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LAND MATERIAL PROPERTIES ANALYSIS OF LA MAROMA

(REAL DE CATORCE, SAN LUIS POTOSI) BASED ON


QUANTITATIVE GEOMORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES

Nanda Najih Habibil Afif1; Dr. José Rafael Barboza Gudiño2

1
Fakultas Teknik Geologi, Universitas Padjadjaran, Jalan Bandung-Sumedang km. 21 Jatinangor,
Sumedang, Jawa Barat, Indonesia; nanda12007@student.unpad.ac.id
2
Instituto de Geología, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Av. Dr. Manuel; Nava No. 5,
zona universitaria C.P. 7840 San Luis Potosí, S.L.P., México; rbarboza@uaslp.mx

Abstract
The study objected to find the material properties (qualitative aspects) through the quantitative
geomorphological studies. Main watershed (Wts) area has contrast high degree of stability then its
surrounded area based on the analysis of circularity ratio, elongation ratio, drainage density,
compactness coefficient, and bifurcation ratio. This area is part of the intrusion of Granodioritic
rocks on subsoil layer, so that the material does have a fairly high cohesiveness. The stability of this
land constrained by their nature is quite steep slopes in some areas of discontinuity which eventually
evolved into young river. Igneous rock intrusion in the Wts areas generally indicates that the region
is quite younger than the surrounding area (Sub-Wts). This is the one that supports why the form of
intermittent river watersheds area has had a mature river development (U-shaped) to have
compaction and material strength properties are lower, but with gentler slope. Landslide effect in the
geomorphological formation and land material properties is an unavoidable ongoing process in La
Maroma (geological cycle). Thus, several areas with stable subsoil formation can be transformed
into instable one because of the cycle of landslide happen along the period in La Maroma proven by
relation between regional geological setting and history to the quantitative geomorphological
analysis.

Keywords: geomorphology, La Maroma, land, material properties

1. INTRODUCTION
Real de Catorce is located in 23° 30'─23° 45' of north latitude and 100° 40'─101° 00' of
west longitude. The center point of this area located 165 km from the north central city
San Luis Potosi. Physiographically, this area positioned on the border of Mesa Central
province in the west and the Sierra Madre Oriental in the east, specifically within the
sub-province of Las Sierras Bajas (Lugo-Hubp, 1989). This area consists of low-grade
metamorphic rocks, the contact of extrusive and intrusive igneous rocks, and the
sedimentary rocks that cover a range of Triassic to Recent with a wide distribution of
marine limestone and Jurassic─Cretaceous sequences (Bacon, 1978; Barboza-Gudiño et
al. 1989).

Geological aspects of an area need to be analyzed and considered in line with the rate
increase of urban areas, among which is the aspect of slope instability. The effects of
land instability may result in landslides, subsidence or ground heave. Failing to deal
with this issue could cause harm to human life, local property and associated
infrastructure, and environment. These occur in different circumstances for different
reasons and vary in their predictability and in their effect on development. One of the

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areas in Real de Catorce (part of San Luis Potosi, Mexico) which has the potential
geological hazard related to slope stability matters is La Maroma.

La Maroma is located in the northern part of San Luis Potosi and is a mountainous area
with an altitude of 2200 meters above sea level in the height range of up to 2600 meters
above sea level. There is of 110 residents in the area with most of whom are living in
the basin area (around rivers), but a small portion of them are living in steep-sloop zone.
Some cases of landslides have occurred in this area which is directly related to the
geotechnical aspects and conditions of geomorphology of the area. Last landslides case
occurred on June 23, 2015 which caused damage to infrastructure, housing, and
economic losses due to a number of land were damaged. This paper objected the results
of geological and geomorphological analysis related to the La Maroma, Real de
Catorce, as an important part to be analyzed for future planning of urban development.

2. REAL DE CATORCE GEOLOGICAL SETTING


2.1 Lithology and Stratigraphy
Real de Catorce is made of low-grade
metamorphic rocks, contact of extrusive and
intrusive igneous rocks, and sedimentary rocks
that cover a range of Triassic with a wide
distribution of marine limestone and
Jurassic─Cretaceous sequences (Bacon, 1978;
Barboza-Gudiño 1989). The oldest known
rocks in Sierra de Cartoce are exhibited in
northwest part and south-southeast part, in the
form of clastic sequence of low-grade
metamorphism which has been assigned at
Pennsylvanian age by the presence of
Licospora sp. and Densosporites sp. (Bacon,
1978). However, Barboza-Gudiño et al (2010)
reported a Late Triassic maximal age of
deposition for these rocks, based on detrital
zircon U-Pb geochronology.

The previous research found the sequence of


volcanic rocks, intermediate to acidic
volcanoclastic, and Lower Jurassic sediments
(Maher et al., 1990). This volcanogenic
sequence is correlated with the Nazas
Formation outcropped in the states of Coahuila,
Durango, and Zacatecas (Pantoja-Alor, 1972).
Sequence of terrestrial deposits of up to 200 m
in the form of polymictic conglomerate
Figure 1 Regional Stratigraphy of Real de Catorce

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containing reworked fragments of volcanic rocks underlies the metasediment, as well as
purplish red sandstone and siltstone (fining upward). This sequence lacks of fossils, but
for its stratigraphic relationship and apparent transition to Oxfordians transgressive
marine layers is considered to the Middle Jurassic and to the Upper Jurassic, correlating
it with the La Joya Formation of northeastern Mexico. The Upper Jurassic marine in
Real de Catorce is represented by a sequence of limestone of more than 200 m in the
form of Zuloaga Formation overlain by 30-50 m of siltstones and marl as the part of La
Caja Formation.
Cretaceous period is represented by Mesozoic Basin of Central Mexico units as: the
Taraises Formation and lower Tamaulipas Formation (Cupido Limestone) of
Neocomian, La Peña Formation (Otates Formation) of Aptian, upper Tamaulipas
Formation, Cuesta del Cura Formation, Indidura Formation and Upper Cretaceous
Caracol Formation. The units belonging to the Platform Valles San Luis Potosi just are
represented at the eastern end of the sheet exist in the area of Cerro del Fraile and
sierritas El Guerrero and La Biznaga. Facies of calcareous turbidite and bioclastic slope
deposits, also the outcrops of the El Abra Formation which has a range of Albian to
Turonian in the southeast corner of the area.

Although it is likely the occurrence of tertiary alluvial deposits, they could not be
distinguished from the Quaternary deposits. It only can be distinguished between boleos
deposits of gravel and unconsolidated or partly cemented by caliche, which occur as
alluvial fans, who have been mapped as Plio-Quaternary and recent deposits with a
predominance of calcareous silts characteristic of floodplains.

Quartz monzonite Tertiary intrusions in Sierra de Catorce (in the areas of La Maroma
and Potrero de Catorce─Sierra de Catorce as well the Sierra del Fraile) have been
known. These intrusions formed as stocks and radial dikes with radiometric aged of 53
± 4 Ma and of 36 ± 3 Ma respectively (Mujica and Albarran, 1983).

2.2 Geological Structure


Real de Catorce can be described structurally as a type of horst lifting in NS oriented,
between depressions of Matehuala Wadley (west and east). The west part being marked
in regional fault zone with NS orientation and vertical displacement possibly over 600
m, while the eastern side is characterized by some minor hills as Cerro del Fraile. Other
fault systems in the area are oriented EW, NW-SE, and NE-SW. NS recognized as the
oldest, while other systems seem almost contemporary. All faults appear to have normal
vertical displacements and only few faults of NW-SE and NE-SW systems came to see
evidence of side-scrolling left and right. The history of these faults are complex and
many of them were originally to be lateral faults have been reactivated in normal
faulting.

The internal structure of Real de Catorce consists of Laramide folds of NS and NNE-
SSW orientation vergence to the E, being able to form, mainly to the southeast side of

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the mountain, and recumbent fold. Such folded structures have been developed mainly
in sedimentary rocks of Jurassic and Cretaceous, while terrestrial sediments and pre-
Jurassic volcanic and metasedimentary rocks, although intensely deformed in part by
other ancient events or in part by the same Laramide orogeny in the lower Tertiary, they
seem to have evolved differently because of a detachment of marine limestone but not a
significant tectonic transport seems to have given this event being only evidenced by
intense shear of the limestone of the basis of the Zuloaga Formation and the top of the
La Joya Formation.

2.3 General Geomorphology

Picture 2 Research area bordered as dimensionless square by


ABCD points (INEGI, 2015)

La Maroma is located in the northern part of San Luis Potosi and is a mountainous area
with an altitude of 2200 meters above sea level in the height range of up to 2600 meters
above sea level. This area generally has trellis and dendritic flow patterns that lead to
the main river Corrienta de Agua with a length of 135 km leads to the part of the Gulf of
Mexico (Mexico eastern). Tectonic controls during the Quaternary and Tertiary much
effect on the formation geomorphological aspect in this area, thus can be found some
forms of fold or escarpment in some places. Generally, the area of La Maroma has a
river geomorphology forms that show the level of growth medium to the young; some
development indicators such as river point bar, oxbow lake, and meandering are not
found in the study area coverage.

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3. METHOD
The coverage region of the study is located in 315,054.59 m until 310,017.98 m of the
east and 2,600,149.22 m until 2,604,931.58 m of the north. The study method used the
quantitative geomorphological analysis integrated with geotechnical analysis, then
subsequent results of the analysis correlated with numbers of findings in the field (in La
Maroma, Real de Catorce) related to the fact of the landslide on June 23, 2015.
In primary stage, the study area was divided into watershed and sub-watersheds zones
based on the level of the river order as explained by Strahler (1957). In determining the
watershed or sub-watershed, other things to consider are basin, ridge, and pattern of
river flow. The zones then analyzed by quantitative geologic aspects encompassing the
slope analysis, circularity ratio (Rc), bifurcation ratio (Rb), drainage density (Dd),
elongation ration (Re), and compactness coefficient (Cc). Slope analysis was started by
simply dividing area into some cells with 2 cm x 2 cm of dimension. Each grid line
drawn perpendicular to the contour, then the slope can be calculated using the formula
of van Zuidam (1985) as follow:
( )

Information:
S = slope (%)
n = number of truncated contour
ic = contour interval (cm)
d = distance in the map (cm)
sp = map scale (cm)
Further, the slope of delineated and classified based on the classification of slope
according to van Zuidam (1985) in Table 1.

Table 1 Slope classification (van Zuidam, 1985)


Slope (%) Slope classification
0–2 Flat/almost flat
2–4 Very less sloping
4–8 Less sloping
8–16 Less steep
16–35 Steep
35–55 Very steep
>55 Cliff

Analysis of circularity ratio (Rc) bifurcation ratio (Rb), drainage density (Dd),
compactness coefficient (Cc), and elongation ration (Re) are morphometric aspects
which will provide a comparative picture of each river basin related to the
characteristics of geomorphology to predict geological aspects in the area, so that the
elements of engineering geology can be estimated also by quantitative geomorphology
approach. The formula of the analysis contained in Table 2.

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Table 2 The formula used in quantitative geomorphology analysis
Categories Formula Symbol information
Circularity ratio (Miller, 2 Cc = Compactness coefficient
Rc = 12.57 * (A/P )
1960) Rc = Circularity ratio
Elongation ratio Dd = Drainage density
Re = (2√A/ π )/La
(Schumm, 1956) Rb = Bifurcation ratio
Drainage density Re = Elongation ratio
Dd =Ls /A π = 3,14
(Horton, 1945)
Compactness coefficient A= area of watershed (km)
Cc = 0.2841 * P/A0.5 P = watershed perimeter (km)
(Gravelius, 1914)
Ls = Sream total length (km)
Bifurcation ratio Lw = length of watershed (km)
Rb = On/On+1
(Debashis, 2002) On = stream order at n

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION


Determination of the watershed or sub-watershed consideres the existence of the ridge,
basin distribution, and river flow pattern. Based on the analysis and interpretation, the
study area has one main watershed (Wts) and 7 sub-watersheds (Sub-Wts) which are
branching both from the main river and the intermittent stream (Picture 3). This
watershed division becomes an essential base in the analysis of areas with certain
characteristics of engineering geology in accordance with the results of quantitative
geomorphology analysis and field visits conducted.
310,017.98 m
2,600,149.22 m

Scale 1:500,000

Main river stream


Intermittent river
Index contour
2,604,931.58 m

315,054.59 m

Picture 3 Watershed/sub-watershed determined

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4.1 Quantitative Geomorphology Analysis
4.1.1 Land Slope
Based on the delineation of the slope with reference to the classification of van Zuidam
(1985), each of watershed and sub-watershed ranges from less steep (8─16), steep
(16─35), to very steep (35─55) (Picture 4). Of distribution delineation in Picture 4,
approximately 68% of the main watershed (Wts) has very steep slope. The increasing of
slope steep indicates harder lithological characteristic with fewer discontinuities plan or
the rate of erosion still in young phase (V phase). Sub-watersheds have very steep slope
lower percentages that can be affected by weaker lithological characteristic with more
discontinuities plan or the rate of erosion has been in old phase (U phase). For example,
when compared between Sub-Wts 3 to Sub-Wts 4 and Sub-Wts 5, the percentage of
very steep slope has fewer sums than the other two. It can be predicted as manifestation
of the distance between sub-watersheds to the main watershed. The longer the area of
affection towards the main watershed (Wts), the more the slope that ranged toward less
steep.
310,017.98 m
2,600,149.22 m

Scale 1:500,000

Very steep
Steep
Very steep
Steep

Less Steep

Index contour
Watershed
border
2,604,931.58 m

315,054.59 m

Picture 4 Slope delineation

4.1.2 Rc, Re, Dd, Cc


Table 3 List of Rc, Dd, Cc, and Re analysis elements
Watershed A P Ls Lw Rc Re Dd Cc
Wts 5.78 16.83 20.35 4.23 0.26 0.64 3.52 1.99
Sub-Wts 1 0.69 3.27 3.32 1.18 0.81 0.79 4.79 1.12
Sub-Wts 2 2.04 5.98 3.35 2.35 0.72 0.69 1.64 1.19

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Sub-Wts 3 4.95 9.97 6.65 3.05 0.63 0.82 1.35 1.27
Sub-Wts 4 1.98 7.34 6.60 2.71 0.46 0.59 3.32 1.48
Sub-Wts 5 2.32 6.79 8.80 2.14 0.63 0.80 3.79 1.27
Sub-Wts 6 1.18 4.50 4.58 0.48 0.73 0.55 3.90 1.18
Sub-Wts 7 2.29 6.33 7.20 1.87 0.72 0.91 3.14 1.19
Sub-Wts 8 0.49 3.36 2.37 1.37 0.55 0.58 4.79 1.36

Table 3 describes the results of quantitative geomorphological analysis involving some


watersheds’ elements: area, perimeter, length of stream, and length of watershed/sub-
watershed. These aspects can derivate the analysis due to the Rc (circularity ratio), Dd
(drainage density), Re (elongation ratio), and Cc (compactness coefficient). Four
aspects of the quantitative geomorphology then analyzed to determine the properties of
the elements of engineering geology in the study area.

a. Rc (Circularity Ratio)
For the out-line form of watershed, Miller et al. (1960) used a dimensionless circularity
ratio as a quantitative method. Circularity ratio defined as the ratio of watershed area to
the area of a circle having the same perimeter as the watershed and it is pretentious by
the lithological character of the watershed. Miller et al. (1960) described the basin of the
circularity ratios range 0.4 to 0.7 indicates strongly elongated and highly permeable
homogenous geologic materials, the basin ranges from 0.4 to 0.5 indicates that the basin
has medium permeable geological materials, while the basin with circularity ratio less
than 0,4 indicates the less permeable geological materials.

Based on the values of Rc which are presented in Table 3, the circularity ratio Wts has
the lowest value that indicates that this watershed has more impermeable subsoil
conditions to erosion. Sub-Wts 1, Sub-Wts 2, Sub Wts-3, Sub Wts-6, and Sub Wts-7
have value Rc more than 0.7 indicating very permeable lithology, while the other Sub-
Wts permeability identified as medium permeability. Contrast difference obtained in
Wts which may be caused by the difference in lithology, while Wts has much harder
lithology than the surrounding areas.

b. Re (Elongation Ratio)
According to Schumm (1956), elongation ratio is defined as the ratio of diameter of a
circle of the same area as the basin to the maximum basin length. Strahler (1957) stated
that this ratio commonly runs between 0.6 and 1.0 over a wide variety of climatic and
geological types. Lower elongation ratio regularly indicates the lower infiltration, higher
runoff, and more elongated shape, this also applies vice versa. The varying slopes of
watershed can be classified with the help of the index of elongation ratio: circular
(0.9─1.0), oval (0.8─0.9), less elongated (0.7─0.8), elongated (0.5─0.7), and more
elongated (less than 0.5). From Table 3, five basins are elongated (Wts, Sub-Wts 2,
Sub-Wts 4, Sub-Wts 6, Sub-Wts 8), two basins are less elongated (Sub-Wts 2 and Sub-
Wts 5), one is oval (Sub-Wts 3), and one is circular (Sub-Wts 7).

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c. Dd (Drainage Density)
Drainage density is a measure of the length of the stream segment per unit area (Horton,
1945). Drainage density is one of the prime indicators for selection of artificial recharge
sites since it directly indicates the permeability and porosity of the terrain
(Krishnamurthy et al. 2001). From the Table 3, the drainage density (Dd) values except
of Sub-Wts 2 and Sub-Wts are ranged 3─5 km/km2 indicating the moderate the drainage
density according to Kuldeep et al. (2012). These are suggested that the moderate
drainage density indicates the basin is moderate permeable sub-soil and thick vegetative
cover (Nag, 1998).The high value of the drainage density would indicates impermeable
surface material, sparse vegetation and high run off of the watershed area, while low
value indicates more permeable surface material, more vegetation, and less run off of
the watershed area.

d. Cc (Compactness Coefficient)
According to Gravelius (1914), compactness coefficient of a watershed is the ratio of
perimeter of watershed to circumference of circular area, which equals the area of the
watershed. The Cc is independent of size of watershed and dependent only on the slope.
The authors have computed the compactness coefficient of the study area in the form of
watershed/sub-watershed, is the Wts or main river watershed has ultimate different
compactness at 1.99 which means that Wts has the most compact subsoil formation. The
8 watersheds show the same variation due to the Cc values that indicate the
compactness of the subsoil formation ranged in the same interval.

4.1.3 Bifurcation Ratio


The bifurcation ratio is the ratio of stream segments of given order ‘n’ to the number of
streams in the next higher order (n+1). Horton (1945) considered the bifurcation ratio as
index of relief and dissertation. Strahler (1957) demonstrated that bifurcation shows a
small range of variation for different regions or for different environment except where
the powerful geological control dominates. It is observed from the Rb is not same from
one order to its next order these irregularities are dependent upon the geological and
lithological development of the drainage basin (Strahler, 1964). Here the author had
counted the river segments or orders both in watershed and sub-watershed (Table 4).

Table 4 Lists of orders (stream segments) in Wts and Sub-Wts


Watershed Order-1 Order-2 Order-3 Order-4 Order-5
Wts 6 2 19 1 -
Sub-Wts 1 2 1 - - -
Sub-Wts 2 4 7 1 - -
Sub-Wts 3 4 3 13 18 1
Sub-Wts 4 4 9 1 2 -
Sub-Wts 5 1 6 7 1 -
Sub-Wts 6 7 1 - - -
Sub-Wts 7 4 5 4 1 -
Sub-Wts 8 1 2 1 - -

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Table 5 List of bifurcation ratio in Wts and Sub-Wts
Watershed Rb1/2 Rb2/3 Rb3/4 Rb4/5
Wts 0.33 9.5 0.05 -
Sub-Wts 1 0.5 - - -
Sub-Wts 2 1.75 0.14 - -
Sub-Wts 3 0.75 4.33 1.38 0.05
Sub-Wts 4 2.25 0.11 2 -
Sub-Wts 5 6 1.17 0.14 -
Sub-Wts 6 0.14 - - -
Sub-Wts 7 1.25 0.8 0.25 -
Sub-Wts 8 2 0.5 - -

The lower values of Rb are characteristics of the watersheds which have suffered less
structural disturbances (Strahler, 1964) and the drainage pattern has not been distorted
because of the structural disturbances (Nag, 1998). The bifurcation ratio ranges from 3.0
to 5.0 indicates the strong structural impact to disturbance of normal watershed. Based
on Table 5, the values of Rb do not indicate the range of 3 to 5, which indicates the area
of study in this study did not have a significant effect geological structure.

4.2 Land Material Properties Analysis Related to La Maroma Landslide


Geomorphology general appearance reflects the conditions of an area, especially for
material properties which are owned by the qualitative aspect of a rock or soil. Some
aspects were examined in the study of quantitative geomorphology in La Maroma land
can predict material properties in the area. The main character of the watershed (Wts) is
basically an area with a fairly high degree of stability based on the analysis of
circularity ratio, elongation ratio, drainage density, compactness coefficient, and
bifurcation ratio. The analyses of these aspects indicate that the permeability, porosity,
and compactness of this region are quite high. Based on the matching of the regional
geological studies that have been discussed, this area is part of the intrusion of basalt on
subsoil layer, so that the material does have a fairly high cohesiveness. The stability of
this land constrained by their nature is quite steep slopes in some areas of discontinuity
which eventually evolved into young river (V-shaped).

In the manner that slope profiles control the nature and characteristics of landslides, it is
apparent that the process of landsliding also plays an important role in the development
of various types of landscapes in the study area. It is true that intensive erosion was
going on in the past all over La Maroma, which probably started with gully-aided
topsoil removal many years ago and had contributed much to ravine incision and valley
development since then (Westphal, 1975). While this hypothesis is satisfactory, for
many investigators in the area, the meaning of the term "erosion" is rather limited and
corresponds to the slow removal of the weathered mantle by running water (Nyssen et
al., 2002). However, from the rough topography and the V-shaped outline in Wts as the
basin for the main river in La Maroma, it is less convincing to consider only river-aided
erosion processes as the sole factor of valley development of geomorphology. This is

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evidenced by the results of an analysis of the circularity ratio, elongation ratio, drainage
density, compactness coefficient, and bifurcation ratio tends to show an area with a
lower compaction and prone to the development of the U-shaped river, although the
sub-watersheds is basically an area of river development intermittent. Land conditions
in terms of slope tend to be more stable, but this is not supported by a factor of material
strength properties of land in 8 sub-watersheds.

Picture 5 Landslide in La Maroma as part of Wts (main watershed)

Picture 6 Landslide in Zamora’s house as part of Sub-Wts 3

Speaking on the condition of land properties is basically inseparable with the geological
history of the area. An igneous rock intrusion in the area Wts generally indicates that the
region is quite younger than the surrounding area (Sub-Wts). This is the one that
supports why the form of intermittent river watersheds area has had a mature river
development (U-shaped) to have compaction and material strength properties are lower,
but with gentler slope.

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Landslide effect in the geomorphological formation and land material properties is an
unavoidable ongoing process in La Maroma (geological cycle). Especially, without a
significant contribution of large-scale landsliding, the former alone cannot play a major
role in shaping landscapes as it does in removing the top soil during the initial period of
the creation of basins. The process of landsliding in La Maroma could have begun soon
after streams were able to incise into some of the top few rock layers. This opened the
rock mass and formed gentler slopes. Once slopes were created, the region behind the
slope face was able to relax. This led to the rebound of the slope wall. Thus, several
areas with stable subsoil formation can be transformed into instable one because of the
cycle of landslide happen along the period in La Maroma proven by relation between
regional geological setting and history to the quantitative geomorphological analysis.

5. CONCLUSION
Wts has fairly high degree of stability based on the analysis of circularity ratio,
elongation ratio, drainage density, compactness coefficient, and bifurcation ratio. These
indicate that the permeability, porosity, and compactness of this region are quite high.
This area is part of the intrusion of Granodioritic rocks on subsoil layer, so that the
material does have a fairly high cohesiveness. The stability of this land constrained by
their nature is quite steep slopes in some areas of discontinuity which eventually
evolved into young river (V-shaped). An igneous rock intrusion in the area Wts
generally indicates that the region is quite younger than the surrounding area (Sub-Wts).
This is the one that supports why the form of intermittent river watersheds area has had
a mature river development (U-shaped) to have compaction and material strength
properties are lower, but with gentler slope. Landslide effect in the geomorphological
formation and land material properties is an unavoidable ongoing process in La Maroma
(geological cycle). Thus, several areas with stable subsoil formation can be transformed
into instable one because of the cycle of landslide happen along the period in La
Maroma proven by relation between regional geological setting and history to the
quantitative geomorphological analysis.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks to Allah, the Lord of the mighty one who has given me abundant gifts, to us all,
all last long, I’m so grateful for the gift of challenging Ramadhan this year.
I say many thanks to cherished guidance mostly given by Professor José Rafael Barboza
Gudiño, further for improvised guidance given by Prof. Damiano Sarocchi and Prof.
Lorenzo Borselli for the patience and the opportunity to conduct research with you all.
The boundless fortuitous never been elapsed as pretty intent to DIKTI, likewise for FTG
& Universitas Padjadjaran, so that I could finish up these all in a faraway land. For
beloved and dear: Ummiy, Abiy, Mbak Diah, Mas Sasa, Mom Gloria y la familia en
Casa Collibri, and gorgeous blushes arose from exquisite folks, thanks for your support.

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7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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México. Arlington, Texas, University of Texas at Arlington, Tesis de maestría,
124 p.
Barboza-Gudiño, R., Zavala-Monsivais, Aurora., Venegas-Rodriguez, Gaston., Barajas-
Nigoche, Luis Daniel. 2010. Late Triassic Stratigraphy and Facies from
Northeastern Mexico: Tectonic Setting and Provenance. Geosphere, vol. 6, 621-
640.
Gravelius, H. 1914. Flusskunde. Berlin: Goschen'sche Verlagshandlung.
Horton, R.E. 1945. Erosional Development of Streams and Their Drainage Basins.
Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol. 56, 275-370.
Inegi (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía). 2015. Satellite Map of La Maroma
and Its Surround Through Google Map Integration 2015.
Krishnamurthy, J., Venkatesa Kumar, N., Jayaraman,V and Manivel. 2001. An
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and Geographical information system. International Journal of Remote Sensing,
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Kuldeep Pareta and Upasana Pareta. 2012. Quantitative Geomorphological Analysis of
a Watershed of Ravi River Basin, H.P. India. International Journal of Remote
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Lugo-Hubp, J. 1989. Diccionario Geomorfológico. México, D.F., Universidad Nacional
Autónoma de México, Instituto de Geografía, 337 p.
Miller, O.M. and Summerson, C.H. 1960. Slope Zone Maps. Geographical Review, vol.
50, 194-202.
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