Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
I was asked to do a brief introduction to very first had features that are still relevant to
equivalence relations in behavior and its what is being done today. For those who
implications for language research and ap- want to go more deeply into the initial data, a
plication, particularly for the benefit of more fully controlled replication was pub-
young readers of this journal who are lished 2 years later (Sidman & Cresson,
becoming more interested in the topic. This 1973).
introduction to research on equivalence Our basic procedure was matching to
relations is therefore going to be extremely sample. That term, matching to sample, re-
basic, starting at the very beginning and ferred originally to what experimenters
emphasizing methodology. Expectations of a thought of as identity matching, in which
big theoretical discussion will only result in subjects have to match stimuli that, to us, are
disappointed readers. There is still much to physically the same. In most of our experi-
be done in equivalence research and in its ments, although not all, the stimuli to be
applications that is independent of any parti- matched bore no physical resemblance to each
cular theory. We are, of course, interested in other. Because the matching criteria were
what any data signify, but there are many arbitrary, I prefer the procedural name,
kinds of significance besides theoretical. I conditional discrimination. If you are given
will note some exciting possibilities that I see Stimulus A1, then you match it to Stimulus B1
in the topic of equivalence relations with and not to B2, B3, or B4. If you are given
respect both to the science of behavior and to Stimulus A2, however, then you match it to B2
more general intellectual and practical con- and not any of the others. If A3, then B3, and
cerns. What remains to be done is at least as so on. The experimenter or teacher determines
stimulating as what has been done already. which stimuli are to be related, and the
Even after an exciting research program that matching is done regardless of any lack of
has now lasted more than 35 years, I am resemblance between the matched stimuli.
eager to see others expand on the basics. The involvement of arbitrary matching
For those who want to follow up in more brings up what many consider to be the most
detail, two references that give my own slant interesting aspect of equivalence relations.
on the field of equivalence relations are my The emergence of equivalence relations pro-
equivalence book (Sidman, 1994) and a vides a way to study experimentally what
paper that expands on some of the material might be thought of as a kind of stimulus
in the book (Sidman, 2000). I will start here generalization, an elusive kind in which sub-
with a description of our first experiment jects come to match stimuli that share no
(Sidman, 1971). Although many investiga- physical properties and that have never been
tors have since done more sophisticated and paired with or directly related to each other.
more revealing studies, the first ones have Here is an outline of the experimental
certain virtues as an introduction. Even the setup we started with. On any given condi-
tional discrimination trial, the subject was to
Address correspondence to Murray Sidman,
compare several stimuli (called comparison
3435 Fox Run Road #347, Sarasota, Florida stimuli) to a sample and to select one of those
34231 (e-mail: murraysidman@comcast.net). comparison stimuli by touching it; the choice
5
6 MURRAY SIDMAN
Figure 1. Stimulus displays from two trials of visual-visual word-to-picture matching. The center key on
the left contains the sample word car, and on the right, the sample word cup. Eight comparison stimuli
surround each sample.
that we scored correct was conditional on to the sample before the comparisons can
which stimulus was the sample on that parti- appear. Requiring human subjects to touch
cular occasion. In our laboratory, subjects sat the sample key does not, however, guarantee
before a matrix of nine keys onto which that they will observe the stimulus on the
stimuli could be projected, one in the center key. I suspect that such failures of observa-
surrounded by eight others. As an example, tion are responsible for the seeming inability
Figure 1 shows two trials. At the left, with of some subjects to learn a particular
the sample word CAR located in the center of matching-to-sample task—they just do not
a circle of eight keys, the subject is to select look at the stimulus on the sample key. Even
the picture of a car from among the com- when they are performing a conditional
parisons located in the outer keys. At the discrimination perfectly, the stimulus aspects
right, with the sample word cup, the picture that control their behavior may not be the
of a cup is to be selected. On other trials, same as those specified by the experimental
with different samples (cat, box, cow, etc.), contingencies (e.g., Carrigan & Sidman,
different selections from among those same 1992; Iversen, Sidman, & Carrigan, 1986;
comparisons will be correct. The locations Johnson & Sidman, 1993; McIlvane & Dube,
of the comparison pictures change from trial 2003). Observing behavior in matching to
to trial. Because the conditional discrimina- sample is a ripe area for investigation (Dube
tion terminology is somewhat cumbersome, et al., 2006). How can it be measured, taught,
we often still talk about matching to sample and modified?
even though we are studying nonidentity The first phase of our experiment was to
matching. check whether our subjects could match
Skinner (1950, pp. 213–214) found that he printed word samples to picture comparisons,
could not easily get pigeons to do matching as summarized in Figure 1 and in the left side
to sample unless he taught them first to peck of Figure 2. This is an instance of what we
the sample key to gain access to comparison call visual-visual word-to-picture matching.
stimuli. This procedure was probably effec- We also tested another example of noniden-
tive because pigeons usually look at whatev- tity matching to sample—the reverse, or
er they peck, so pecking the sample may symmetric version of what we have just been
have helped ensure that they observed the looking at (Figure 2, right). Now, the sample
sample. Based on Skinner’s finding—along is a picture, and the comparisons are printed
with human subject replications, particularly words. This is an example of what we call
with normal and handicapped children— visual-visual picture-to-word matching.
today’s standard matching-to-sample proce- These kinds of stimuli interested us be-
dure requires even human subjects to respond cause people who can match printed words to
EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS: TUTORIAL 7
Figure 2. Stimulus displays from pretests of visual-visual word-to-picture matching (left) and visual-
visual picture-to-word matching (right).
the appropriate pictures are said to under- they had shown no evidence of reading
stand the words, to exhibit a simple form of comprehension, they seemed ideally suited
reading comprehension. For reasons that to help answer our question about how to
need not concern us here, we wanted to find teach it.
out whether elementary reading comprehen- We first taught the boys to match dictated
sion, tested this way via word-to-picture and word samples to picture comparisons (Fig-
picture-to-word matching, could develop ure 3). Instead of presenting visual samples
without being directly taught. Could we get on the center key, which remained blank, we
students to do these matching tasks without presented auditory samples, dictated words.
our ever having provided them with any On the particular trial shown at the left, we
reinforcing consequences for doing so? dictated, ‘‘car, car, car, …,’’ repeating the
We had been working with a group of word until the end of the trial so that the boy
institutionalized teenaged boys with severe would not have to remember it. On the right
mental retardation, boys who were unable to side is an example of another trial, this one
do the two tasks illustrated in Figure 2. They with the dictated word ‘‘cup’’ as the sample.
could not match printed words to their corre- Before the comparison stimuli could appear,
sponding pictures; they had never learned to the boy had to touch the blank sample key
read. Indeed, before we could get them to do and thereby produce comparison pictures on
the complex matching to sample that this the outer keys, and we required at least one
experiment required, we had to teach them sounding of the sample word before a touch
basics like sitting quietly, pointing at specific to the blank key would work. The reason we
objects, discriminating simple forms like did that was to decrease the likelihood that
lines of different orientations and curvatures, a boy would impulsively press the blank
and telling circles, squares, and other stan- sample and a comparison key without having
dard forms from each other. Before we could a chance to listen to the spoken word. If he
expect them to discriminate words, we had to did not listen, he would not have an opportu-
teach them to discriminate the individual nity to learn anything about the dictated
letters, and before that, the forms that make samples.
up the letters. Finally, we had brought them Then, having produced comparison stimuli
to the point where we could teach them to do on the outer keys, the boy could produce a
what was called identity matching—to match reinforcer by touching the comparison pic-
words to themselves and pictures to them- ture that matched the dictated sample. On
selves—so they had become familiar with trials other than those shown in Figure 3, we
our matching-to-sample procedures. Because dictated other names. The subjects eventually
8 MURRAY SIDMAN
learned to match 20 dictated names to corre- shows this. Again, on the illustrated trial, we
sponding pictures. We also used several varia- repeatedly dictated the word ‘‘car.’’ On other
tions of each picture, so that the boy would not trials, we dictated other words. The boy
just observe some irrelevant aspect of a could now procure a reinforcer by touching
picture. Let us call this auditory-visual word- the corresponding printed word rather than a
to-picture matching. picture. This task, which we call auditory-
The next step was to teach them to match visual word-to-word matching, was extreme-
the same dictated words not to pictures but ly difficult to teach to our first subjects, but
to printed words. The right side of Figure 4 they eventually learned to match the 20
Figure 4. Comparison stimulus displays from teaching trials of auditory-visual word-to-picture matching
(left) and auditory-visual word-to-word matching (right).
EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS: TUTORIAL 9
Figure 5. Procedural summary of the first experiments. The two upper segments illustrate the auditory-
visual word-to-picture and word-to-word teaching trials that were shown in Figure 4, and the two lower
segments illustrate subsequent posttest trials of visual-visual word-to-picture and picture-to-word
matching.
dictated names with the corresponding print- and I can also read many German words
ed names. aloud with something resembling the Ger-
At this point, some might be tempted to man pronunciation—all this, however, with-
say that the boys had learned to read text out having the slightest idea what those
(i.e., printed words). Indeed, we found later words mean. We had not yet shown that the
that learning these auditory-visual matching boys grasped the relation between printed
tasks often, although not always, did make words and pictures, which would have indi-
subjects able to name the printed words (i.e., cated at least a simple understanding of the
to read them aloud). But we could not say yet words. To find out if they could now read
that the boys understood the words, that they with comprehension, we repeated the original
were reading with comprehension. For ex- visual-visual word-to-picture and picture-to-
ample, I can match many words spoken to word matching tests that we saw earlier in
me in German with their printed counterparts our procedure illustrations. In Figure 5, the
10 MURRAY SIDMAN
upper section repeats the teaching phase. matched what I felt the first time I taught a
That phase had involved only auditory-visual difficult circle-ellipse discrimination error-
matching: dictated words to pictures and to lessly by means of a stimulus-fading proce-
printed words. The lower section of Figure 5 dure, and then, to the first time I found that
illustrates one trial from each subsequent test, some patients who had suffered strokes and
which involved only visual stimuli and no had lost the ability to express themselves
auditory samples. Given a printed word as vocally could nevertheless understand words
the sample (shown at the lower left, in the when they were tested nonvocally, that is
center key), would the boy now select the to say, when they were tested with exactly
appropriate picture? And given a picture the same matching-to-sample procedures we
sample (shown in the lower right), would he have been looking at here. Although they
now select the appropriate printed word? The could not say the names, some of them could
boys had never been able to do these kinds still match the printed words and pictures.
of visual-to-visual matching tasks before. If I am convinced that the best way to get
they could now do them, we would be able one’s feet wet in equivalence, to experience
to assert that learning to match dictated the same excitement I did during our first
words both to pictures and to printed words equivalence experiment, would be to do this
had given them the ability to comprehend experiment oneself. One can do it easily with
the printed words, to match them to their fewer stimuli and with table-top procedures.
corresponding pictures. Just seeing it happen would be more likely to
That is exactly what happened. Although stimulate interest than would any exposure
our students had never been taught explicitly to published papers, lectures, or theoretical
to relate text and pictures, they now accu- controversies, especially to presentations
rately matched nearly every one of the 20 concerned with advancing some particular
printed-word samples to its picture and each theory. I believe that such personal exposure
of the 20 picture samples to its correspond- would also generate interest not just in
ing printed word. After they had learned equivalence but, more generally, in behavior
the original 40 auditory-visual relations via analysis. Much remains to be done both in
direct teaching with reinforcement, 40 new equivalence research and its applications that
visual-to-visual relations literally emerged— is independent of any particular theory. An
in full bloom, so to speak. They could now overemphasis on theory has caused our field
read with comprehension without their doing to overlook a number of interesting pub-
so ever having been reinforced. lished extensions of equivalence relations
This was not the usual transfer-of-training because the publications require readers to
phenomenon. It was not that the auditory- wade through a complex theoretical back-
visual experience permitted the boys to learn ground in order to find out how the data were
the visual-visual matching faster than they related to what was done rather than to their
otherwise would have. They matched the theoretical rationale. For the most part, then,
pictures and printed words perfectly on the I will just share a number of conjectures
very first posttest trials; they showed reading about the general significance of the phe-
comprehension immediately. Nor was this nomenon that our first experiments revealed.
the usual stimulus generalization phenome- First, however, a few things need saying
non. It could not be said that the visual-visual about methodology. My concern with meth-
relations between printed words and pictures odology arises from observations that the
emerged because of any physical resem- methods we use to gather and present evi-
blances between related stimuli. In everyday dence may not only influence scientific con-
language, we could say that the printed words clusions and judgments but may also deter-
had become symbols for the pictures. mine what we do or fail to do next. Take, for
The first time I saw this happen was a big example, the equivalence triangle that we
event in my life. For me, it was an experience often use to summarize a basic equivalence
comparable to the first time I shaped a rat’s procedure and its findings (Figure 6). Here,
bar pressing, and then to the first time I con- A designates three of the dictated word
ditioned avoidance behavior with the free- samples we used in the first experiments; B
operant procedure. My excitement also designates three of the pictures, and C
EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS: TUTORIAL 11
a seemingly simple identity-matching task. stimulus. Suppose our student chooses verti-
The circles represent keys, and a vertical or cal on every trial, regardless of which line is
horizontal line appears on each key. In each the sample, giving a score of 100% on trials
trial display, the horizontal and vertical with vertical samples and 0% with horizontal
comparison lines are at the top, above the samples. Although this yields an average
sample; the left and right positions of the score of 50%, statistically insignificant, such
comparisons vary from trial to trial. Subjects a performance has been known to tempt
produce a reinforcer if they touch a compar- investigators into concluding that although
ison key that contains a line with the same the student had completely failed to learn the
orientation as the sample key. What kind of a relation between the horizontal stimuli, he or
performance would allow us to say that our she had learned to match vertical samples
subject knows how to match vertical to perfectly. A student who always selects the
vertical and horizontal to horizontal? same comparison stimulus, however, cannot
Suppose he or she achieves 75% correct be said to be matching either of the samples,
over enough trials to make that statistic sig- horizontal or vertical. Such a performance
nificantly different from chance. We would could indicate simply that the student paid no
like to think this average signifies that the attention at all to the samples, that as far as
subject has matched correctly on 75% of all he or she was concerned, the samples did not
trials, regardless of which line was the even exist. After all, picking the vertical
sample. With only two comparisons, howev- comparison all the time produced a reinforcer
er, a score of 75% correct could have been on every other trial on the average; not a bad
achieved in another way. Suppose that when payoff for so little work.
the sample is vertical (as it is in the two What if our subject never makes a mistake,
displays on the left side of Figure 7), the always picking the comparison line that
subject always selects the vertical compari- matches the sample? Still, with only two
son; that would yield a score of 100% on comparisons, even a seemingly perfect per-
vertical-sample trials. But suppose that when formance does not permit us to say for sure
the sample is horizontal (as it is in the two that he or she has matched both line orienta-
displays on the right side of Figure 7), he tions. Let me describe how I might get a
or she always selects the left comparison, reinforcer on every trial without matching
regardless of which stimulus is in that posi- each comparison line to its identical sample.
tion. Because each comparison appears at the Suppose that on every trial, I look for the
left on half the trials, that would give a score vertical comparison. When I find it, I touch it
of 50% correct when the sample is horizon- if the sample is also vertical. But if the
tal, even though really the subject never sample is not vertical, then, whatever else the
selected the horizontal comparison at all; he sample may be, I touch the other comparison,
or she just picked the left comparison key, no whatever it may be, as long as it is not
matter which line was on that key. With vertical. Note that all of my selections here
100% correct on vertical trials and 50% are controlled by just one of the stimuli, the
recorded as correct on horizontal trials, the vertical line; I either select the vertical
average score would be 75%, even though comparison or reject it, depending on wheth-
the subject had never, on any trial, paid any er the sample is vertical. If you were then to
attention to the horizontal comparison. The test me by substituting even unfamiliar
75% score, even if statistically significant, is stimuli for the horizontal line, I would still
behaviorally meaningless. Whenever I see be correct on every trial because the only
an author claiming that an accuracy of 75% thing that mattered to me was whether or not
(even 80%) indicates that a subject has I was looking at vertical.
learned a two-sample two-comparison con- The recorded measure, accuracy, does not
ditional discrimination, I stop reading that distinguish between the two types of stimulus
paper (for a more detailed discussion, see control on correct trials: selection of one
Sidman, 1980). comparison or rejection of the other. The
With only two comparisons, a related response that we record, touching the correct
misconception can arise if a subject were comparison, does not tell us whether that
always to select the same comparison comparison or the other one controlled our
EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS: TUTORIAL 13
The auditory modality is not required. Class species that are capable of developing
union comes about when two sets of con- equivalence classes.
ditional discriminations have an element in Most, if not all, stimuli are members of
common. The process is general, regardless more than one class. For example, in some
of the stimulus modalities. Nevertheless, I instances green is in the class of color, in
venture to suggest that the use of audition other instances it is in the class of beginner,
and olfaction with nonhumans might prove and more recently, it is often in the class of
especially productive. For example, auditory- environmentally conscious. Stimulus mem-
visual matching in studies with dolphins bership in more than one class does not, of
could provide a key to our understanding of course, cause all of those classes to combine
their communication, including both com- into one. Contextual circumstances—the
prehension and production of speech (that is subject of the particular book one is reading,
to say, dolphin speech). With the sophisti- the current topic of conversation, the partic-
cated techniques that are now available for ular person with whom one is conversing—
recording and reproducing sounds, it should determine which of several possible classes a
be possible to use natural vocalizations as stimulus is in at any particular time. In some
stimuli, relating them either to arbitrary stim- contexts, classes that contain a member in
uli and responses or to referents that we common will merge into one; class union
suspect are the actual ones for those animals. will take place. In other contexts, classes will
Species generality of equivalence relations simply intersect, remaining separate in spite
still requires investigation. The original and of a member common to both. In an example
most subsequent work on equivalence rela- provided by Bush, Sidman, and de Rose
tions involved humans, with emphasis on (1989), ‘‘If we are discussing disciplines,
questions about reading; about language Renoir, Constable, and Pollock go together
development; about the origin of symbols, as artists; Twain, Voltaire, and Byron as
classification, and concept formation; about writers; and Churchill, Kennedy, and De
the sources of some seemingly untaught be- Gaulle as heads of state. If we are discussing
havior; and about implications for efficiency nationality, Renoir, Voltaire, and De Gaulle
in teaching. From the beginning, however, a go together as French; Twain, Kennedy, and
primary concern has been the possibility of Pollock as American; and Churchill, Consta-
finding a role for equivalence phenomena in ble, and Byron as British’’ (p. 31).
the behavior of other species. In spite of the Just as the two-term operant reinforcement
failure of the earliest attempts to demonstrate contingency rarely, if ever, exists in real life
species generality (e.g., Dugdale & Lowe, (the discriminated operant is therefore the
2000; Sidman et al., 1982), confirmation of basic unit of behavior analysis) so equiva-
equivalence relations in individual nonhu- lence relations probably always come under
man subjects has come from Vaughan’s contextual control. Here is another fertile
(1988) pigeon experiment, in which he area for investigation, particularly in extend-
pioneered a simple discrimination rather ing the significance of equivalence classes
than a conditional discrimination technique beyond the laboratory.
for generating equivalence classes. Sidman, When the topic of contextual control of
Wynne, Maguire, and Barnes (1989) reported equivalence relations comes up, I often recall
a systematic replication of that technique the time I emphasized in a talk that an object
with human subjects. More recently, equiv- and its name are not always equivalent, that
alence relations have been convincingly context determines class membership. As an
demonstrated in several sea lion studies in example, I pointed out that although we swat
Schusterman’s laboratory (e.g., Kastak, flies, we do not swat the word fly. Steve
Schusterman, & Kastak, 2001). It has been Hayes then proposed jokingly that he could
suggested (Sidman, 2008) that the success disprove my theory of equivalence; he
with sea lions came about at least in part printed the word fly on a piece of paper and
because the subjects, unlike those in other then batted the word with a fly swatter.
experiments, had previously been taught to Nevertheless, the equivalence of particular
do identity matching. Still to be ascertained, words to what, in everyday speech, are
however, is even an approximate range of the referred to as their referents is a sufficiently
16 MURRAY SIDMAN