.

64
MILLING
Milling is the complex shaping of metal or other materials by removing material to form
the final shape. It is generally done on a milling machine, a power-driven machine that in
its basic form consists of a milling cutter that rotates about the spindle axis (like a drill),
and a worktable that can move in multiple directions (usually two dimensions [x and y
axis] relative to the workpiece. The spindle usually moves in the z axis. It is possible to
raise the table (where the workpiece rests). Milling machines may be operated manually
or under computer numerical control (CNC), and can perform a vast number of complex
operations, such as slot cutting, planing, drilling and threading, rabbeting, routing, etc.
Two common types of mills are the horizontal mill and vertical mill.
The pieces produced are usually complex 3D objects that are converted into x, y, and z
coordinates that are then fed into the CNC machine and allow it to complete the tasks
required. The milling machine can produce most parts in 3D, but some require the objects
to be rotated around the x, y, or z coordinate axis (depending on the need). Tolerances are
usually in the thousandths of an inch (Unit known as Thou), depending on the specific
machine.
In order to keep both the bit and material cool, a high temperature coolant is used. In
most cases the coolant is sprayed from a hose directly onto the bit and material. This
coolant can either be machine or user controlled, depending on the machine.
Materials that can be milled range from aluminium to stainless steel and most everything
in between. Each material requires a different speed on the milling tool and varies in the
amount of material that can be removed in one pass of the tool. Harder materials are
usually milled at slower speeds with small amounts of material removed. Softer materials
vary, but usually are milled with a high bit speed.
The use of a milling machine adds costs that are factored into the manufacturing process.
Each time the machine is used coolant is also used, which must be periodically added in
order to prevent breaking bits. A milling bit must also be changed as needed in order to
prevent damage to the material. Time is the biggest factor for costs. Complex parts can
require hours to complete, while very simple parts take only minutes. This in turn varies
the production time as well, as each part will require different amounts of time.

65
Safety is key with these machines. The bits are traveling at high speeds and removing
pieces of usually scalding hot metal. The advantage of having a CNC milling machine is
that it protects the machine operator.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

Since the age of the Industrial Revolution, the manufacturing process has undergone
many dramatic changes. One of the most dramatic of these changes is the introduction of
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM), a system of using computer technology to assist
the manufacturing process.
Through the use of CAM, a factory can become highly automated, through systems such
as real-time control and robotics. A CAM system usually seeks to control the production
process through varying degrees of automation. Because each of the many manufacturing
processes in a CAM system is computer controlled, a high degree of precision can be
achieved that is not possible with a human interface.
The CAM system, for example, sets the toolpath and executes precision machine
operations based on the imported design. Some CAM systems bring in additional
automation by also keeping track of materials and automating the ordering process, as
well as tasks such as tool replacement.
Computer Aided Manufacturing is commonly linked to Computer Aided Design (CAD)
systems. The resulting integrated CAD/CAM system then takes the computer-generated
design, and feeds it directly into the manufacturing system; the design is then converted
into multiple computer-controlled processes, such as drilling or turning.
Another advantage of Computer Aided Manufacturing is that it can be used to facilitate
mass customization: the process of creating small batches of products that are custom
designed to suit each particular client. Without CAM, and the CAD process that precedes
it, customization would be a time-consuming, manual and costly process. However, CAD
software allows for easy customization and rapid design changes: the automatic controls
of the CAM system make it possible to adjust the machinery automatically for each
different order.

66
 CNC PROGRAM
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MANUFACTURING PHOTOS

Fig – CNC Milling Machine

77
 Fig – Initial pieces for machining

Fig – Workpiece setup in CNC machine

78
Fig – Machining in progress

Fig – Machining in progress

79
 Fig – Cavity after milling

Fig – Completed cavities after machining

80
Fig – Cavities assembly after machining

81
 Fig – Die ready for casting

Fig – Pouring of molten metal in to the die

82
Fig – Final casting model of cam shaft

83
 CONCLUSION

In our project, a cam shaft is designed by using theoretical calculations and modeled in
NX. Static structural analysis and modal analysis using Structural Steel, and Aluminum
alloy 7475 materials on the camshaft is done using Ansys.
By observing the stress values, they are less than their respective yield stress values for
all the materials. So deigned cam shaft is safe. The main advantage of using Aluminum
alloys is its less density so the weight of cam shaft is less when compared with that of
Steel.

Core & Cavity is extracted for the cam shaft. CNC Program is generated for both core
and cavity using roughing and finishing processes. A prototype of the cam shaft is
manufactured by preparing the die and casting process.

BIBILOGRAPHY

84
 Machine Design by R.S. Khurmi and J.K. Gupta

 Theory of Machines by R.S. Khurmi and J.K. Gupta

 Theory of Machines by P.L. Ballney

 Pro/Engineer WildFire 5.0 by Steven G. Smith

85