Waste Management Options in Ghana, Future Strategy

Waste Management is an essential public service which potentially can have serious impacts on
public health and environmental quality in any human settlement.

By ING. Kwabena Agyei Agyepong

Introduction

Infections related to Water and Sanitation contribute significantly to the Global Disease Burden and
are directly related to Goals 6,7 and 11 of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Throughout
history waste management has always presented enormous challenges to municipal authorities in
countries of both the developed and developing world (Doan, 1998).

The problem constitutes an even greater menace especially in the rapidly expanding cities of sub-
Saharan Africa mainly due to pressures of uncontrolled urbanization, dwindling space for landfills
and the risk to public health is even more pronounced in the developing world where health and
sanitation infrastructure is very fragile and largely dysfunctional (Demanya, 2001).

Developing countries often lack the necessary regulations which govern the handling and disposal of
waste, and even where they exist, these laws are poorly enforced (UN-Habitat, 1996; Segosebe and
Van der Post, 1990). This view is affirmed by the findings of Stren and White (1998) who
investigated waste management in East Africa. The reports of other researchers such us Koffi-Attahi
(1999) and Onibokun (1999) clearly depict the deplorable state of waste management in Africa.

The impact of unbridled urbanization has been so swift that most municipal authorities have been
caught unprepared for the mounting demand for improved services. Thus, many cities in the
developing world have quite simply outgrown the management and financial capacities of their
municipal authorities who are unable to cope with the overwhelming rate of waste generation
resulting from the chaotic explosion of slum settlements (Agyepong, 2011)

Ghana is a typical example of a developing country, where waste management is often

characterized by inadequate financial and logistical arrangements, poor service coverage,
operational inefficiencies, dearth of skilled manpower , lack of enforcement of regulations, and
poor cultural attitudes to waste handling ( Hardoy et al. ,2001, Pacione, 2005). The situation is
compounded by the lukewarm attitude of governments in the developing world who hardly
recognize environmental sanitation and public health, as issues of national priority against other
competing interests on national budgets (Bdour,2009).
Municipal authorities in Ghana operate in resource-constrained environments and are unable to
deliver effective and efficient sanitation services as they continue to struggle to implement the
measures required to deal with the ever-growing problem of waste (Zubrugg and Ahmed 1999;
Asomaning-Boateng and Hiaghtt, 1999).

Current Status of Waste Management in Ghana

Solid wastes comprise all domestic or household refuse, waste from commercial entities and
institutions, street sweepings and debris from construction/demolition sites, other industrial waste,
sewage sludge and dredged spoils (Cheeseman, 2011, UNEP, 1994, 1992; Cointreau-Levine, 1994).
Solid waste management is concerned with how the various actors get organized for the collection,
transport, treatment/processing and eventual disposal of waste materials (Obirih-Opareh,2001).

Kiely (1997) generally classifies solid waste management as activities associated with the process
chain, from the point of generation to its final disposal. The activities can be categorized into
different stages namely waste production, handling, processing and storage at point of generation,
collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal.

Municipal Solid waste is generated from variable sources depending on human activity. Households
generate the bulk (55-80%), followed by Markets and Commercial Areas (10-30%) and the rest from
institutions, industries and street sweepings among others.
Waste Generation

The stage of economic development and the level of industrialization generally affects personal
income and consumption patterns which inevitably influences the quantity and quality of waste
generated (World Bank, 2001). Therefore the socio-economic status of an area determines to a
large extent the quantity, variety and composition of solid waste produced. Beukering et al, (1999)
illustrates the point by comparing the average generation rates on the African continent of 0.78kg/
person/day to the corresponding figure of 1.22 kg/person/day for the developed world.

Meizah et al(2015), showed that waste generation in Ghana ranged from 0.2kg/cap/day to
0.8kg/cap/day across the geographic zones and this lies within the range for most cities in sub-
Saharan Africa (UNEP,2013). Meizah obtained a national average of 0.51kg/cap/day. The higher
socio-economic classes generated more waste, Metropolitan areas 0.68kg/cap/day, Municipalities
0.40kg/cap/day and Districts 0.28kg/cap/day which compares favourably to other studies carried out
by Asase (2011), Abel Acquah (2010) aand Fobil (2005).

Waste Composition and Characteristics

The characteristics of waste determines its biodegradability and significantly influences the selection
of the appropriate strategy and technological solution required for any particular location. Therefore
for the efficient and sustainable management of solid waste, the physical, biological and chemical
properties of the major constituents of the waste generated should be known. However, most
available data on solid waste in Ghana are based on crude estimates which are most often
unreliable. This shortcoming poses a big challenge to waste managers and city planners alike.

Recent research conducted by Miezah et al (2015) hopefully will complement efforts of earlier
studies to determine the appropriate technological options that may be utilised to manage waste
efficiently in Ghana. Using the ten regional capitals and the harbour city of Tema as case studies,
Meizah et al (2015), undertook waste stream audits to gather data to establish the current rates of
waste generation per capita, the composition and nature of the different types of waste produced
across the country. In addition, an analysis of how waste composition and characteristics vary over
time and space within the country as well as the willingness to source separate waste at the
household level were carried out.

The study recorded high biodegradables (organics and papers) 67%. Food waste formed 79% of this
fraction whereas recyclables including plastics, textiles, metals, glass, rubber and leather accounted
for 22%, significant enough to sustain a major recycling initiative.
The diagram above clearly illustrate that findings of earlier studies conducted by Asomaning
Boateng & Haightt (1998), AMA (1999), Fobil & Carbo (2005), Abel Acquah Mensah (2010) compare
favourably with Meizah et al (2015).

Other researchers on the African continent have obtained similar figures for the organic fraction of
solid waste in many African cities (Yhdego 1995; Tanawa et al. 2002). Troschinetz and Mihelcic
(2009) reported average organic fraction of 55% which is consistent with the studies carried out by
(Blight and Mbande, 1996 ;Achankeng,2003).

Waste Collection and Transport

The current methods being used in Ghana for the storage, collection, transport, treatment,
processing and disposal of waste are fraught with problems. Existing practice tend to emphasize
collection and transport over treatment and final disposal. A significant portion of the budget of
municipal authorities which is expended on waste management, goes into collection and
transportation of waste alone.

There are basically two main types of collection services in place, namely the House to House
Collection (H/H) and the Central/ Communal Container Collection (CCC). Conventional waste
collection is mainly concentrated in the more affluent high-income areas to the neglect of the
densely-populated inner-city locations which make up over 60% of the of the space in the cities
(Boadi and Kuitinen, 2003). Individual households and markets have to arrange to convey the waste
produced daily to the site of the CCC skips. The modes of transport include donkey carts, three-
wheeled tractors, power tillers, tricycles and headloads.

The poor road infrastructure in these low income areas makes it very difficult for conventional waste
collection vehicles, subsequently, large amounts of solid waste remain uncollected in the nooks and
crannies creating very unhygienic conditions in the already depressed environment.

In recent times, there has been a trend towards decentralisation and privatization of waste
management operations in many cities of the developing world in the belief that more private
participation will enhance cost recovery and improve the quality of service (Post, 1999). Prior to
privatization in 1995, solid waste collection service was a wholly state managed activity. By
offloading over 80% of the operations to the private sector, the coverage of waste collection in the
major cities has vastly improved (Obirih-Opareh and Post,2002). The same cannot be said for
treatment and disposal as the situation remains extremely precarious.

Waste Treatment and Disposal

Landfilling remains the most prevalent waste treatment and disposal method despite carrying the
greatest threat to human health in addition to its proven negative impact on the environment. The
form of landfill operations implemented in Ghana is much often un-engineered open pit waste
dumping with no leachate control, scant application of cover material, open access to scavenging
animals, rodents and other disease vectors (Agyepong, 2011). The high ambient temperatures
associated with the tropics tend to speed up biodegradation of wastes that inevitably occurs in the
many waste dump sites dotted around the country. Landfill gases like methane, carbon dioxide,
ammonia and hydrogen sulphide which are produced as a result then gradually migrate over time
into the atmosphere. This affects the quality of air within the immediate environs exposing residents
to fire hazards and other environmental dangers (Mata-Alverez, 2003). Methane is known to
contribute 25 times more to global warming than carbon dioxide. In addition, landfill leachate have
been known to pollute soil, groundwater, surface water as well as producing other potentially toxic
emissions such as dioxin and furan (Calvo et al,2005).

Nevertheless, Landfills are widely used because it is thought to be the most economical and
convenient option especially as previously land was readily available. However, pressure on
governments due to public anger with the siting of landfills, increasing environmental awareness,
scarcity of land among other factors means that waste management authorities must find a way of
moving away from landfill practice or at least reduce the waste destined for landfills.

In view of shrinking space available for landfills or open dumpsites, any technology that can
significantly reduce waste that would otherwise be destined for disposal in landfills is desirable.
Obviously, the way forward for the waste management industry will be to place more emphasis on
diverting biodegradable and the recyclable waste fraction away from landfills, using modern
innovative treatment techniques. Medina (2004) captures this succinctly by concluding that ‘’when
sustainable waste management is achieved in the Third World: jobs are created, poverty is reduced,
resources are conserved, pollution is reduced, and the environment is protected”.

Medina’s (2004) view is shared by many policy makers who argue that adopting innovative modern
conversion technologies can significantly accelerate the effort to reach renewable energy goals,
improve energy security and also attain the global vision of zero waste (Oduro-Kwarteng, 2007).
Therefore recognizing waste as a resource will present enormous economic and environmental
potential especially for countries in these impoverished regions as articulated in the UNEP report
(2001). The report concludes that ‘the increasing volumes of waste being generated in the
developing world would not be such a problem if waste was viewed as a resource and managed
properly.’

Future Strategy – Sustainable Waste Management

The concept of Sustainable Development has become the cornerstone of global development policy
since the adoption of Agenda 21 in 1992 during the much-heralded Rio Earth Summit in Brazil. Since
Rio, increasing global awareness of environmental issues has caused a shift in emphasis of waste
management from the conventional linear end-of-pipe solutions that focuses mainly on collection
and disposal in landfills, to a more eco-friendly closed loop approach that emphasizes the principles
of environmental sustainability.

The notion of ‘sustainable development’ which highlights the relationship between development
and its impact on the natural environment, has gained increasing global attention. Sustainable
Development is a fiercely contested concept that is frequently fraught with controversy in the
literature on the subject, particularly with regard to trade-offs between economic development and
ecological considerations (Conway, 1994).

This notwithstanding, governments and municipal authorities around the world are attempting to
comply with the changing global environmental regulatory regime by taking the necessary measures
to reduce the negative impact of development on the environment eg. Reducing carbon
footprint/greenhouse gas emissions.

Various terminologies have been ascribed to the concept of integrated solid waste management in
recent years. However, all of them incorporate the same principle which observes the waste
hierarchy model.
WASTE HIERARCHY

The model emphasizes waste reduction as the first priority. Thus waste hierarchy typically comprises
minimization of waste, waste Reduction, Recycling, Re-use, energy Recovery and eventual disposal in
landfills as the least desirable option for solid waste treatment (Girling,2005).

There already exists a large body of research (Almasri and McNeil,2008;Dreschel et al,2002;
Furedy,2002; Letzinger,2001; Salifu,2001; Fobil et al,2001) that shows that resource recovery,
recycling and reuse are desirable options with huge economic prospects for the developing world.
The potential financial benefits of such an integrated approach to solid waste management in the
developing world are still poorly understood and appreciated.

Diagger (2009) also admits that only carefully designed interventions which integrate the principles
of waste minimization, reuse, recycling and resource recovery can produce cleaner eco-friendly
solutions that will significantly minimize environmental impact as well as protecting public health.

Despite the clear advantages to be derived from the implementation of these environmentally
sustainable schemes, only few attempts have been made to embrace them. Currently, policies
directed at waste minimization using the 3R’s; Reuse, Recycling and Recovery are somewhat lacking
in Ghana as there are no significant public recycling ventures or strategies in place on the national
scale.

Troschinetz et al (2009) argues strongly that ‘the more environmentally sustainable methods such
as waste to energy schemes , composting of organic waste, and material recovery through
recycling, should be the main feature of future solid waste programs in the developing world
rather than the use of open waste dump sites’.
Stricter waste acceptance criteria and procedures are being enforced for landfills in the European
Union and North America. The European Union(EU) landfill directive stipulates that by 2020, all
member states of the EU should achieve a target of 65% reduction of 1995 levels of organic waste to
be discharged into landfills (Cheeseman, 2011).

Solid waste disposal in the Developed World (Cheeseman, 2011).

Waste Research

In Ghana, research in the waste management sector has been largely motivated by a concern for
public sector reform rather than finding appropriate and sustainable technological solutions to the
mounting problems of waste management. Most of the researchers who have investigated the
waste sector have focused mainly on waste governance and a large part of their work have been
undertaken from a social science perspective.

Demanya (2009) investigated the role of local knowledge in solid waste management in Ghana.
Baabereyir (2007) also examined the nature of the solid waste problem in Accra, Kumasi and
Sehondi-Takoradi, focusing on the delivery of solid waste collection services across different socio-
economic groups in relation to the concepts of social justice and environmental justice respectively.
Nelson Obirih-Opareh and Johan Post (2002) undertook a quality assessment of public and private
modes of solid waste collection in Accra, whereas Oduro-Kwarteng (2007) investigated Private
Sector Performance, Capacity, and Regulation in Urban Solid Waste Collection in the five major cities
of Ghana.

These studies dealt predominantly with the organisational and financial aspects of public –private
participation models, and the capacity of State agencies/municipal authorities, private contractors
and other actors to perform their respective roles.
From the available literature it is quite clear that not much research has been conducted on the
various modern technological options required to properly manage solid waste in sub-Saharan
African cities in general and Ghana in particular. The major advancements in waste treatment
technologies that have occurred in the developed world have yet to reach sub-Saharan Africa where
most of the world’s poor live in deprivation (Caincross and Feachem, 2005).

Cointreau-Levine (2000) revealed in his study on waste management in Ghana that municipal
authorities allocate a greater proportion of their waste management budget (50-70%) to merely
collecting and transporting waste rather than committing resources for much needed research and
development of appropriate disposal strategies and treatment technology.

Moreover, according to Asomaning-Boateng (1999), the researchers who have investigated

technological options and control strategies have focused almost entirely on composting as perhaps
the only viable and sustainable option.

However, attempts at composting on an industrial scale in Dakar (Senegal) and Abidjan( Cote D’
Ivoire) were largely unsuccessful , either due to poor demand for final product or poor quality of the
compost arising from inadequate waste segregation(UNEP-IETC,1996). Similarly, small scale schemes
sponsored by International NGO’s in Benin, Cameroon, Egypt, Kenya, Nigeria, Zambia and South
Africa made little impact. Ghana’s experience with regards to large scale mechanized composting
has been a monumental failure.

However, the situation may be changing. In 2012, the Jospong Group established the Accra Compost
and Recyling Plant(ACARP) with an installed daily operating capacity of 600 metric tons under a
Public Private Partnership (PPP) with the government to receive, sort and produce high quality
organic compost from waste for agricultural purposes in Ghana.

According to the CEO of the facility, Dr. Amponsah , “ACARP operations have since July, 2012 helped
to divert over half a million tons of municipal solid waste MSW from landfill sites for material
recovery and reuse. Over 70 per cent of the recovered materials such as recyclables have been
processed and made available to respective industries as semi-finished raw materials for
production,”

Many researchers have argued that because solid waste in developing countries like Ghana have a
rather large biodegradable organic fraction, Anaerobic Digestion (AD) and to a lesser extent
incineration (Combined Heat and Power, CHP) may be the more appropriate and promising
alternatives (Palmowski et al, 2003, Christ et al, 1999; Drecshel and Kunze, 2001 ; Fobil 2001;
Asomaning-Boateng and Haightt,1999).
The desirability and potential economic and ecological benefits of anaerobic digestion (AD)
technology in particular makes the process an attractive treatment option especially in the
developing world environment. By using this option, waste is diverted from landfill, environmental
impact is reduced, nutrients are recovered and recycled into the soil (Polprasert, 1996 and Wang et
al., 2002) and renewable energy is produced thereby reducing carbon footprint (DeBaere, 2000).

Despite these potential advantages, the application of these processes are almost non – existent in
Ghana. A possible explanation for this anomaly may be the lack of understanding of the technical
aspects of AD and it’s suitability for the handling of the waste stream in the country.

Research into societal and cultural attitudes to waste handling and assessing the impact of public
education on the capacity of households to undertake source separation and how that contributes
to the efficiency and output of various waste treatment options needs to be intensified. Danso et al
(2003) investigated the perception, knowledge and capacity of individual households to carry out
source separation of household waste and found out that 70% – 80% of households sampled had a
generally positive attitude towards the subject.

Fobil et al (2005) suggested that source separation of waste is crucial for the implementation of
recycling and resource recovery schemes. Meizah et al (2015) revealed that household compliance
level for waste separation at source was impressive. The study recorded a national average sorting
and separation efficiency of 84% for biodegradables and 76% for other wastes significantly higher
than the 65% obtained by Asase(2011) in a study in Kumasi. Meizah et al (2015) opined that the
willingness to separate waste at source was based on the understanding that potentially a cleaner
environment will be created. Financial incentives such as fee reduction could be a key motivator for
those who were not willing to undertake source separation.

Waste Governance

From available literature, regulations governing environmental and sanitation issues in Ghana are
handled by a plethora of state agencies with the ensuing duplication of functions and resulting grey
areas which militate against the effective implementation of solid waste management schemes.

Akuffo (1998) observes that legislation related to environmental management in sub-Saharan Africa
is usually fragmented into several Acts overseen by different Ministries, for example in Ghana, Public
Health Act( Ministry of Health), Town and Country Planning Act(Ministry of Local Government) and
Environmental Protection Act (Ministry of Environment) and Water Resources Act( Ministry of Works
and Housing). Akuffo (1998) concludes by blaming the amorphous assemblage of environmental
regulations under several different Ministries as a major contributor to the present precarious state
of the natural and built environment in Ghana. The situation is worsened by the blatant disregard for
planning and building regulations which has made the provision and expansion of waste and
sanitation infrastructure even more expensive and extremely difficult to undertake.
Ghana has attempted a coordinated national effort through the National Environmental Sanitation
Strategy and Action Plan (NESSAP) and an accompanying Strategic Environmental Sanitation
Investment Plan (SESIP) Policy Framework being implemented by the Ministry of Local Government
(MLGRD,2010). Admittedly, progress has been frustratingly slow.

Waste management in the developed world is characterized by a policy of continuous improvement

that is premised on the establishment of annual targets that allows the evaluation of system
performance on a regular basis. In Ghana, the main policy framework NESSAP 2010 and does not
appear to have such a feature. Hopefully, perhaps the recent designation of a ministry solely
responsible for the sanitation sector will hopefully generate the momentum required to stem the
decline in the waste management sector.

CONCLUSION

The journey towards sustainable waste management may be a long one but what the country needs
now are gigantic leaps not small steps. Future projections show that by 2025 daily solid waste
generation in Accra alone will reach 4,000 tons. The signals are worrying. To move higher up the
sanitation ladder, Ghana would have to process most of the biodegradable fraction using waste to
energy facilities and recycle more of the inorganic waste fraction thereby reducing the waste that
eventually gets landfilled.

Although several studies have established the desirability and potential economic benefits of
anaerobic digestion (AD) as the more appropriate Waste to Energy option, the application of the
process is rare in Ghana and currently there are only a few anaerobic digesters being operated on a
pilot basis. Even in a developed country such as the UK where the organic component of the waste
stream is much lower on the average, the application of AD is widespread with over 100 digesters in
operation in England alone. AD perhaps offers the most attractive technological option that could
significantly transform the waste sector in Ghana and stem the slide into chaos.

Waste management and power generation both present enormous challenges to the country. AD
technology can be a secondary source of power generation in addition to reducing the waste that
otherwise would have been destined for the landfills.

A future strategy based on a simple sorting and separation of waste at source is recommended for
roll out by the MMDA’s. Two waste streams namely biodegradable waste comprising mainly food
waste, kitchen waste, garden waste, agricultural waste designated GREEN and other wastes
including plastics, paper, cardboard, packaging, glass, metals, rubber, textiles, leather designated
ORANGE should be institutionalized.
In Ghana, not much importance has been attached to public education as a tool for effective
implementation of Integrated Solid Waste Management. A systematic and sustained educational
campaign is needed to make source separation a part of the waste disposal culture at the household
level.

There is no doubt that strong political backing is required. Political authorities should first recognize
environmental issues as issues of national priority and create the necessary regulatory environment
to attract more private investment into the waste sector as well as allocating the required resources
to improve the sanitation infrastructure.

Future strategy must fully embrace the Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) model coupled
with innovative social re-engineering, in order to find permanent solutions to the mounting
problems presented by the ever-increasing volumes of waste which appears to have overwhelmed
the sector.

The standards achieved by the developed countries are simply unattainable by the developing
countries in the short term. However, it is hoped that sooner rather than later Ghana should be able
to manage solid waste in a way similar to how the industrialized countries have successfully
transformed the waste sector, but for now Ghana most focus its attention on the basics.

Education authorities should develop environmental studies as a core subject of the primary school
curriculum teaching children the health implications and the environmental impacts of
indiscriminate waste disposal. The benefits to the society and the environment of source separation,
recycling and resource recovery should be emphasized. Being in their formative years, their values
may be easily influenced thereby ensuring a ‘greener’ future generation.
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ING. KWABENA AGYEI AGYEPONG holds an MSc Degree in Water and Environmental Engineering
from the University of Surrey, Guildford, UK. He is a Fellow of the Ghana Institution of Engineering
FGhIE, member of the American Society of Civil Engineers MASCE. In Jan 2001, Ing Agyepong was
appointed by his Excellency President J. A. Kufuor as the Press Secretary to the President and
Presidential Spokesman.