COMPLEX SENTENCES

Complex sentences are constructed using an independent sentence and a dependant or subordinated clause.

Example: The motion, which the commons narrowly passed, was defeated by the senate.
(Adjective clause introduced by relative pronoun)

COMPOUND - COMPLEX SENTENCES

Compound - Complex sentences are constructed using two independent sentences or clauses and a
dependent clause.
Example:When the jets fly by, the windows rattle noisily and the whole house shake

Compound sentence

Noun Clauses
See The Sentence for definitions of sentence, clause, and dependent clause.
A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.
A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is called a
complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun clauses.
(Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)

A. Noun clauses perform the same functions in sentences that nouns do:
A noun clause can be a
 subject of a verb:
What Billy did shocked his friends.
 object of a verb:
Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.
 subject complement:
Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.
 object of a preposition:
Mary is not responsible for what Billy did.
 adjective complement:
Everybody is sad that Billy drowned.

B. The choice of the noun clause marker (see below) depends on the type of clause you are changing to a
noun clause:
 To change a statement to a noun clause use that:
I know + Billy made a mistake = I know that Billy made a mistake.
 To change a yes/no question to a noun clause, use if or whether:
George wonders + Does Fred know how to cook? = George wonders if Fred knows how to cook.
 To change a wh-question to a noun clause, use the wh-word:
I don’t know + Where is George? = I don’t know where George is.

C. The subordinators in noun clauses are called noun clause markers. Here is a list of the noun
clause markers:
 that
 if, whether
 Wh-words: how, what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why
 Wh-ever words: however, whatever, whenever, wherever, whichever, whoever, whomever

D. Noun clause markers cannot be omitted except that, but it can be omitted only if it is not the first word in
a sentence:
Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim. or Billy’s friends didn’t know he couldn’t swim.
Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons. or Billy’s mistake was he refused to take lessons.
That Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone. But Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.

Adjective Clauses
A. Adjective clauses perform the same function in sentences that adjectives do: they modify
nouns.
The teacher has a car. (Car is a noun.)
It’s a new car. (New is an adjective which modifies car.)
The car that she is driving is not hers.
(That she is driving is an adjective clause which modifies car. It’s a clause because it has a subject
(she) and a predicate (is driving); it’s an adjective clause because it modifies a noun.)
Note that adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify; adjective clauses always follow the nouns
they modify.

B. A sentence which contains one adjective clause and one independent clause is the result of
combining two clauses which contain a repeated noun. You can combine two independent clauses
to make one sentence containing an adjective clause by following these steps:
1. You must have two clauses which contain a repeated noun (or pronoun, or noun and pronoun which
refer to the same thing). Here are two examples:
The book is on the table. + I like the book.
The man is here. + The man wants the book.
2. Delete the repeated noun and replace it with a relative pronoun in the clause you want to make
dependent. See C. below for information on relative pronouns.
The book is on the table. + I like which
The man is here. + who wants the book
3. Move the relative pronoun to the beginning of its clause (if it is not already there). The clause is now
an adjective clause.
The book is on the table. + which I like
The man is here. + who wants the book
 4. Put the adjective clause immediately after the noun phrase it modifies (the repeated noun):
The book which I like is on the table.
The man who wants the book is here.

C. The subordinators in adjective clauses are called relative pronouns.

1. These are the most important relative pronouns: who, whom, that, which.
These relative pronouns can be omitted when they are objects of verbs. When they are objects of
prepositions, they can be omitted when they do not follow the preposition.
 WHO replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that
refer to animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. In informal writing (but not in academic
writing), it can be used as the object of a verb.
 WHOM replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns that
refer to animals or things. It can be the object of a verb or preposition. It cannot be the subject of a
verb.
 WHICH replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It cannot replace nouns and
pronouns that refer to people. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or
preposition.
 THAT replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people, animals or things. It can be the subject
of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition (but that cannot follow a preposition;
whom, which, and whose are the only relative pronouns that can follow a preposition).
2. The following words can also be used as relative pronouns: whose, when, where.
 WHOSE replaces possessive forms of nouns and pronouns It can refer to people, animals or
things. It can be part of a subject or part of an object of a verb or preposition, but it cannot be a
complete subject or object. Whose cannot be omitted. Here are examples with whose:
The man is happy. + I found the man’s wallet. =
The man whose wallet I found is happy.
The girl is excited. + Her mother won the lottery. =
The girl whose mother won the lottery is excited.
 WHEN replaces a time (in + year, in + month, on + day,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be
omitted. Here is an example with when:
I will never forget the day. + I graduated on that day.=
I will never forget the day when I graduated.
The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:
I will never forget the day on which I graduated.
I will never forget the day that I graduated.
I will never forget the day I graduated.
 WHERE replaces a place (in + country, in + city, at + school,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be
omitted but a preposition (at, in, to) usually must be added. Here is an example with where:
The building is new. + He works in the building. =
The building where he works is new.
The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:
The building in which he works is new.
The building which he works in is new.
The building that he works in is new.
The building he works in is new.

Adverb Clauses
A. Adverb clauses show relationships such as time, cause and effect, contrast, and condition.

B. A sentence which contains one adverb clause and one independent clause is the result of
combining two clauses which have one of the relationships above. You can combine two
independent clauses to make one sentence which contains an adverb clause by following these steps:
1. You must have two clauses which have one of the relationships in A above:
Billy couldn’t swim. + He jumped off the pier. (contrast)
2. Add a subordinating conjunction to the beginning of the clause you want to make dependent:
Although + Billy couldn’t swim + He jumped off the pier.
3. Place the two clauses next to each other. Usually, the order of the clauses is not important. When the
adverb clause precedes the independent clause, the two clauses are usually separated by a comma:
Although Billy couldn’t swim, he jumped off the pier.
When the independent clause precedes the adverb clause, there is usually no comma:
Billy jumped off the pier although he couldn’t swim.

C. The subordinators in adverb clauses are called subordinating conjunctions. They cannot be
omitted.
They cannot be subjects. Here are some of the subordinating conjunctions:
 Time: after, before, when, while, as, by the time, whenever, since, until, as soon as, once, as long as
 Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as, as long as, inasmuch as, so (that), in order that
 Contrast: although, even though, though, whereas, while
 Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing (that), provided (that), in case, in the
event (that).

D. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one adverb clause (underlined) and one
independent clause. The two sentences in each pair have the same meaning:
After he took lessons, George could swim well. Or George could swim well after he took lessons.
Because he couldn’t swim, Billy drowned. Or Billy drowned because he couldn’t swim.
Although he isn’t interested in food, Fred works as a cook. Or Fred works as a cook although he isn’t
interested in food.
If you want to write well, you must practice. Or You must practice if you want to write well.

Adverb Clauses Showing Opposition

Even though,  Even though it was expensive, he bought Notice how 'though, even though' or
though, the car. 'although' show a situation which is
although  Though he loves doughnuts, he has given
them up for his diet.
 Although he course was difficult, he
passed with the highest marks.
Whereas, while  Whereas you have lots of time to do your
homework, I have very little time indeed.
 Mary is rich, while I am poor.
Adverb Clauses of Cause and Effect
Because  They received a high mark on their exam
because they had studied hard.
 I'm studying hard because I want to pass
my exam.
 He works a lot of overtime because his
rent is so expensive
Since  Since he loves music so much, he
decided to go to a conservatory.
 They had to leave early since their train
left at 8.30.
As long as  As long as you have the time, why don't
you come for dinner?
As  As the test is difficult, you had better get
some sleep.
Inasmuch as  Inasmuch as the students had
succesfully completed their exams, their
parents rewarded their efforts by giving
them a trip to Paris
Due to the fact  We will be staying for an extra week due
that to the fact that we haven not yet
finished.
Using Adverb Clauses to Express Conditions
If  If we win, we'll go to Kelly's to celebrate!
 She would buy a house, if she had
enough money.
Even if  Even if she saves a lot, she won't be able
to afford that house.
Whether or not  They won't be able to come whether or
not they have enough money.
 Whether they have money or not, they
won't be able to come.
Unless  Unless she hurries up, we won't arrive in
time.
 We won't go unless he arrives soon.
In case (that), in  In the case you need me, I'll be at Tom's.
the event (that)  I'll be studying upstairs in the event he
calls.
Only if  We'll give you your bicycle only if you do
well on your exams.
 Only if you do well on your exams will we
give you your bicycle.
Adverb Clauses with Time
When  He was talking on the phone when I
arrived.
 When she called, he had already
eaten lunch.
 I washed the dishes when my
daughter fell asleep.
 We'll go to lunch when you come to visit.
Before  We will finish before he arrives.
contrary to the main clause to express
opposition. Even though, though and
although are all synonyms
'Whereas' and 'while' show clauses in
direct opposition to each other. Notice
that you should always use a comma with
'whereas' and 'while'.
Notice how because can be used with a
variety of tenses based on the time
relationship between the two clauses.
'Since' means the same as because.
'Since' tends to be used in more informal
spoken English. Important note: "Since"
when used as a conjunction is typically
used to refer to a period of time, while
"because" implies a cause or reason.
'As long as' means the same as because.
'As long as' tends to be used in more
informal spoken English.
'As' means the same as because. 'As'
tends to be used in more formal, written
English.
'Inasmuch as' means the same as
because. 'Inasmuch as' is used in very
formal, written English.
'Due to the fact that' means the same as
because. 'Due to the fact that' is
generally used in very formal, written
English.
'If' clauses express the conditions
necessary for the result. If clauses are
followed by expected results based on
the condition.
In contrast to sentences with 'if'
sentences with 'even if' show a result that
is unexpected based on the condition in
the 'even if' clause. Example: COMPARE:
If she studies hard, she will pass the
exam AND Even if she studies hard, she
won't pass the exam.
'Whether or not' expresses the idea that
neither one condition or another matters;
the result will be the same. Notice the
possibility of inversion (Whether they
have money or not) with 'whether or not'.
'Unless' expresses the idea of 'if not'
Example: Unless she hurries up, we
won't arrive in time. MEANS THE SAME
AS: If she doesn't hurry up, we won't
arrive in time. 'Unless' is only used in the
first conditional.
'In case' and 'in the event' usually mean
that you don't expect something to
happen, but if it does... Both are used
primarily for future events.
'Only if' means 'only in the case that
something happens - and only if'. This
form basically means the same as 'if'.
However, it does stress the condition for
the result. Note that when 'only if' begins
the sentence you need to invert the main
claus
'When' means 'at that moment, at that
time, etc.'. Notice the different tenses
used in relationship to the clause
beginning with when. It is important to
remember that 'when' takes either the
simple past OR the present - the
dependent clause changes tense in
relation to the 'when' clause.
'Before' means 'before that moment'. It is
important to remember that 'before'
 She (had) left before I telephoned. takes either the simple past OR the
present.
After  We will finish after he comes. 'After' means 'after that moment'. It is
 She ate after I (had) left. important to remember that 'after' takes
the present for future events and the past
OR past perfect for past events.
While, as  She began cooking while I was 'While' and 'as' mean 'during that time'.
finishing my homework. 'While' and 'as' are both usually used with
 As I was finishing my homework, the past continuous because the meaning
she began cooking. of 'during that time' which indicates an
action in progress.
By the time  By the time he finished, I had 'By the time' expresses the idea that one
cooked dinner. event has been completed before
 We will have finished our homework another. It is important to notice the use
by the time they arrive. of the past perfect for past events and
future perfect for future events in the
main clause. This is because of the idea
of something happening up to another
point in time.
Until, till  We waited until he finished his 'Until' and 'till' express 'up to that time'.
homework. We use either the simple present or
I'll wait till you finish. simple past with 'until' and 'till'. 'Till' is
usually only used in spoken English.
Since  I have played tennis since I was a 'Since' means 'from that time'. We use
young boy. the present perfect (continuous) with
'since'. 'Since' can also be used with a
specific point in time.
As soon as  He will let us know as soon as he 'As soon as' means 'when something
decides (or as soon as he has decided). happens - immediately afterwards'. 'As
soon as' is very similar to 'when' it
emphasizes that the event will occur
immediately after the other. We usually
use the simple present for future events,
although present perfect can also be
used.
Whenever,  Whenever he comes, we go to have Whenever' and 'every time' mean 'each
every time lunch at "Dick's". time something happens'. We use the
 We take a hike every time he visits. simple present (or the simple past in the
past) because 'whenever' and 'every
time' express habitual action.
The first, The first time I went to New York, I
second, third, was intimidated by the city. The first, second, third, fourth etc., next,
fourth etc., last time means 'that specific time'. We
 I saw Jack the last time I went to can use these forms to be more specific
next, last time San Francisco. about which time of a number of times
 The second time I played tennis, I something happened.
began to have fun.