Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
1 Introduction
We have seen that the effect of holonomic constraints is to reduce the number of degrees of
freedom. If there are N particles, we expect 3N degrees of freedom if the motion is uncon-
strained. If there are k holonomic constraints, the number of degrees of freedom becomes
3N −k and we need this many independent generalised coordinates to describe the system.
For non-holonomic constraints, however, the number of generalised coordinates required
is more than the number of degrees of freedom. If there are m non-holonomic constraints,
in addition to the k holonomic constraints, the number of generalised cordonates is still
3N − k, i.e. m more than the number of degrees of freedom. These additional quantities
are eliminated from the equations of motion by method of Lagrange Multipliers.
We define
F (x, y, λ) = f (x, y) + λh(x, y)
Setting gradient of F equal to zero implies
∂f ∂h ∂f ∂h
+λ x̂ + +λ ŷ + hλ = 0
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
which gives us
∂f ∂h
+λ =0
∂x ∂x
∂f ∂h
+λ =0
∂y ∂y
h=0 (1)
x2 y 2
F (x, y, h) = xy − λ + −1
8 2
λ
y− x=0
4
x − λy = 0
x2 y 2
+ −1=0
8 2
D.
c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 3
which gives λ = ±2. Substituting the possible values of λ into the above equations, we
find two maximum values of f = xy = 2 at (1, 2), (−1, −2) and two minimum values
xy = −2 at (1, −2), (−1, 2).
Using the fact that the generalised coordinates are independent, we derived the Euler
Lagrange equation for each pair pf generalised coordinate and velocity
d ∂L ∂L
− =0 (2)
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj
In the presence of non-holonomic constraints, the generalised coordinates are not indepen-
dent as their number is greater than the number of degrees of freedom and consequently
(2) is not valid. In such situations (and also in case care is not taken to reduce the number
of generalised coordinates using the holonomic constraints), the method of undetermined
multiplier is useful. (The method has limitations, for instance, it cannot be used in cases
where the constraints are stated as inequalities)
Suppose there are m number of non-holonomic constraints involving the generalised co-
ordinates in differential form n
X
ar,j dqj + br,j dt = 0 (3)
j=1
ar,j and br,j may depend on j and t. Here r is an index which runs from 1 to m and (3) is
actually m equations, one for each value of r. We can get correct equations motion if the
varied paths are virtual displacements from actual motion in which case the constraint
is nj=1 ar,j dq= 0 because vital displacements take place over constant time. We can then
P
undetermined multipliers λr , we can choose them such that the first m terms, i.e. j = 1
to m is each zero. Suppose we choose λj such that for j = 1, 2, . . . m, the equation to be
satisfied is
m
d ∂L ∂L X
− + λr ar,j = 0 (4)
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj r=1
Note that the last term in the above equation is no longer zero as the sum over j is missing
and we have simply redistributed the term which was zero in various ways. With the λr
determined by (4), we are left with
n Z " m
#
X d ∂L ∂L X
dt − + λr ar,j δqj = 0
j=m+1
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj r=1
The right hand side of the above is seen to be the generalised force corresponding to the
constraint conditions.
^z
^φ
φ
m ρ^
x
The Lagrangian of the system is
1
L = T − V = m[ρ̇2 + ρ2 ϕ̇2 + ż 2 ] + mgz (9)
2
p
where ρ = x2 + y 2 is the particle from the z axis. The system is holonomic with two
degrees of freedom since the constraint ρ2 = az can be used to eliminate one of the
coordinates.
Let us write the constraint as
2ρδρ − aδz = 0 (10)
Comparing (10) with (3) we identify aρ = 2ρ, aϕ = 0 and az = −a.
As there is only one constraint equation, there is only one Lagrange multiplier λ and
the Euler Lagrange equation is
d ∂L ∂L
− = Qj = λaj
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj
Thus
mg N 1
λ=− = −p = − mω02
a 4ρ2 + a2 2
which is what we expected.
θ R
V=0
C
D.
c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 7
The Lagrangian is
1 1
L = m(ṙ2 + r2 θ̇2 ) + ma2 ϕ̇2 − mgr cos θ
2 2
Constraints are : (i) r = R + a (ii) (R + a)θ̇ = aϕ̇ The first is a holonomic constraint
: f1 = r − (R + a) and the second is a non-holonomic (though integrable) constraint
f2 = −(R + a)θ̇ + aϕ̇ = 0. With the former we associate λ (associate with normal
reaction) while with the latter we associate µ (associated with the tangential force required
for rolling motion). The Euler Lagrange equations (for r, θ and ϕ) are
d ∂L ∂L ∂f1 ∂f2
− =λ +µ
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj ∂qj ∂ q̇j
The equations give
Hence µ = maϕ̈ = m(R + a)θ̈ Substitute this in the second equation and use ṙ = 0.
g sin θ
θ̈ =
2(R + a)
λ = −mrθ̇2 + mg cos θ
g
= −m(R + a) (1 − cos θ) + mg cos θ
R+a
= mg(2 cos θ − 1)
For θ = 0, λ = mg, the normal force. For θ > 60◦ , λ becomes negative and contact
with the cylinder is lost.
R
x θ
Let us, however, use both x and θ are our generalised coordinates. We then have one
‘holonomic’ constraint
h(x, θ) = x − Rθ (11)
An observation may be made here that (11) is not in the form (3). A holonomic
constraint is expressed in the form f (q1 , q2 , . . . , qn , t) = 0 We can write it in a differential
form n
X ∂f ∂f
δqk + δt = 0 (12)
k=1
∂q k ∂t
Comparing this with (3) we have
∂f
ar,k =
∂qk
∂f
br,t = (13)
∂t
Thus in the present case, where we have only one constraint (11) (we drop the index r)
b=0
∂
ax = (x − Rθ) = 1
∂x
∂
aθ = (x − Rθ) = −R
∂θ
The Lagrangian is then given by
1 1
L = mẋ2 + mR2 θ̇2 − mg(l − x) sin α
2 2
where l is the length of the incline. The Euler-Lagrange equations for the coordinate x
and θ are given by
d ∂L ∂L
− −λ×1=0
dt ∂ ẋ ∂x
i.e.
mẍ − mg sin α − λ = 0 (14)
and
d ∂L ∂L
− +λ×R=0
dt ∂ θ̇ ∂θ
D.
c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 9
i.e.
mRθ̈ + λR = 0 (15)
Equations (14), (15) along with the equation to the constraint
ẋ − Rθ̇ = 0 (16)
provide the necessary equations for solution of the problem. From (15) and (16) we get
λ = −mẍ. Substituting these in (14) we get
g sin α
ẍ = (17)
2
mg sin α
λ=− (18)
2
The force of constraint corresponding to the motion along x direction is given by
∂h mg sin α mg sin α
|λ |=| − × 1 |= −
∂x 2 2
R
θ ϕ
Here y is cyclic and ẏ does not enter into the Hamiltonian. Hence we ignore the equation
of motion for y.
Since the hoop rolls without sliding, the velocity of the rim is v = Rθ̇. When the hoop
has spanned by an angle ϕ, we have
These are non-integrable constraints because these cannot be used to connect x with θ
and ϕ. The problem has two degrees of freedom.
Let us freeze the motion and make virtual displacement δθ of the angle θ(a displacement
in tilt angle is of second order). We then have
δx = R cos ϕδθ
As before we can get ax = 1 and aθ = −R cos ϕ. We can now write the Lagrange equations
of motion and get the following equations:
These equations determine the motion completely in terms of θ and ϕ. Note that x has
been alienated from the equations of motion.