<3>

Accession Number
Peer Reviewed Journal: 2003-08972-008.
Author
Perkins, Kenneth; Sayette, Michael; Conklin, Cynthia; Caggiula, Anthony.
Title
Placebo effects of tobacco smoking and other nicotine intake.
Source
Nicotine & Tobacco Research. Vol 5(5) Oct 2003, 695-709.
Taylor & Francis, United Kingdom
Abstract
Greater knowledge of placebo effects of smoking would improve our understanding of
factors that maintain smoking behavior, thereby aiding efforts to develop treatments to
counter the influence of these factors. In addition, better understanding of placebo
effects from other means of nicotine intake could help determine mechanisms of the
therapeutic actions of nicotine replacement therapy, perhaps enhancing its efficacy in
smoking cessation. Placebo effects of smoking or other nicotine intake have received
little research attention. In this review, we first discuss common terms and methods of
placebo research, especially the balanced-placebo design. We then examine the limited
research directly assessing placebo effects of smoking and other nicotine intake, namely
studies that manipulated instructions to subjects about the drug content of an ingested
substance. Finally, we examine other studies relevant to gauging the likely magnitude of
placebo smoking effects. In an effort to encourage more research on these placebo
effects, we pay substantial attention to future directions. Among recommendations are
testing the utility of the balanced-placebo design and other rigorously controlled
designs, and including multiple measures of placebo effects in addition to self-report.
(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2004 APA, all rights reserved)

<2>
Accession Number
Peer Reviewed Journal: 2004-11550-008.
Author
Audrain-McGovern, Janet; Rodriguez, Daniel; Tercyak, Kenneth P; Epstein, Leonard
H; Goldman, Paula; Wileyto, E. Paul.
Title
Applying a Behavioral Economic Framework to Understanding Adolescent Smoking.
Source
Psychology of Addictive Behaviors. Vol 18(1) Mar 2004, 64-73.
American Psychological Assn/Educational Publishing Foundation, US
Abstract
Adolescents' choice to smoke may depend on substitute reinforcers for smoking,
complementary activities to smoking, and individual differences in reinforcer value. The
influence of these variables on smoking was determined among 983 adolescents.
Substitutes were school involvement, academic performance, physical activity, and
sports team participation: complements were peer smoking and substance use; delay
discounting assessed individual differences in reinforcer value. Latent growth modeling
indicated that substitute reinforcers reduced the odds of smoking progression almost
two-fold, complementary reinforcers increased the odds by 1.14. and delay discounting
indirectly influenced the odds of smoking progression through complementary
reinforcers. Adolescents who smoke may have fewer reinforcers that protect against
smoking and more reinforcers that promote smoking. Discounting of future rewards
affects smoking through reinforcer type. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2004 APA, all
rights reserved) (journal abstract)

<4>
Accession Number
Peer Reviewed Journal: 2004-11098-019.
Author
Shiftman, Saul; Paty, Jean A; Gwaltney, Chad J; Dang, Qianyu.
Title
Immediate Antecedents of Cigarette Smoking: An Analysis of Unrestricted Smoking
Patterns.
Source
Journal of Abnormal Psychology. Vol 113(1) Feb 2004, 166-171.
American Psychological Assn, US
Abstract
Theory suggests that cigarette smoking is under stimulus control and that affect is a key
trigger for smoking. A previous study (S. Shiftman et al., 2002) showed little
relationship between affect and smoking, but this relationship could have been
suppressed by the impact of smoking restrictions. The study evaluated these
associations in a 1988 sample that was subject to few smoking restrictions. Smokers (N
= 28) not seeking treatment used palmtop computers to record context and affect prior
to smoking (n = 2,217 observations) and also at random times when not smoking (n =
2,380). Comparisons showed little relationship between smoking and affect. Smoking
was associated with particular activities and locations. Urge to smoke was the strongest
predictor of smoking. The results replicated the findings of S. Shiffman et al. (2002).
(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2004 APA, all rights reserved) (journal abstract)

<5>
Accession Number
Peer Reviewed Journal: 2004-10475-012.
Author
Hirshman, Elliot; Rhodes, Diane K; Zinser, Michael; Merritt, Paul.
Title
The Effect of Tobacco Abstinence on Recognition Memory, Digit Span Recall, and
Attentional Vigilance.
Source
Experimental & Clinical Psychopharmacology. Vol 12(1) Feb 2004, 76-83.
American Psychological Assn, US
Abstract
This article examines the effects of tobacco abstinence on recognition memory, digit
span recall, and visual attentional vigilance. The results demonstrated that abstinence
impaired recognition memory discrimination (ad libitum d' = .85, abstinent d' = .64),
recognition memory hit rates (ad libitum = .60, abstinent = .54), accuracy of target
detection in attentional vigilance (ad libitum = .99, abstinent = .97), and speed of target
detection in attentional vigilance (ad libitum = 662 ms, abstinent = 687 ms). Abstinence
did not impair digit span recall (ad libitum = .55, abstinent = .56). These results are
consistent with the hypotheses that tobacco abstinence impairs episodic memory and
sustained attention. They also suggest that some, but not necessarily all, short-term
memory processes may not be influenced by tobacco abstinence. (PsycINFO Database
Record (c) 2004 APA, all rights reserved) (journal abstract)

<1>
Accession Number
Peer Reviewed Journal: 2003-10569-015.
Author
Shiffman, Saul; Hughes, John R; Di Marino, Michael E; Sweeney, Christine T.
Title
Patterns of over-the-counter nicotine gum use: Persistent use and concurrent smoking.
Source
Addiction. Vol 98(12) Dec 2003, 1747-1753.
Blackwell Publishing, United Kingdom
Abstract
Examines the concurrent use of nicotine gum with cigarettes among consumers.
Assessment of gum use was conducted among smokers who purchased Nicorette gum
and enrolled in the optional Committed Quitters smoking cessation program. Those who
reported gum use at 12 weeks were contacted again at week 24. 2655 smokers who
purchased nicotine gum and enrolled in a clinical efficacy trial of the Committed
Quitters program participated. Detailed information on smoking and gum use was
obtained. At the 24-week, 6% of participants reported current use of nicotine gum.
Those engaging in persistent use averaged 4.7 days of gum use per week and 3.2 pieces
of gum per day. 66% of persistent users reported at week 24 that they were not currently
smoking, 67% of persistent users reported they were using gum to establish or maintain
abstinence. 14%, 10% and 2% of participants, reported current use of nicotine gum and
current cigarette smoking at weeks 6, 12, and 24, respectively. Those concurrent users
reported at the 12-week follow-up that they did so an average of 4.4 days per week, that
they chewed an average of 2.6 pieces of nicotine gum per day and that they smoked an
average of 8.7 cigarettes per day. Extended use of nicotine gum is rare. (PsycINFO
Database Record (c) 2004 APA, all rights reserved)

<3>
Accession Number
Journal Article: 2002-06536-013.
Author
Andrews, Judy A; Severson, Herbert H; Akers, Laura; Lichtenstein, Edward;
Barckley, Maureen.
Title
Who enrolls in a self-help cessation program for smokeless tobacco?
Source
Addictive Behaviors. Vol 26(5) Sep-Oct 2001, 757-764.
Elsevier Science, US
Abstract
To further our understanding of the representativeness of the smokeless tobacco (SLT)
user recruited to various treatment settings, and to suggest gaps in services available to
SLT users, we first compared participants who enrolled in a self-help cessation program
with two samples of nontreatment-seeking SLT users: SLT users identified through a
random digit dialing (RDD) survey, and SLT users who came to 1 of 75 dental practices
for a routine cleaning visit. We found that those in the self-help SLT cessation program
were older, more educated, more likely to have made a serious quit attempt, and used
more SLT weekly than those who did not seek treatment. Secondly, we compared SLT
users seeking treatment in three different treatment settings varying in accessibility and
intensity: self-help study participants, SLT users enrolled in a clinic-based study, and
callers to the California Help Line for SLT cessation. Participants differed across the
three studies on demographics, some measures of dependence, and history of SLT use.
(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved) (journal abstract)

<5>
Accession Number
Journal Article: 2002-12514-008.
Author
Cigrang, Jeffrey A; Severson, Herbert H; Peterson, Alan L.
Title
Pilot evaluation of a population-based health intervention for reducing use of smokeless
tobacco.
Source
Nicotine & Tobacco Research. Vol 4(1) Feb 2002, 127-131.
Taylor & Francis/Carfax Publishing, United Kingdom
Abstract
Smokeless tobacco (ST) use has been associated with numerous negative health
consequences, yet the prevalence of ST has increased dramatically since the 1970s.
Young males in the military are at an elevated risk for ST use relative to the general
population. 60 active-duty male participants (aged 19-47 yrs) were identified as ST
users during their annual preventive health screening and randomly assigned to
minimal-contact intervention or usual care. Intervention participants were proactively
contacted by phone and recruited, using a motivational interviewing style, for a
cessation program consisting of a treatment manual, video, and two supportive phone
calls from a cessation counselor. 65% agreed to participate in the minimal-contact
intervention. Three- and 6-month follow-up contacts found that the cessation rates
reported by intervention participants were double those reported by participants
receiving usual care. These pilot study data suggest that proactive recruitment using a
motivational interviewing approach to offer a treatment provides a good opportunity to
reduce the use of ST in military settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all
rights reserved)

<8>
Accession Number
Journal Article: 2001-16244-004.
Author
Severson, Herbert H; Andrews, Judy A; Lichtenstein, Edward; Gordon, Judith S;
Barckley, Maureen; Akers, Laura.
Title
A self-help cessation program for smokeless tobacco users: Comparison of two
interventions.
Source
Nicotine & Tobacco Research. Vol 2(4) Nov 2000, 363-370.
Taylor & Francis/Carfax Publishing, United Kingdom
Abstract
Evaluated the use of a self-help intervention, provided by mail and telephone, to
interested smokeless tobacco (SLT) users who responded to an offer for a free cessation
program. Ss were 1,069 individuals (aged 17-82 yrs) who were assigned to 1 of 2
conditions, Manual Only (MO) self-help manual or Assisted Self-Help (ASH) additional
video designed to accompany the manual and 2 supportive phone calls from tobacco
cessation counselors. Follow-up data were obtained at 6-wk and 6-mo post-enrollment.
Measures involved total outcome assessments and assessments of use of intervention
materials and cessation techniques. Of the 1,069 Ss, 735 completed the 6-mo
assessment and 625 completed both the 6-wk and 6-mo assessment. Use of other
tobacco products were also assessed. The results suggest that low-cost minimal
interventions done by mail and phone can help a sizable proportion of SLT users quit
both SLT and all tobacco use. Follow-up data at 6 mo shows that Ss in the ASH
condition had a significantly higher quit rate for both SLT and all tobacco use. Further
analysis reveals that use of the recommended cessation procedures mediated the effect
of intervention condition on outcomes. This may be the result of phone counselors
getting Ss to carry out behavioral cessation procedures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c)
2002 APA, all rights reserved)

<4>
Accession Number
Peer Reviewed Journal: 2003-08972-006.
Author
Hyland, Andrew; Hughes, John R; Farrelly, Matthew; Cummings, K. Michael.
Title
Switching to lower tar cigarettes does not increase or decrease the likelihood of future
quit attempts or cessation.
Source
Nicotine & Tobacco Research. Vol 5(5) Oct 2003, 665-671.
Taylor & Francis, United Kingdom
Abstract
This study examined whether switching to low-tar cigarettes predicts future quit
attempts or smoking cessation. Prior studies of whether switching to low-tar cigarettes
increases or decreases cessation behavior have produced contradictory results. We
believed a large, prospective population-based study was needed. Participants in the
Community Intervention Trial for Smoking Cessation (COMMIT), who were smokers
in 1989 and 1991 and provided their smoking status in a 1993 interview, provided
product code information so that the tar categories of their cigarettes could be identified.
Smokers' brands were classified as ultralight (0-6 mg tar), light (7-15 mg tar), and
regular (16+ mg tar). The main predictor measure was switching to a lower tar yield
category: 8% of baseline light smokers and 19% of baseline regular smokers switched
to a lower yield product between 1989 and 1991. The main outcome measures were
attempts to quit and successful 6-month cessation. Despite greater desire to quit among
switchers, switching down was not associated with increased or decreased number of
attempts to quit or the likelihood of future cessation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c)
2004 APA, all rights reserved)
<5>
Accession Number
Peer Reviewed Journal: 2003-08972-005.
Author
Hudmon, Karen Suchanek; Marks, Judith L; Pomerleau, Cynthia S; Bolt, Daniel M;
Brigham, Janet; Swan, Gary E.
Title
A multidimensional model for characterizing tobacco dependence.
Source
Nicotine & Tobacco Research. Vol 5(5) Oct 2003, 655-664.
Taylor & Francis, United Kingdom
Abstract
The standard tool for assessing tobacco dependence is the Fagerstrom Tolerance
Questionnaire (FTQ) or its more recent variant, the Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine
Dependence (FTND). To determine whether tobacco dependence exhibits
multidimensional properties, we examined two existing, independent data sets, one from
SRI International (n=443) and another from the University of Michigan (n=445). Based
on our knowledge from existing literature, standard psychometric statistical analyses,
and results from exploratory factor analysis using SRI's data set, we identified two
competing models for dependence representing a hybrid of the FTQ/FTND and the
Smoking Motives Questionnaire. We then examined these models using confirmatory
factor analysis with data from the University of Michigan. We characterized the final
model by five first-order factors, each consisting of two to four items, and one higher-
order factor. The first-order factors were termed stimulation, automaticity, sedation,
psychosocial motives, and morning smoking; the higher-order factor, tobacco
dependence, underlay each of the first-order factors. Results of these analyses support
the hypothesis that tobacco dependence is multidimensional. (PsycINFO Database
Record (c) 2004 APA, all rights reserved)