SECTION 14

Refrigeration
Refrigeration systems are common in the natural gas proc-
essing industry and processes related to the petroleum refin-
ing, petrochemical, and chemical industries. Several
applications for refrigeration include NGL recovery, LPG re-
covery, hydrocarbon dew point control, reflux condensation for
light hydrocarbon fractionators, and LNG plants.
Selection of a refrigerant is generally based upon tempera-
ture requirements, availability, economics, and previous expe-
rience. For instance, in a natural gas processing plant, ethane
and propane may be at hand; whereas in an olefins plant, eth-
ylene and propylene are readily available. Propane or propyl-
ene may not be suitable in an ammonia plant because of the

FIG. 14-1
Nomenclature

GHP = gas horsepower defined by Eq 14-7b Subscripts

h = enthalpy, Btu/lb L = liquid state
h′VD = isentropic enthalpy, Btu/lb V = vapor state
k = specific heat ratio A, B, C, D = denote unique points of operation on P-H
m = refrigerant flow, lb/hr diagrams
n = number of stages b = bypass
P = pressure, psia i = isentropic
Q = heat duty, Btu/hr cd = condenser
r = compression ratio
ref = refrigeration
S = entropy, Btu/(lb • °R)
s = suction
T = temperature, °F
W = work of compression, Btu/hr d = discharge
X = weight fraction n = stage number
η = isentropic efficiency T = Total
σ = surface tension, dynes/cm 1, 2 = stage number
ρ = density, lb/ft3
∆h = enthalpy change, Btu/lb
Accumulator: a storage vessel for liquid refrigerant; also Expansion valve: a valve for controlling the flow of refrig-
known as surge drum. erant to an evaporator or chiller.
Bubble point: the temperature at which the vapor pressure Flash gas: the gas resulting from the instantaneous evapo-
of the liquid refrigerant equals the absolute external pres- ration of refrigerant by a pressure reducing device, such as
sure of the liquid-vapor interface. a control valve.
Capacity, refrigerating system: the cooling effect produced
Frost Plug: small diameter closed nozzle protruding from
by the total enthalpy change between the refrigerant enter-
the side of an insulated vessel which indicates liquid level
ing the evaporator and the refrigerant leaving the evapora-
in the vessel by accumulation of frost.
tor.
Chiller, Evaporator: a heat exchanger in which the liquid Halocarbons: a family of refrigerants consisting of fluori-
refrigerant is vaporized by a process stream which is in turn nated and/or chlorinated hydrocarbons.
cooled. Hot gas bypass: warm discharge gas recycled to chiller for
Compression ratio: ratio of outlet to inlet absolute pres- maintaining system’s operating integrity at minimum load
sures for a compressor. conditions.
Condenser: a heat exchanger in which the refrigerant, com- Liquid refrigerant receiver: a vessel in a refrigeration sys-
pressed to a suitable pressure, is condensed by rejection of tem designed to ensure the availability of adequate liquid
heat to a cooling medium. refrigerant for proper functioning of the system and to store
Cooling medium: any substance whose temperature is such the liquid refrigerant when the system is pumped down.
that it is used, with or without change of state, to lower the
temperature of refrigerant either during condensing or sub- Refrigerant: the fluid used for heat transfer in a refrigera-
cooling. tion system, which absorbs heat at a low temperature and
Effect, refrigerating: the rate of heat removal by a refrig- low pressure and rejects heat at a higher temperature and
erant in a refrigeration system. It is equal to the difference a higher pressure.
in specific enthalpies of the refrigerant at two designated Ton of refrigeration: amount of heat required to melt 1 ton
thermodynamic states. of ice in 24 hours, equivalent to 12,000 Btu/hr at 32°F.

14-1
risk of contamination, while ammonia may very well serve the FIG. 14-2
purpose. Halocarbons have been used extensively because of
their nonflammable characteristics. Process Flow Diagram and Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram

Fig. 14-1 provides a nomenclature and glossary for this sec-

tion.

MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION

Refrigeration Cycle
The refrigeration effect can be achieved by using one of these
cycles:
• Vapor compression-expansion
• Absorption
• Steam jet (water-vapor compression)
By utilizing the Pressure-Enthalpy (P-H) diagram, the re-
frigeration cycle can be broken down into four distinct steps:
• Expansion
• Evaporation
• Compression
• Condensation
The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle can be repre-
sented by the process flow and P-H diagram shown in Fig.
14-2.
Expansion Step — The starting point in a refrigeration
cycle is the availability of liquid refrigerant. Point A in Fig.
14-2 represents a bubble point liquid at its saturation pres-
sure, PA, and enthalpy, hLA. In the expansion step, the pressure
and temperature are reduced by flashing the liquid through a
control valve to pressure PB. The lower pressure, PB, is deter-
mined by the desired refrigerant temperature, TB (point B).
At point B the enthalpy of the saturated liquid is hLB, while
the corresponding saturated vapor enthalpy is hVB. Since the
expansion step (A – B) occurs across an expansion valve and can be defined as X (hVB – hLB) and substituting from Eq. 14-2,
no energy has been exchanged, the process is considered to be the effect becomes:
isenthalpic. Thus the total stream enthalpy at the outlet of the Effect = hVB − hLA Eq 14-4
valve is the same as the inlet, hLA.
The refrigeration duty (or refrigeration capacity) refers to
Since point B is inside the envelope, vapor and liquid coex-
the total amount of heat absorbed in the chiller by the process,
ist. In order to determine the amount of vapor formed in the
generally expressed as “tons of refrigeration,” or Btu/unit
expansion process, let X be the fraction of liquid at pressure
time. The refrigerant flow rate is given by:
PB with an enthalpy hLB. The fraction of vapor formed during
the expansion process with an enthalpy hVB is (1-X). Equations Qref
for the heat balance and the fraction of liquid formed are: m = Eq 14-5
(hVB − hLA)
(X) hLB + (1 − X) hVB = hLA Eq 14-1
Compression Step — The refrigerant vapors leave the
(hVB − hLA) chiller at the saturation pressure PC. The corresponding tem-
X = Eq 14-2
(hVB − hLB) perature equals TC at an enthalpy of hVB. The entropy at this
point is SC. These vapors are compressed isentropically to
(hLA − hLB) pressure PA along line C – D′ (Fig. 14-2).
(1 − X) = Eq 14-3
(hVB − hLB)
The isentropic (ideal) work, Wi, for compressing the refrig-
Evaporation Step — The vapor formed in the expansion erant from PB to PA is given by:
process (A-B) does not provide any refrigeration to the process.
Heat is absorbed from the process by the evaporation of the Wi = m (h′VD − hVB) Eq 14-6
liquid portion of the refrigerant. As shown in Fig. 14-2, this is
The quantity h′VD is determined from refrigerant properties
a constant temperature, constant pressure step (B-C). The en-
at PA and an entropy of SC. Since the refrigerant is not an ideal
thalpy of the vapor at point C is hVB.
fluid and since the compressors for such services do not oper-
Physically, the evaporation takes place in a heat exchanger ate ideally, isentropic efficiency, ηi, has been defined to com-
referred to as an evaporator or a chiller. The process refrigera- pensate for the inefficiencies of the compression process. The
tion is provided by the cold liquid, X, and its refrigerant effect actual work of compression, W, can be calculated from:

14-2
 Wi m (h′VD − hVB) FIG. 14-3
W = = = m (hVD − hVB) Eq 14-7
ηi ηi One-Stage Refrigeration System
The enthalpy at discharge is given by:
(h′VD − hVB)
hVD = + hVB Eq 14-7a
ηi
The work of compression can also be expressed as:
W
GHP = Eq 14-7b
2544.4

where 2544.4 Btu/hr = 1 hp.

(See Section 13 for a discussion on compressors.)
Condensation Step — The superheated refrigerant
leaving the compressor at PA and TD (Point D in Fig. 14-2) is
cooled at nearly constant pressure to the dew point tempera-
ture, TA, and refrigerant vapors begin to condense at constant
temperature.
Two-Stage System—Savings in the 20% range can often
During the desuperheating and condensation process, all be achieved with a two-stage refrigeration system and inter-
heat and work added to the refrigerant during the evaporation stage flash economizer. Additional savings can be realized by
and compression processes must be removed so that the cycle removing process heat at the interstage level rather than at
can be completed by reaching Point A (the starting point) on the low stage level. A typical two-stage system with an inter-
the P-H diagram, as shown in Fig. 14-2. mediate load is shown in Fig. 14-5 with data for pure propane.
By adding the refrigeration duty to the heat of compression, Three-Stage System — Additional horsepower savings
we calculate the condensing duty, Qcd, from: can be achieved by using a three-stage compression system.
Qc d = m [(hVB − hLA) + (hVD − hVB)] As with a two-stage system, flash economization and/or an
intermediate heat load can be used. The savings, while not as
= m (hVD − hLA) Eq 14-8 dramatic as the two stage versus one-stage, can still be signifi-
cant enough to justify the additional equipment. A typical
The condensing pressure of the refrigerant is a function of three stage propane system is shown in Fig. 14-6.
the cooling medium available — air, cooling water, or another
refrigerant. The cooling medium is the heat sink for the refrig- FIG. 14-4
eration cycle.
Single-Stage Cooling, Chilling and Heating Curves
Because the compressor discharge vapor is superheated, the
refrigerant condensing curve is not a straight line. It is a com-
bination of desuperheating and constant temperature con-
densing. This fact must be considered for proper design of the
condenser.
System Pressure Drop — Some typical values for pres-
sure drops that must be considered are:
Condenser pressure drop 3.0 to 7.0 psi

Line hydraulic losses

Evaporator to Compressor* 0.1 to 1.5 psi
Compressor to Condenser 1.0 to 2.0 psi
Condenser to Receiver 0.5 to 1.0 psi
* This is an important consideration in refrigeration services
with low suction pressure to compressor.

Refrigeration Stages
Refrigeration systems utilizing one, two, three, or four
stages of compression have been successfully operated in vari-
ous services. The number of levels of refrigeration generally
depends upon the number of compression stages required, in-
terstage heat loads, economics, and the type of compression.
One-Stage System — A typical one-stage refrigeration
system is shown in Fig. 14-3 where the data are for pure pro-
pane refrigerant. Fig. 14-4 illustrates a process application of
a single level chiller and the associated cooling curve.

14-3
 FIG. 14-5
Two-Stage Refrigeration System

FIG. 14-6
Three-Stage Refrigeration System

14-4
 System Configuration — Energy consumption is fre- FIG. 14-8
quently reduced as the number of stages is increased. For a
propane refrigeration system, Fig. 14-7 illustrates the effect Two-Level Chilling, Two-Stage Cooling System
of interstages without using refrigeration at intermediate lev-
els. However, the installation cost of such refrigeration sys-
tems increases as the number of stages increases. The
optimum overall cost will be a function of the specific system
and has to be determined for a set of economic criteria.

FIG. 14-7
Effect of Staging on a Propane Refrigeration System

Stages, n
1 2 3
Refrigeration Duty, MMBtu/hr 1.0 1.0 1.0
Refrigeration Temperature, °F –40 –40 –40
Refrigerant Condensing
Temperature, °F 100 100 100
Compression Requirements, hp 292 236 224
Reduction in hp, % Base 19.2 23.3
Condenser Duty, MMBtu/hr 1.743 1.600 1.575
Change in condenser duty, % Base –8.2 –9.6

The compression horsepower for refrigeration can be re-

duced further by shifting refrigerant load from cooler levels to
warmer levels. Fig. 14-8 shows a refrigeration system using
two levels of chilling. The gas is initially chilled to 30°F with
25°F propane and then to –35°F with –40°F propane. The se-
lection of the 25°F level results from equal compression ratios
for each stage. The interstage pressure and corresponding re-
frigerant temperature may be fixed by either equipment or
process conditions. Equal compression ratios per stage are
chosen whenever possible to minimize horsepower.
Example 14-1 — Calculate the horsepower and condenser
duty required for the process shown in Fig. 14-8 using propane
refrigeration. Design condensing temperature is 120°F. The
pressure drop from the chillers to the compressor suction is
1.5 psi. The pressure drop from compressor discharge to the From the vapor pressure curve for propane, the refrigera-
receiver is 10 psi. tion temperature at 62 psia is 25°F. Substituting enthalpy val-
ues from Section 24, Fig. 24-26 into Eq 14-5, we find the
Solution Steps: refrigerant flowrate through each chiller:
In order to determine the interstage refrigeration level for
(25) (106)
a two-stage system, determine the ratio per stage: m1 = = 178,570 lb / hr
1⁄
(405 − 265)
n
 Pd 
r =   Eq 14-9 (10) (106)
 Ps  m2 = = 100,000 lb / hr
(425 − 325)
From the propane vapor pressure curve:
where m1 is the flowrate through the first stage chiller, and
Pd = 240 psia + 10 psi = 250 psia m2 is the flowrate through the second stage chiller.
Ps = 16 psia – 1.5 psi = 14.5 psia Liquid flow to the first-stage chiller (178,570 lb/hr) is pro-
vided by flashing the liquid refrigerant from the refrigerant
1⁄
 250 
2 receiver at 120°F and bypassing the second-stage chiller.
r =   = 4.15
 14.5  In order to determine the flow of liquid refrigerant from the
receiver, consider the heat and material balances shown in
Thus the second stage suction pressure is: Fig. 14-9. Here, let mb (lb/hr) denote the refrigerant bypassing
Ps2 = (14.5) (4.15) = 60 psia the second-stage chiller. The chiller produces 100,000 lb/hr of
refrigerant vapor at 25°F. These vapors flow through the sec-
The first stage discharge pressure is: ond stage suction drum, and leave overhead. The liquid re-
quired from the second stage flash drum for the first stage
Pdl = 60 + 2.0 = 62 psia chiller comes from the quantity mb.

14-5
 FIG. 14-9
Data for Heat and Material Balances
By material balance, we find the vapors leaving the second
stage suction drum as mb + 100,000 – 178,570 or mb – 78,570
lb/hr. By heat balance around the suction drum, we can deter-
mine the amount of refrigerant, mb:
(mb − 78,570) (425) + (178,570) (265) = mb (325) +
(100,000) (425)
mb = 285,712 lb/hr
In order to calculate isentropic work for the first stage, it is
necessary to determine the isentropic enthalpy at 60 psia.
Fig. 24-26, the first stage inlet entropy equals 0.93 Btu/(lb •°R),
and the corresponding isentropic enthalpy at 60 psia is 440
Btu/lb.
The ideal change in enthalpy = 440 – 410 = 30 Btu/lb
For propane refrigerant k = 1.13, compression ratio, r, of 4.15
and the isentropic efficiency, ηi of 0.75, the required compres-
sion power for the first stage is obtained from Eq 14-7b:
(30) (178,570)
GHP1 = = 2807 hp
(0.75) (2,544.4)
Using Eq 14-7a we determine the first stage discharge en-
thalpy is:
From Section 24, the inlet entropy at 60 psia and 437 Btu/lb
is 0.93 Btu/(lb • °R), and the isentropic enthalpy at 250 psia is
465 Btu/lb.
Substituting into Eq 14-6, the ideal enthalpy change across
the second stage as:
∆h = 465 – 437 = 28 Btu/lb
The required compression power for the second stage is de-
termined from Eq 14-7b:
(28) (385,712)
GHP2 = = 5659 hp
(0.75) (2,544.4)
Hence, the compression required for the two-stage propane
refrigeration system becomes:
GHPT = 2807 + 5659 = 8466 hp
Using Eq 14-7a, the second stage discharge enthalpy is:
28
HV2d = + 437 = 474 Btu/lb
0.75
Substituting into Eq 14-8 yields the condenser duty for the
two-stage propane refrigeration system:
Qcd = (474 – 325) ( 385,712) = 57.5 MMB tu/hr
From Fig. 24-26 the second stage discharge temperature at
250 psia and enthalpy of 474 Btu/lb is 176°F.
Condensing Temperature
Condensing temperature has a significant effect on the com-
pression horsepower and condensing duty requirements.
Mehra3 illustrated the effect of the condensing temperature
on refrigeration requirements for one, two, and three stage
systems. Results for a one-stage propylene refrigeration sys-
tem are summarized in Fig. 14-10.
Fig. 14-10 illustrates that the colder the condensing tem-
perature, the lower the horsepower requirements for a given
refrigeration duty. Traditionally, the heat sinks for most refrig-
eration systems have been either cooling water or ambient air.
If cooling water or evaporative condensing is utilized, an 80 to
100°F temperature can be achieved. For most U.S. Gulf Coast
locations, a condensing temperature of 115 to 125°F is common
when using ambient air for cooling. Section 11 provides wet
and dry bulb temperature data for other parts of the United
States. Fig. 14-10 also indicates, to a certain extent, the effect
on operations between summer and winter conditions as well
as between day and night operations.
FIG. 14-10

30 Effect of Condensing Temperature

hvld = + 410 = 450 Btu/lb
0.75
Condensing
A material balance around the second compression stage Temperature, °F 60 80 100 120 140
yields the total refrigerant flow: Refrigeration Duty,
MMBtu/hr 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
mT = m1 + (mb − 78,570) = 178,570 + (285,712 − 78,570)
Refrigeration
Temperature, °F –50 –50 –50 –50 –50
= 385,712 lb/hr
Compression
A heat balance at the second compression stage entrance Requirement, hp 211 267 333 429 554
yields the second stage inlet enthalpy: Change in hp, % –36.6 –19.8 Base 28.8 66.4
Condenser Duty,
(450) (178,570) + (425) (285,712 − 78,570)
hv2s = MMBtu/hr 1.54 1.68 1.84 2.09 2.42
(385,712) Change in Condenser
Duty, % –16.3 –8.7 Base 13.6 31.5
= 437 Btu/lb

14-6
 FIG. 14-11
Refrigerant Subcooling
Refrigerant Subcooling
Subcooling liquid refrigerants is common in refrigeration
systems. Subcooling the refrigerant reduces the energy re-
quirements. It is carried out when an auxiliary source of cool-
ing is readily available, and the source stream needs to be
heated. Subcooling can be accomplished by simply installing
a heat exchanger on the appropriate refrigerant and process
streams.
Example 14-2 — Consider installing a 3 MMBtu/hr subcooler
on the liquid propane refrigerant from the receiver at 120°F
in Example 14-1 for the two-stage propane refrigeration sys-
tem. The second stage of this system is shown in Fig. 14-11.
Solution Steps:
By performing the heat balance around the subcooler and
the second stage suction drum, the liquid refrigerant flowrate
to the subcooler is determined to be 315,712 lb/hr. When com-
paring this to the earlier flowrate of 385,712 lb/hr, the refrig-
erant flow is reduced by 70,000 lb/hr.
By heat balance around the subcooler, we determine the en-
thalpy of liquid propane refrigerant leaving the subcooler is
315 Btu/lb which corresponds to a temperature of 110°F.
The flowrate of refrigerant through the second stage chiller
becomes
(10) (106)
m2 = = 90,909 lb/hr
(425 − 315)
As a result of subcooling, the flow of refrigerant through the
second stage chiller has been reduced from 100,000 lb/hr to
90,909 lb/hr. The lower flowrates result in reduced compres-
sion horsepower, condenser duty, and reduced size of piping
and equipment. These benefits must be balanced against the
installed cost of the subcooler exchanger.
Refrigerant For Reboiling
Refrigerants have been successfully used for reboiling serv-
ices wherever applicable conditions exist. Reboiling is similar
in concept to subcooling — heat is taken out of the refrigera-
tion cycle.
In reboiling service, the heat removed from the refrigerant
condenses the refrigerant vapor at essentially constant tem-
perature and pressure. The liquid refrigerant produced in a
reboiler service is flashed to the next lower pressure stage to
14-7
produce useful refrigeration. The refrigerant condensing pres-
sure is a function of the reboiling temperature.
Refrigerant Cascading
In the cascading of refrigerants, warmer refrigerants con-
dense cooler ones. Based on the low temperature requirements
of a process, a refrigerant that is capable of providing the de-
sired cold temperature is selected. For example, the lowest
attainable temperature from ethane refrigerant is –120°F (for
a positive compressor suction pressure), whereas the lowest
temperature level for propane is –40°F (for a similar positive
pressure).
In a refrigeration cycle, energy is transferred from lower to
higher temperature levels economically by using water or am-
bient air as the ultimate heat sink. If ethane is used as a
refrigerant, the warmest temperature level to condense eth-
ane is its critical temperature of about 90°F. This temperature
requires unusually high compression ratios — making an eth-
ane compressor for such service complicated and uneconom-
ical. Also in order to condense ethane at 90°F, a heat sink at
85°F or lower is necessary. This condensing temperature is a
difficult cooling water requirement in many locations. Thus a
refrigerant such as propane is cascaded with ethane to trans-
fer the energy from the ethane system to cooling water or air.
An example of a cascaded system is shown in Fig. 14-12,
where an ethane system cascades into a propane system. The
condenser duty for the ethane system is 30.71 MMBtu/hr. This
duty becomes a refrigeration load for the propane system
along with its 23 MMBtu/hr refrigeration at –40°F. Therefore,
the propane refrigeration system has to be designed to provide
a total of 53.71 MMBtu/hr at –40°F in addition to 10
MMBtu/hr at –-4°F and 7 MMBtu/hr at 44°F.
Refrigerant Properties
Physical properties of pure component refrigerants in com-
mon use are given in Fig. 14-13. The vapor pressure curves for
ethane, ethylene, propane, propylene, and Refrigerant 22
(R-22) are available in Sections 23 and 24 or references 2, 5,
9, and 10. Vapor pressure data for other refrigerants can be
obtained from refrigerant manufacturers.
Enthalpy data are necessary in designing any refrigeration
system. Pressure-enthalpy diagrams for pure ethane, ethyl-
ene, propane, propylene, and R-22 are available in Section 24
of this data book or references 2, 5, 9, and 10. Enthalpy data
for other refrigerants can be obtained from refrigerant manu-
facturers.
Horsepower and Condenser Duty
Estimation
Since many gas processing plants require mechanical refrig-
eration, generalized charts5 were developed to aid in a modu-
lar approach for designing refrigeration systems.
Because of the complexity of generalizing refrigeration sys-
tems, the charts have been developed for four of the most
common refrigerants: ethylene, propylene, propane, and Re-
frigerant 22.
In order to apply these curves to most of the commercially
available compressors, a polytropic efficiency of 0.77 was
assumed. The polytropic efficiency was converted into an
isentropic efficiency1 to include the effects of compression ratio
and specific heat ratio (k = Cp/C v) for a given refrigerant. For
well balanced and efficient operation of the compressor, an
equal compression ratio between stages was employed.
 FIG. 14-12
Cascade Refrigeration System
The refrigeration level is defined as the temperature of the
dew point vapor leaving the evaporator. The pressures at the
compressor suction and side load inlet nozzles were adjusted
by 1.5 psi to allow for pressure drop. These charts also include
a 5 psi pressure drop across the refrigerant condenser for eth-
ylene, and a 10 psi drop for propane, propylene, and Refriger-
ant 22.
14-8
Before developing any system, one must define refrigerant
temperature and condensing temperature of the refrigerant
based on the medium used for condensing.
To achieve maximum energy conservation and minimum
energy cost, it is necessary to match the process conditions
and refrigeration compressor design to obtain the best effi-
ciency.
 FIG. 14-13
Physical Properties of Common Refrigerants1, 4, 9, 10, 11

Normal Liquid
Thermal Specific Toxicity
ASHRAE Boiling Critical Critical Freezing Liquid
Chemical Chemical Molecular Conductivity Heat UL Group
Refrigerant Point °F Temperature Pressure Point °F Viscosity
Name Formula Weight Btu Ratio Classification
Number @ 14.696 °F psia @ 14.696 psia Centipoise
k = Cp/C v
psia (hr • sq ft • °F))/ft
11 Trichloro- 0.421 @ NBT 0.0506 @ NBT
fluoromethane CC13F 137.4 74.8 388.4 640.0 –168 0.395 @ 86°F 0.0498 @ 86°F 1.13 5
114 Dichlorotetra- 0.44 @ NBT 0.0405 @ NBT
fluroethane CC1F2OC1F2 170.0 38.4 294.3 474.0 –137 0.32 @ 86°F 0.0366 @ 86°F 1.09 6
12 Dichlorodifluoro 0.358 @ NBT 0.0518 @ NBT
methane CC12F2 120.9 –21.6 233.6 597.0 –252 0.206 @ 86°F 0.0392 @ 86°F 1.14 6
22 Chlorodifluoro 0.33 @ NBT 0.0695 @ NBT
methane CHC1F2 86.5 –41.4 204.8 716.0 –256 0.192 @ 86°F 0.0495 @ 86°F 1.18 5a
0.213 @ NBT 0.0663 @ NBT
600 N-Butane C4H10 58.1 31.1 305.6 550.7 –217 0.159 @ 86°F 0.061 @ 86°F 1.09 5b
0.21@ NBT 0.076 @ NBT
290 Propane C3H8 44.1 –43.7 206.0 616.3 –305 0.101 @ 86°F 0.056 @ 86°F 1.14 5b
0.15 @ NBT 0.082 @ NBT
1270 Propylene C3H6 42.1 –53.9 197.1 667.2 –301 0.089 @ 86°F 0.057 @ 86°F 1.15 5b
0.168 @ NBT 0.082 @ NBT
170 Ethane C2H6 30.1 –127.4 9.01 707.8 –297 0.039 @ 86°F 0.048 @ 86°F 1.19 5b
0.17 @ NBT 0.111 @ NBT
1150 Ethylene C2H4 28.1 –154.8 48.6 731.1 –272 0.07 @ 86°F 0.031 @ 86°F 1.24 5b
50 Methane CH4 16.0 –258.7 –116.7 667.8 –296 0.118 @ NBT 0.110 @ NBT 1.305 5b
0.25 @ 5°F 0.29 @ 32°F
717 Ammonia NH3 17.0 –28.0 270.4 1636.0 –108 0.207 @ 86°F 0.29 @ 86°F 1.29 2

After defining the lowest refrigerant level and the condens-

ing temperature, the pressure at the evaporator and con- FIG. 14-14
denser can be established from the vapor-pressure curve for a Condenser Duty and Gas Horsepower for
specific refrigerant. All examples and data in this section are
based upon pure component properties. In actual practice, One Stage R-22 Refrigerant
pure hydrocarbon refrigerants are not always available. Im-
purities may cause significant deviations in design and per-
formance.
One-Stage Systems — Figs. 14-14 through 14-17 pro-
vide data for estimating gas horsepower and condenser duty
requirements for one-stage refrigeration systems using ethyl-
ene, propane, propylene, and R-22 refrigerants.
Two-Stage Systems — The data for estimating gas
horsepower and refrigerant condenser duty requirements for
two-stage refrigeration systems utilizing ethylene, propane,
propylene, and R-22 are shown in Figs. 14-18 through 14-21.
Three-Stage Systems — The data for estimating gas
horsepower and condenser duty requirements for three-stage
refrigeration systems utilizing ethylene, propane, propylene,
and R-22 are presented in Figs. 14-22 through 14-25.
Example 14-3 — Estimate the horsepower and condenser
duty requirements for a single stage propylene refrigeration
system that will provide 25 MMBtu/hr of process chilling at a
refrigerant level of –20°F.
Solution Steps
The unit GHP for this example from Fig. 14-17 is 222 hp per
MMBtu/hr of refrigeration duty at an evaporator temperature
of –20°F and a condenser temperature of 100°F. And, from
Fig. 14-17, the condenser duty factor equals 1.565 MMBtu/hr
per MMBtu/hr of refrigeration duty for the same evaporator
and condenser temperatures. Hence, the total power and con-
denser duty are:
GHP = (25) (222) = 5,550 hp

Qc d = (25) (1.565) = 39.13 MMBtu / hr

14-9
 FIG. 14-15
Single-Stage Ethylene Refrigeration System

14-10
 FIG. 14-16
Single-Stage Propane Refrigeration System

500

480

460

440

420

400

380

360

Re
Gas Horsepower per MMBtu/hr Refrigeration Duty, hp

frig
340
Q1

era
n t-c
320

on
de
300
ns
280 ing
tem
p era
260 tur
e

240

220
14

200
0°
13

F
0°
12

180
0°
11

F
0°
10

160
0°
90

F
°F
80
°F

140
70
°F
60
°F

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
2.3
Re
f
rig

2.2
er
an
t-c

2.1
on
de
ns

2.0
in
MMBtu/hr of Condenser Duty per

g
te
MMBtu/hr Refrigeration Duty

1.9
m
pe
ra

1.8
tu
re

1.7 14
13 0°
12 0° F
1.6 11 0° F
10 0° F
0° F
90 F
°F
1.5 80
°F
70
°F
1.4 60
°F

1.3

1.2

1.1

1.0
Evaporator temperature, °F

14-11
 FIG. 14-17
Single-Stage Propylene Refrigeration System

560

540

520

500
480
460
Gas Horsepower per MMBtu/hr Refrigeration Duty, hp

440
420
Q1
400
380
360

340

320

300
280

260 Refrigerant-Condensing Temperature

240
14
0°
F

220
13
0°

200
F
12

180
0°
F

160
11
0°

140
F

10
120 0°
F
100 90
°F
80
80
°F
60
70
40 °F

20 60
°F
0
MMBtu/hr of Condensor Duty per MmBtu/hr Refrigeration Duty

-50 -30 -10 0 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 140

2.4

2.2
Refrigerant-Condensing Temperature
14
0°
F

2.0
13
0°
F 120

1.8
°F

11
0°
1.6 F
10
0°
F
1.4 90
°F

80
°F
1.2
70°
F
60
°F
1.0
Evaporator temperature, °F

14-12
 FIG. 14-18
Gas Horsepower and Condenser Duty for
Two Stage R-22 Refrigeration
Design and Operating Considerations
The following are some of the important parameters that
should be considered while designing any refrigeration system
to provide a safe, reliable, and economical operation.
Oil Removal — Oil removal requirements from evapora-
tors are related to the type of the refrigerant, lubricant, evapo-
rator, and compressor used in the refrigeration cycle.
Fig. 14-26 illustrates the application of an oil reclaimer in a
propane refrigerant cycle. In order to remove oil from the re-
frigerant, a slip stream of refrigerant from the bottom of the
chiller is drained into the reclaimer where hot propane refrig-
erant from the compressor discharge is used to evaporate the
refrigerant into the compressor suction. The oil is removed
from the bottom of the reclaimer. Similar arrangements can
be utilized for other hydrocarbon and ammonia refrigerants.
Operation may be designed for either manual or automatic.
Where halocarbon refrigerants and/or synthetic lubricants
are employed, it is imperative that the oil reclaimer system be
approved by the compressor manufacturer.
Liquid Surge and Storage — All refrigeration sys-
tems should have a liquid surge and storage vessel, commonly
called a receiver. A surge vessel is required on all systems
where the operating charge in the evaporator(s) and the con-
denser(s) varies due to variable load conditions. In addition to
accommodating a varying refrigerant charge, the receiver
14-13
drains the condenser(s) of liquid so that the effective condens-
ing surface is not reduced by liquid backing up. The refrigerant
charge in a receiver may vary over a wide range, from a mini-
mum at full load to a maximum at no load.
Systems with inadequate surge vessels often cause prob-
lems as they lose the liquid seal due to load variations that
always occur. Surge vessels or receivers are relatively inexpen-
sive and when sizing them, consideration should be given to:
(1) a volume equal to 100% of the system inventory at 80% full
level, and (2) the availability and quantity of refrigerant
makeup.
Vacuum Systems — Refrigeration systems can operate
with a suction pressure below atmospheric pressure. These
vacuum systems require special considerations:
• Where hydrocarbons are used with reciprocating com-
pressors (which employ rod “packing”), air can enter the
compressor and possibly form a hazardous mixture. Ex-
treme care should be taken where such systems are used.
These systems must have a manual or automatic purge
system. Double acting packing should be employed.
• Where halocarbons such as R-11, R-114, R-113, and other
low pressure, high volume refrigerants are employed
with centrifugal compressors, the deep vacuums may
“draw” air and moisture through flanges, seals, etc. This
water-oxygen combination in the presence of halocar-
bons forms acid and causes “crevice corrosion” of the
tubes along with some other problems. A positive purge
system must be employed and frequent monitoring of the
moisture content in the refrigerant is suggested.
• High pressure halocarbons R-12, R-22, and others are
employed in vacuum systems with reciprocating, cen-
trifugal, and screw compressors. These systems will suf-
fer from the same corrosion problems as defined above,
but to a lesser extent. However, since they are generally
used at lower temperatures, water in the system can
freeze the control valve and in the evaporator. Refriger-
ant dryers are required in these systems. A good purge
system is also required.
• Ammonia has been employed with reciprocating, cen-
trifugal, and screw compressors in vacuum service for
many years. Since water will not freeze in the presence
of ammonia and the aqua-ammonia formed is only
slightly corrosive, this type system has few problems
during operation. A good purge system is recommended.
Considerations for Vacuum Refrigeration
Systems:
1. Eliminate all flanges where possible.
2. Weld all piping.
3. Use weld in-line valves.
4. Use steel “refrigeration type” stop valves with “back seat-
ing” feature and seal caps in lieu of hand wheels. All suc-
tion line valves should be angle valves to reduce pressure
drop.
5. Install and maintain a good dryer on halocarbon and hy-
drocarbon systems.
6. Install a purge unit to keep the system free of air and
noncondensables.
7. All control valves should have bellows-type seals in lieu
of packing if the internal pressure is below atmospheric.
8. An oxygen analyzer is required to detect the presence of
air.
 FIG. 14-19
Two-Stage Ethylene Refrigeration System

14-14
 FIG. 14-20
Two-Stage Propane Refrigeration System

340

320
Gas Horsepower per MMBtu/hr Refrigeration Duty, hp

300

280 1 2

260

Re
fri
240
ger
an
220 t-c
on
de Q1
200 ns
in
g
te
180 m
pe
ra
t
ur
160 e
14
13 0°
140 0° F
12 F
0°
11
120 0° F
10
0° F
90 F
100 80 ° F
70 ° F
°
80 60 F
°F

60

40

20

0
-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
2.0

1.9
MMBtu/hr of Condenser Duty per

1.8
MMBtu/hr Refrigeration Duty

Re
fri
ge
1.7 ra
nt
te -c
m on
pe de
1.6 ra ns
tu in
re g
1.5 14
0°
13 F
0
12 ° F
1.4 11
0°
F
0°
10 F
0°
90 F
1.3 80 F
°
°F
70
°F
60°
1.2 F

1.1

1.0

Evaporator temperature, °F

14-15
 FIG. 14-21
Two-Stage Propylene Refrigeration System

1 2

Q1

14-16
 FIG. 14-22
Condenser Duty and Gas Horsepower for
Three Stage R-22 Refrigerant
Materials of Construction — Materials of construc-
tion for refrigeration systems relate specifically to the type of
refrigerant used. Some of the basic guidelines are:
• No copper or copper-based alloys can be used with am-
monia refrigeration systems. Where SO2, H2S, or similar
corrosive chemicals are in the process side or are present
in the atmosphere, copper or copper-based alloys are un-
suitable.
• Generally, copper and copper alloys can be employed
with hydrocarbon and halocarbon refrigerants; however,
for most systems steel piping and components are recom-
mended.
• Due to the ambient temperature vapor pressure of most
refrigerants, the refrigeration system is normally de-
signed for 250 psig or greater. The low temperature com-
ponents of the system will operate at temperatures and
coincident pressures far below the design pressures.
Generally speaking, carbon steel can be used to –20°F.
The ASME pressure vessel code section 8 addresses the
issue of material selection and impact testing for systems
operating below –20°F. Certain provisions in that code
may allow carbon steel use for components which operate
at pressures less than 25% of design pressure. In many
applications, Charpy impact testing will be required.
• The ANSI B31.3 pipe code is generally used for most re-
frigeration systems in gas processing plants. This code
has some provisions for use of materials to –50°F which
14-17
are normally limited to –20°F and should be consulted
for application in this area. There also exists an ANSI
B31.5 “Refrigeration Piping Code” which has been used
in some applications.
• Various alloys and aluminum are normally used for low
temperature operations and may be economically advan-
tageous at temperatures above –20°F.
Refrigerant Purity — Refrigerant contaminants can
consist of several components:
• Lubricating oil tends to accumulate in the chiller. Lube
oil contamination is reduced by controlling the amount
of compressor cylinder lubrication, using synthetic lubri-
cants, providing a good compressor discharge vapor
separator to eliminate free oil, and providing a good re-
claimer to remove oil accumulation.
• Lighter constituents in the refrigerant charge, such as
ethane for a propane system, tend to accumulate in the
refrigerant receiver, causing higher condensing pres-
sure. Light component contamination is controlled by the
type of refrigerant which is purchased. It can be further
reduced by purging the receiver vapors. If the process
plant inlet pressure is sufficiently low, the accumulator
can be purged into the plant inlet for re-recovery of the
hydrocarbons.
• Butane and heavier constituents in a propane refrigera-
tion system tend to accumulate in the chiller. Heavy com-
ponent contamination is normally not a severe problem,
and it is best controlled by draining from the bottom of
the lowest temperature chiller.
• Process fluid constituents may leak into the refrigerant
in the chiller.
• Air can be introduced through the compressor packing if
cylinder pressures are below atmospheric.
• Moisture, if present, will form ice and plug up the system
either at the control valves or in the chiller. Moisture
normally enters the system with the purchased refriger-
ant charge; it can be the source of considerable operating
problems until it is removed. Some refrigeration systems
employ a continuous dryer, some only a moisture indica-
tor. The problem can usually be eliminated by injecting
methanol in the system and draining it from the chiller.
Moisture must also be removed prior to the start-up of a
new system, normally by evacuating the system, purging
the system with nitrogen or dry gas, injecting methanol,
or a combination of these.
Seal Gas and Lube Oil System — Centrifugal com-
pressors are sealed at the shaft by labyrinth seals. To protect
against possible entry of oil into the refrigerant, an outward
leakage of gas is permitted out of each labyrinth seal. How-
ever, to prevent a loss of valuable refrigerant, there is a provi-
sion at the middle of the compressor end labyrinth seal to
inject a stream of less valuable gas (referred to as seal gas).
The seal gas is supplied at a pressure higher than the pressure
behind the compressor wheel at a rate slightly higher than
that leaking out through the seals. It is the seal gas that leaks
out, thus retaining the more valuable refrigerant. The seal gas
leaks by the seals and combines with the lube oil leaving the
unit and enters the lube oil surge tank.
A seal gas filter is usually provided at the inlet to the refrig-
erant compressor. The filter element should be changed out at
regular intervals. The seal gas flow for a given pressure on the
seal gas is set by factory clearances designed into each laby-
rinth seal.
 FIG. 14-23
Three-Stage Ethylene Refrigeration System

14-18
 FIG. 14-24
Three-Stage Propane Refrigeration System

320

300

280
1 2 3

260
Gas Horsepower per MMBtu/hr Refrigeration Duty, hp

240
Q1
220

200

180

14
160 0°
F

13
140 0°
F

12
120 0° Refrigerant-condensing temperature
F

100 11
0°
F
10
80 0°
F

90
60 °F

80
40 °F

70
°F
20
60
°F
0
0 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
1.9

1.8
MMBtu/hr of Condenser Duty per
MMBtu/hr Refrigeration Duty

1.7

1.6

1.5
140
°F
1.4 130
°F

120 Refrigerant-condensing temperature

°F
1.3 110
°F
100
°F
1.2
90°F

80°F
1.1 70°F

60°F

1.0

Evaporator Temperature, °F

14-19
 FIG. 14-25
Three-Stage Propylene Refrigeration System

400

380

360
1 2 3
340
Gas Horsepower per MMBtu/hr Refrigeration Duty, hp

320

300
Q1
280

260
Re

240
fri
g
er
an

220
t-c
o nd
en

200
si
ng

te
180 m
pe
ra
tu
160 re
14
13 0°
140 0° F
12 F
0°
120 11 F
0°
10 F
0°
90
F
100 °
80 F
°
70 F
80 60 F
°
°F
60

40

20

0
-50 -30 -10 0 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 140

2.2

2.1
MMBtu/hr of Condenser Duty per
MMBtu/hr Refrigeration Duty

2.0

1.9

1.8
Re
fri
ge
1.7 ra
nt
-co
nd
1.6 en
sin
g
tem
1.5 pe
rat
ure
1.4
140
130 °F
°F
1.3 110
°F 120
°F
90°
F 100
1.2 °F
70° 80°
F F
60° F
1.1

1.0
Evaporator temperature, °F

14-20
 FIG. 14-26
Oil Reclaimer
To compressor
suction
Refrigerant
PI
chiller
Hot propane vapor
Oil from compressor
reclaimer discharge
To refrigeration
interstage
Waste oil
Types of Compressors
There is a variety of compressors to choose from for refrig-
eration services. The most common are centrifugal, reciprocat-
ing, and screw compressors.
The type of refrigerant used also influences the compressor
choice. Small, up to 200 hp, halocarbon-type refrigeration sys-
tems normally use reciprocating compressors which have the
crankcase vented to the compressor suction. This type com-
pressor can also be used for propane, but the problem of pro-
pane solubility in the oil at higher temperatures requires
special lubricating oil and a crankcase heater.
Refrigeration load also influences the compressor selection.
Centrifugal compressors are not normally economical below
about 500 hp with motor drivers, or about 800 hp with turbine
drives. Above 1,000 hp, and particularly where the load is close
to an even multiple of this number, the use of centrifugal com-
pressors becomes more economical. For lower horsepowers,
reciprocating, screw, and rotary compressors are commonly
used.
Centrifugal Compressors — At the normal process
temperatures encountered in gas processing, a three or four
wheel centrifugal compressor is normally required for refrig-
eration service. This offers the opportunity of utilizing multi-
ple interstage flash economizers and permits multiple chiller
temperature levels for further reductions in horsepower.
Centrifugal compressor capacity is controlled by speed vari-
ation or suction or discharge pressure throttling. Discharge
throttling can cause surge. It is also possible to recirculate
refrigerant discharge vapors to the compressor suction during
operation at lower loading in order to avoid surge problems.
Such recirculation results in wasted horsepower and is one of
the primary drawbacks to utilizing centrifugal units.
For more details on Centrifugal Compressors, refer to Sec-
tion 13.
Reciprocating Compressors — Process tempera-
tures generally dictate two stage compression in a reciprocat-
ing machine. This affords the opportunity for one interstage
economizer, and also one additional level of chilling. In a con-
ventional refrigeration system, the first stage cylinder is nor-
mally quite large as a result of the low suction pressure. The
economizer also reduces first stage volume, cylinder diameter,
and consequently rod load. Capacity adjustment is accom-
14-21
plished by speed variation, variable clearance on the cylin-
ders, valve lifters, and recirculation of refrigerant vapor to the
suction. As with centrifugal compressors, recirculation does
result in wasted horsepower. It is also possible to throttle the
refrigerant suction pressure between the chiller and compres-
sor in order to reduce cylinder capacity. However, suction pres-
sure control can result in wasted horsepower and the
possibility of below atmospheric suction pressure, which
should be avoided.
For more details on Reciprocating Compressors, refer to Sec-
tion 13.
Screw Compressors — Screw compressors have been
used in refrigeration systems for many years. They can be em-
ployed with all refrigerants. The limitation for suction pres-
sure is about 3 psia with standard discharge pressures at
350 psig. Discharge pressures of over 750 psig are also avail-
able.
Screw compressors are gaining popularity in the gas proc-
essing industry. Screws can operate over a wide range of suc-
tion and discharge pressures without system modifications.
There are essentially no compression ratio limitations with
ratios up to 10 being used. They operate more efficiently in the
2 to 7 ratio and are comparable in efficiency to reciprocating
compressors within this range. Automatic capacity control can
provide capacity adjustments from 100% down to 10% with
comparable reduction in power requirements.
Screw compressors normally operate at 3600 rpm direct
coupled to motor drives. However, they can operate over a
range of speeds from 1500 to 4500 rpm. Engine drives, gas
turbines, and expanders can also be used as drivers.
Rotary Compressors — There is a limited application
for large rotary compressors. This is the low-temperature field
in which the rotary serves the purpose of a high volume low-
stage or booster compressor. These booster compressors are
applied at saturated suction conditions ranging from –125°F
to –5°F with R-12, R-22, ammonia, and propane refrigerants.
Available units range in horsepower from 10 to 600 hp and in
displacement from 60 to 3600 cfm in a single unit.
Mixed Refrigerants
Cryogenic processes which remove heat below ambient tem-
perature generally use pure compounds as refrigerants in a
closed mechanical refrigeration system. However, when it is
not necessary to remove the heat at a practically constant tem-
perature, it may be advantageous to use a mixture of refriger-
ants. In a proper composition, a mixed refrigerant can
minimize temperature differences between the process stream
and the refrigerant during heat exchange. This match pro-
vides an efficient chilling system.
The most common conventional refrigerants, R-22 and pro-
pane, exhibit atmospheric boiling temperatures of –41°F and
–44°F, respectively. Lower temperatures can be obtained util-
izing propylene, ethane, and ethylene, which have atmos-
pheric boiling temperatures of –54°F, –128°F, and –155°F,
respectively. However, these refrigerants require the use of a
cascade system because condensation at ambient tempera-
tures is not feasible. One alternative is the use of a mixed
refrigerant; for example, ethane-propane. The ethane lowers
the evaporation temperature while still permitting condensa-
tion at ambient temperatures, albeit at considerably higher
pressures.
 Fig. 14-27 compares the shape of process chilling curves for
an ethylene refrigerant cycle with a mixed refrigerant cycle.6
The shape of the refrigerant vaporization curve is a function
of the composition of the mixed refrigerant. In Fig. 14-27 the
composition of the mixed refrigerant is methane 8 mol %, eth-
ylene 37 mol %, and propane 55 mol %.
FIG. 14-27
Process Chilling Curves
Some of the design parameters7 to be considered while
evaluating the application of a mixed refrigerant cycle include:
• Compressor suction pressure.
• Shape of vaporization curve.
• Compressor discharge pressure and compression ratio.
• Type of controls.
• Type of compressor.
Mixed refrigerants present the problem of component seg-
regation with the lighter components concentrating in the re-
ceiver, and the heavier components concentrating in the
chiller unless the refrigerant is totally vaporized. Because of
the high condensing pressure, mixed refrigerants significantly
increase the horsepower per ton of refrigeration.
Chillers
Kettle Type Chiller — The most common type of chiller
employed in the gas processing industry is the kettle type. The
refrigerant is expanded into the shell of the kettle where a
level is maintained to completely submerge the process tube
14-22
bundle. A level control maintains the proper amount of refrig-
erant in the kettle.
When using a kettle type chiller, care should be taken to
provide adequate vapor disengaging space above the operat-
ing level of liquid refrigerant. This type chiller improperly de-
signed and operated is probably the largest single cause of
compressor failure due to liquid carryover. Figs. 14-28 and
14-29, taken from TEMA tentative standards, represent de-
sign data for sizing vapor disengaging space for kettle type
chiller in refrigeration services. The following equation allows
determination of allowable refrigerant load:
Allowable refrigerant load in lb/hr per cu ft vapor space
(S.F.) (ρV) (3980)

√ ρ −
σ
= Eq 14-10
(0.869) L ρ V
where S.F. = Safety Factor = 1⁄2
Plate-Fin Chillers — Modern cryogenic plants fre-
quently employ plate-fin exchangers for gas cooling and chill-
ing. When the design calls for a hot gas-gas exchanger, a gas
chiller, and a cold gas-gas exchanger in sequence, then it may
be convenient to put these services in single plate-fin ex-
changer. Also, plate-fin exchangers offer significant savings
for low temperature application where stainless steel is
needed for shell and tube units. Significant pressure drop sav-
ings can be realized by using single or multiple units for chill-
ing services.
For other types of heat exchangers, refer to Sections 9 and
10.
System Controls
Level Controls — External cage (displacer-type) level
controls are the most commonly used in refrigeration services
and are probably the most reliable and easy to maintain in-
struments. However, because the float chamber is external to
the refrigeration system, it is imperative that the float cham-
ber and connecting lines to the chiller be adequately sized and
well insulated. Vaporization of refrigerant (due to heat leak)
in the float chamber can result in difficulty in maintaining
proper level. Internal float level controls eliminate this prob-
lem, but present some problems in instrument maintenance.
A differential pressure device is also frequently used for
chiller level control; it affords good control when properly in-
stalled. The high pressure side connection from the liquid
phase should be large, well insulated, and installed in such a
way that lubricating oil cannot accumulate and cause errone-
ous readings. The low pressure side connection to the vapor
phase should be uninsulated and possibly even liquid sealed
or heated to prevent liquid accumulation.
The same problem exists in level indication. External gauge
glasses should have large connecting lines to the chillers and
good insulation. Bull’s-eye sight glasses are much better for
direct indication of chiller level and normally do not present
any maintenance problem other than cleaning the glass. Frost
plugs are sometimes used and give an approximate level indi-
cation while requiring no maintenance.
Pressure Controls — Refrigerant compressor high suc-
tion pressure control may be desirable when there are multi-
ple refrigerant compressors in the system. Without high
suction pressure control, loss of one refrigerant compressor
can result in overloading of the other compressors and loss of
all units in an unattended operation. However, suction
 FIG. 14-28
Vapor Space for Kettle Type Chillers

14-23
 FIG. 14-29
Shell Size for Kettle Type Chillers

14-24
pressure control can also result in horsepower waste if the FIG. 14-30
compressor suction is throttled unnecessarily.
Refrigeration System Checklist
The refrigerant compressor hot gas bypass is used to prevent
compressor suction pressure from getting too low. If the process Indication Causes
load decreases, the hot gas bypass will open to maintain a satis-
Check accumulator temperature.
factory compressor suction pressure in an unattended plant. If
hot gas bypass remains open, the compressor capacity should be If the accumulator temperature is high,
check:
adjusted to reduce bypassing in order to conserve energy. Screw
compressors need no such arrangements as they can be automat- 1. Condenser operation for fouling.
ically unloaded to satisfy the suction pressure settings. 2. High air or water temperature.
High Compressor
Discharge 3. Low fan speed or pitch.
Evaporator Temperature — The evaporator (or Pressure 4. Low water circulation.
chiller) temperature is normally controlled by controlling the
If condensing temperature is normal,
refrigerant pressure on the chiller. This may be accomplished check for:
by using back pressure valves, refrigerant compressor speed,
1. Non-condensables in refrigerant.
or hot gas bypass around the compressor.
2. Restriction in system which is
Low Ambient Controls — All refrigeration systems creating pressure drop.
should have low ambient controls where ambient temperature Check refrigerant temperature from
is below 40°F. These controls, which maintain a preset pres- chiller.
sure differential between the condenser and the evaporator If refrigerant temperature is high and
pressures, are necessary for continuous operation and for approach temperature on chiller is
start-up at low ambients. There are several approaches to normal, check:
these controls: 1. Chiller pressure.
1. For air coolers used as condensers, louvers, air recircu- 2. Refrigerant composition for heavy
lation systems, and fan cycling are employed. ends contamination.
2. For both shell and tube condensers and air coolers, con- 3. Refrigerant circulation or kettle
level (possible inadequate flow
densing pressure can be controlled by installing a pres- High Process resulting in superheating of
sure regulating valve actuated by condensing pressure Temperature refrigerant).
set at a minimum predetermined pressure in the line 4. Process overload of refrigerant
between the condenser and the liquid receiver. In addi- system.
tion, a small pressure regulator set at a predetermined
If refrigerant temperature is normal,
pressure is installed in a line between the discharge line and approach to process temperature is
and the liquid receiver. This regulator will direct enough high, check:
hot gas to the receiver to keep the pressure high enough 1. Fouling on refrigerant side (lube oil
to operate the evaporator liquid control valve. or moisture).
3. Where a shell and tube condenser is used, a water flow 2. Fouling on process side (wax or
control valve operated by condenser pressure can be util- hydrates).
ized. This type control may cause sediment and scaling 3. Process overload of chiller capacity.
in the condenser. Check:
4. Where evaporative condensers are used, several methods 1. Process overload of refrigerant
can be employed to control condensing pressure depending system.
upon the ambient temperature and type of installation. Inadequate 2. Premature opening of hot gas
• The condenser can be selected to operate as an air Compressor bypass.
cooler at temperatures below 32°F (water system Capacity 3. Compressor valve failure.
shut down and drained) while employing a fan cy- 4. Compressor suction pressure
cling controller. restriction.
• A system as described above in item 2 can be em- 5. Low compressor speed.
ployed. Check:
• Where the system is indoors with the condenser 1. Low accumulator level.
Inadequate
outdoors, an indoor water sump can be employed Refrigerant Flow to 2. Expansion valve capacity.
with a fan cycling controller. Economizer or 3. Chiller or economizer level control
Chiller malfunction.
4. Restriction in refrigerant flow
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION (hydrates or ice).

Even though absorption refrigeration has seen little use in

the gas processing industry, it does have application. In areas
where there is low cost natural gas, where a low level heat
source is available, or where electrical rates have risen dra-
matically, absorption refrigeration may be an economical way
to attain modest temperature level refrigeration. In circum-
stances where unused boiler capacity is available in summer
months, absorption units can be utilized to produce refrigera-
tion.
Lithium Bromide-Water Systems
The lithium bromide absorption refrigeration cycle8 oper-
ates on the simple principle that, under low absolute pressure,
water will boil at a low temperature. Fig. 14-31 shows a
schematic arrangement of lithium bromide-water system. The
system uses heat to efficiently produce refrigeration. The
lower shell is divided into absorber and evaporator sections

14-25
 FIG. 14-31
Lithium Bromide-Water Refrigeration System

Cooling Water
Out

Condenser

Generator Excess
Process
Heat
(Waste heat)
Capacity
Control
Valve

Out
Chilled
Water
Cooling In
Water Evaporator
In
Absorber

Cycle-Guard
Valve

Solution Hermetic
Heat Exchanger Refrigerant Pump
Hermetic
Solution Pump

Diluted LiBr Concentrated LiBr Refrigerant Water

while the upper shell consists of the generator and condenser
sections. The evaporator section contains the refrigerant,
water. A coil, through which the cooling system water circu-
lates, is inserted into the evaporator to establish a heat ex-
change.
The refrigerant gains heat from the cooling system water,
and because of low pressure maintained in the evaporator,
quickly reaches saturation temperature and vaporizes, cooling
the system water. The remainder of the cycle deals with re-
claiming this refrigerant.
The affinity of lithium bromide for water causes the refrig-
erant vapor to be absorbed by the strong solution in the ab-
sorber section. The diluted (weak) solution is pumped into the
generator, where steam or hot water is used to drive the water
out of the solution as a vapor. The vapor passes into the con-
denser and changes back to liquid which returns to the evapo-
rator to be reused. Meanwhile, the strong solution left in the
generator flows back to the absorber to complete the cycle.
The lowest chilled water temperature achieved by this sys-
tem is 42°F and typically the unit operates between 42°F and
50°F with varying refrigeration capacity loads.
Aqueous Ammonia System
Refrigeration can be provided by using waste heat with the
water-ammonia absorption cycle. This cycle was originally
employed in the 1800’s and has been refined over the years. It

14-26
lost its economic value in the 1930’s as the more efficient cen-
trifugal and reciprocating compressor systems became inex-
pensive. Due to its basic inefficiency, the ammonia absorption
system cannot be justified unless low level waste heat is avail-
able, such as low pressure steam or hot process streams.
Ammonia absorption capacities have been designed in sizes
from a minimum of 2.4 MMBtu/hr at –50°F and 3.6 MMBtu/hr
at 20°F to a maximum of 30 MMBtu/hr at –50°F and 60
MMBtu/hr at 20°F. Most systems would employ shell and tube
condensers and absorbers; however, evaporative cooled ab-
sorbers have been used. Air cooled condensers and absorbers
could also be used. Various schemes can be used for supplying
the water requirements of the condensers and absorbers other
than series flow. Parallel flow can be used to reduce absorber
size and the heat input to the system.
The heat source will govern the generator design. The gen-
erator may be finned-surface heat exchangers with aqueous
solution pumped through the tubes for vapor heating medi-
ums or double-pipe heat exchangers for liquid heating medi-
ums. Fig. 14-32 shows a flow sheet of an ammonia absorption
system.
Reliability — Ammonia absorption systems are normally
installed with spare aqua pumps and spare reflux pumps of-
fering a comparison to centrifugal, reciprocating, and screw
compressor systems that have a spare compressor-motor
train. Downtime from failure of mechanical items is negligible
due to the 100% spare pumps.
Design Flexibility — Ammonia absorption systems are
usually custom designed for each specific application. Evapo-
rator temperatures down to –60°F are possible. Systems can
be designed one stage or two stage for several different evapo-
rator temperatures. Systems can be increased in size and
evaporator temperatures raised or lowered by the addition of
heat exchange surface. Evaporator temperatures are related
to heat input temperature. Raising the temperature of the
FIG. 14-32
Flow Sheet of an Ammonia Absorption System
NH3 vapor
Condenser
Rectifier
NH3 NH3 liquid
liquid
Aqua NH3
Waste
heat
Ammonia
Generator receiver
Bottoms
Weak aqua Reflux pump (if required)
Strong aqua
14-27
heat source lowers the possible evaporator temperature. The
evaporators remain 100% efficient at all times as the refrig-
eration is oil-free. There is no need to add oil fouling factors to
the evaporator design, thus saving 5 to 10% in the evaporator
cost. The choice of evaporator design has no limitations.
Applications — The ammonia absorption system has
many applications. It can produce refrigeration from waste
heat for almost any kind of application in the chemical and
petroleum industry. Waste steam has been used as the heat
source in many installations in the chemical and petroleum
industry providing temperatures from 50°F to –50°F. Process
vapor streams and hot oil have also been used as heat sources.
Exhaust gases from gas turbines would be an excellent source
of heat and this heat would normally be capable of providing
low temperature refrigeration due to its high temperatures.
Supplemental firing can also be added for peak loads. Stack
gases of many kinds could also be used as a heat source.
REFERENCES
1. Elliott Multistage Compressors, Bulletin P-25A, Elliott Co.,
Jeanette, PA, 1975.
2. Starling, K. E., “Fluid Thermodynamic Properties for Light Pe-
troleum Systems,” Gulf Publishing, Houston, TX, 1973.
3. Mehra, Y. R., “Refrigeration Systems for Low-Temperature Proc-
esses,” Chem. Eng., July 12, 1982, p. 94.
4. Sibley, H. W., “Selecting Refrigerants for Process Systems,”
Chem. Eng., May 16, 1983, p. 71.
5. Mehra, Y. R., “Refrigerant Properties of Ethylene, Propylene,
Ethane and Propane,” Chem. Eng., Dec. 18, 1978, p. 97; Jan. 15,
1979, p. 131; Feb. 12, 1979, p. 95; Mar. 26, 1979, p. 165.
6. Kaiser, V., Becdelievre, C. and Gilbourne, D. M., “Mixed Refrig-
erant for Ethylene,” Hydro. Processing, Oct. 1976, p. 129.
7. Kaiser, V., Salhi, O. and Pocini, C., “Analyze Mixed Refrigerant
Cycles,” Hydro. Processing, July 1978, p. 163.
Cooling NH3 vapor
water
Fluid to be
chilled
Evaporator
NH3
liquid
Aqua film
absorber Cooling
NH3 vapor Strong water
aqua
Strong
aqua
tank
NH3 Strong
liquid aqua
Aqua pump
Weak aqua
8. Carrier Hermetic Absorption Liquid Chillers, Form 16JB-3P, 10. ASHRAE “Thermodynamic Properties of Refrigerants,” 1791
Carrier Corporation, Syracuse, NJ, 1975. Tullie Circle N.E., Atlanta, GA 30329.
9. E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Bulletins G-1, C-30, S-16, T-11, 11. Underwriters’ Laboratories Reports MH-2375, MH-3134, MH-
T-12, T-22, and T-114D, Wilmington, DE 19898. 2630, and MH-3072.

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