28-08-2016

Thermofluids
Thermodynamics - Properties

Dr. D. Gangacharyulu
Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering

Syllabus - Thermodynamics
• Introduction: Properties of matter, the state postulate, energy,
processes and thermodynamic systems;

• Properties of Pure Substances: property tables, property

diagrams, phase change, equations of state (ideal gas);

• Energy: Energy transfer by heat, work and mass;

• First Law of Thermodynamics: Closed system, open system,

steady-flow engineering devices;

• Second Law of Thermodynamics: Statements of the Second

Law, heat engines, refrigeration devices, reversible versus
irreversible processes, the Carnot cycle.

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EIC – Electronic (Instrumentation Control)

• Purpose of thermodynamics :

 Calibration of instruments ?
• Zeroth Law of thermodynamics
• It states that if two thermodynamic systems are
each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they
are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Dead weight pressure gauge

Temperature gauge Calibration

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EIC – Electronic (Instrumentation Control)

Contd…
 Energy conversion – (1) Heating element, (2) Electrical motor, (3) IC engine
motor

• First law of thermodynamics.

• It is called as law of conservation of energy.

• The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated
system is constant.

• Energy can be transformed from one form to another, but cannot be created
or destroyed.

• The first law is often formulated by stating that the change in the internal
energy of a closed system is equal to the amount of heat supplied to the
system, minus the amount of work done by the system on its surroundings.

• U = H – W

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EIC – Electronic (Instrumentation Control)

Contd…
 Current flow between two potentials?I = E/R
 Fluid flow between two pressures? v = p/R
 Heat flow between two temperatures? q = T/R

• Second law of thermodynamics

Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy.

• Although everybody has a feeling of what energy is, it is difficult to give a

precise definition for it.

• Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause changes.

• The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words “therme” (heat)
and dynamis (power),
 which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power.

• Today the same name is broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy
and energy transformations, including:
 power generation,
 refrigeration, and
 relationships among the properties of matter.

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Systems and Control volumes

• A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for
study.

• The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings.

• The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings is called the boundary.

• These terms are illustrated in Figure.

• The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.

• Note that the boundary is the contact surface shared by both the system and
the surroundings.

• Mathematically speaking, the boundary has zero thickness, and thus it can
neither contain any mass nor occupy any volume in space.

Closed system
• Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on
whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study.

• A closed system (also known as a control mass) consists of a fixed

amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary.

• That is, no mass can enter or leave a closed system, as shown in

Figure.

• But energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary; and
the volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed.

• If, as a special case, even energy is not allowed to cross the

boundary, that system is called an isolated system.

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Open system
• An open system, or a control volume, as it is often
called, is a properly selected region in space.

• It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such

as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.

• Flow through these devices is best studied by selecting

the region within the device as the control volume.

• Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control

volume.
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An open system (a control

volume) with one inlet and one
exit. An open system (a control
volume) with one inlet and one
exit.
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Properties of a state
• Any characteristic of a system is called a property.

• A property can be defined as any quantity that depends on the

state of the system and is independent of the path by which the
system arrived at the given state.

• Property is any quantity whose changes are defined only by

the end states and by the process

• Some familiar properties are:

 Temperature, T
 Pressure, p
 Volume V, and
 Mass, m,

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• Less familiar properties are:

 Density, 
 Viscosity, 
 Thermal conductivity, k
 Velocity, v
 Elevation, h
 Modulus of elasticity, E
 Thermal expansion coefficient, 
 Electric resistivity, 

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Types of Thermodynamic Properties

• Thermodynamic properties can be divided into TWO
general classes:
 Intensive properties: independent of the mass of the
system.
 Extensive properties: dependent on the mass, or, size,
or varies directly with the mass.

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Intensive properties
• Examples:
 Temperature, T
 Pressure, p
 Density, 

• Extensive properties per unit mass is also called as

intensive property
 Example: specific volume

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Extensive properties
• Examples:
 Total mass, m
 Total volume, V
 Total momentum, M

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How?
• An easy way to determine whether a property is intensive or
extensive is to divide the system into two equal parts with an
imaginary partition, as shown in figure.

Criterion to differentiate intensive

and extensive properties.

• Each part will have the same value of intensive properties as the
original system, but half the value of the extensive properties.
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• Generally, uppercase letters are used to denote extensive

properties (with mass m being a major exception), and
lowercase letters are used for intensive properties (with
pressure P and temperature T being the obvious
exceptions).

• Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific

properties.

• Some examples of specific properties are specific volume

(v = V/m) and specific total energy (e = E/m).
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Density
• Density is defined as mass per unit volume.
 Density:  = m/V (kg/m3)

• The reciprocal of density is the specific volume v, which

is defined as volume per unit mass.
 Specific volume: v = V/m = 1/ (m3/kg)

• For a differential volume element of mass m and volume

V, density can be expressed as:
 Density,  = m/V.

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Specific Gravity
• Sometimes the density of a substance is given relative to the
density of a well-known substance.

• Then it is called specific gravity, or relative density.

• It is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the

density of some standard substance at a specified temperature
(usually water at 4°C, for which water = 1000 kg/m3).
 Specific gravity: SG = /water

• Substances with specific gravities less than 1 are lighter than

water, and thus they would float on water.

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Pressure - Pressure Gauge

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Pressure
• In most thermodynamic investigations, absolute pressure (total
pressure) is considered.

• Pressure gauges and vacuum gauges, however, read the

difference between the absolute pressure and the atmospheric
pressure existing at the gauge.

• This is shown graphically in figure given in next slide.

• Pressures below atmospheric and slightly above atmospheric,

the pressure differences are measured with a manometer,
which contains water, mercury, alcohol, oil, or other fluids.
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• Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Pressure

gauge pressure
 pabs = patm + pgauge

 pgauge = pabs ‒ patm

• Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure – Vacuum

gauge pressure
• pabsolute = patmospheric – pvac
• pvac = patm – pabs

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Figure - Pressures

Pabs,1
Ordinary pressure gauge
p = (pabs,1 – patm)

Patm
Ordinary vacuum gauge
p = (patm – pabs,2)
Pabs,2
Barometer reads
atmospheric pressure
0
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Figure - Pressures

pgauge

Atmospheric pressure
pabsolute
pvacuum

pabsolute patmosphere

0
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Atmospheric Pressure
(Barometer)

Figure: The basic barometer

• The atmospheric pressure can be measured by inverting a
mercury-filled tube into a mercury container that is open to the
atmosphere as shown in figure.
• The unit of mmHg is also called the torr.
• Therefore, 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr.
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Atmospheric Pressure
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a
barometer
 thus, the atmospheric pressure is often referred to as
the barometric pressure.
• The pressure at point B is equal to the atmospheric
pressure.
• The pressure at C can be taken to be zero since there is
only mercury vapor above point C and the pressure is
very low relative to Patm and can be neglected to an
excellent approximation.
• Writing a force balance in the vertical direction gives:
Patm = gh
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Temperature
• A temperature is an objective
comparative measure of hot or cold.

• It is measured by a thermometer.

• the most common scale of

temperature:
• Celsius (denoted °C; formerly
called centigrade),
• Fahrenheit (denoted °F), and,
• especially in
science, Kelvin (denoted K).
A typical Celsius thermometer measures a winter day
temperature of−17°C 29

Temperature conversion
• K = oC + 273.15

• oR = oF + 459.67
o
C o F  32

100 180

o
C
9

5 o
F  32  o
C  0.5556  o
F  32 
9 
o
F    o F   32
5 
o

F  1.8  o F  32 
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• It is common practice to round the constant in:

 Kelvin scale to 273, and that in
 Rankine scale to 460.

• The temperature scales in the two unit systems are related

by:
 T (oR) = 1.8 T (K)
 T (oF) = 1.8 T (oC) + 32

• At the same time the differential in temperature:

 T (K) = T (oC)
 T (oR) = T (oF)

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Temperature scales
oC oF oR
K
Normal H2O 100.00 373.15 211.95 671.67
Boiling point

Normal H2O 0.00 273.15 32.00 491.67

Ice point

Absolute ‒ 273.15 0.00 ‒ 459.67 0.00

zero
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Comparison of temperature scales

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State and Equilibrium

• Consider a system not undergoing any change.

• At this point, all the properties can be measured or

calculated throughout the entire system.

• It gives us a set of properties that completely describes the

condition, or the state, of the system.

• At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed

values.

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A system at two different states

• If the value of even one property changes, the state will

change to a different one.

• The figure shows a system at two different states.

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A closed system reaching thermal equilibrium.

20oC 23oC 32oC 32oC

30oC 32oC
35oC 40oC 32oC 32oC
42oC 32oC

(a) Before (b) After

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• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.

• The word equilibrium implies a state of balance.

• In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials

(or driving forces) within the system.

• A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it

is isolated from its surroundings.

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There are many types of equilibriums:

 Thermal equilibrium
• if the temperature is the same throughout the entire
system.
• the system involves no temperature differential,
which is the driving force for heat flow.

 Mechanical equilibrium
• if there is no change in pressure at any point of the
system with time.
• the pressure may vary within the system with
elevation as a result of gravitational effects.
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 Phase equilibrium
• system involves two phases (Water + Steam).
• mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium level
and stays there.

 Chemical equilibrium
• if its chemical composition does not change
with time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.

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The State Postulate

• The state of a system is described by its properties.
• But it is not need to specify all the properties in
order to fix a state.
• Once a sufficient number of properties are
specified, the rest of the properties assume certain
values automatically.
• That is, specifying a certain number of properties
is sufficient to fix a state.
• The number of properties required to fix the state
of a system is given by the state postulate:
 The state of a simple compressible system is
completely specified by two independent, intensive
properties, temperature and specific volume.
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Processes and Cycles

• Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another
is called a process.
• The series of states through which a system passes during a process is
called the path of the process (Figure).
• To describe a process completely, it should specify the initial and final
states of the process, as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with
the surroundings.

A process between states 1 and 2

and the process path. The P-V diagram of a compression process.
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Quasi-static
• When a process proceeds in such a manner that the
system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium
state at all times, it is called a quasistatic, or quasi-
equilibrium, process.

• A quasi-equilibrium process can be viewed as a

sufficiently slow process that allows the system to adjust
itself internally so that properties in one part of the system
do not change any faster than those at other parts.

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Different Processes
• The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for
which a particular property remains constant.

• An isothermal process is a process during which the

temperature T remains constant;

• An isobaric process is a process during which the

pressure P remains constant; and

• An isochoric (or isometric) process is a process during

which the specific volume v remains constant.
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• A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to

its initial state at the end of the process.

• For a cycle the initial and final states are identical.

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The Steady-Flow Process

• The terms steady and uniform are used frequently in
engineering, and thus it is important to have a clear
understanding of their meanings.

• The term steady implies no change with time.

• The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient.

• The term uniform implies no change with location over a

specified region.

• These meanings are consistent with their everyday use (steady

flow, uniform properties, etc.).
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Continuum
• Matter is made up of atoms that are widely spaced in the gas phase.

• Yet it is very convenient to disregard the atomic nature of a substance and

view it as a continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes, that is, a
continuum.

• The continuum idealization allows us to treat properties as point functions.

• This idealization is valid as long as the size of the system is large relative to
the space between the molecules.

• This is the case in practically all problems, except some specialized ones.

• The continuum idealization is such as “the density of water in a glass is the

same at any point.”

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