GAS COMPRESSION

CONTROL SYSTEMS

Oil & Gas

CONTROL SYSTEMS
Contents
1 Control System Overview .................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 PRODUCT DESCRIPTION .......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 ADVANTAGES OF INTEGRATED CONTROL ............................................................................ 2
1.3 OPEN ENVIRONMENT ................................................................................................................ 2
1.4 DISPLAY / OPERATOR INTERFACE .......................................................................................... 2
1.5 COMPONENT DEVELOPMENT .................................................................................................. 2
1.6 VARIED COMPRESSOR CONFIGURATIONS............................................................................ 3
2 Control System - Old versus New....................................................................................................... 4
2.1 OVERVIEW................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 SURGE LIMIT MODEL ................................................................................................................. 4
2.3 UNITIZATION FOR TUNING AND DISPLAY............................................................................... 5
2.4 CURVE FIT ................................................................................................................................... 5
2.5 COMPRESSOR OPERATION...................................................................................................... 5
2.6 TURNDOWN CALCULATOR ....................................................................................................... 6
2.7 SURGE MARGIN.......................................................................................................................... 7
2.8 TURNDOWN (RANGEABILITY)................................................................................................... 7
2.9 PROPORTIONAL AND INTEGRAL CONTROL ALGORITHM .................................................... 7
2.10 POSITIONED VALVES................................................................................................................. 8
3 Piping and Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 9
3.1 TIME CONSTANT OF THE SYSTEM .......................................................................................... 9
3.2 COMPRESSOR DECELERATION............................................................................................. 10
3.3 HEAT BUILDUP IN UNCOOLED RECYCLE SYSTEMS ........................................................... 10
3.4 RECYCLE LINE PIPING............................................................................................................. 11
3.5 FLOW-MEASURING ELEMENTS .............................................................................................. 11
3.6 COMPRESSOR INSTRUMENTATION ...................................................................................... 11
3.7 CHECK VALVES ........................................................................................................................ 12
3.8 RECYCLE VALVES .................................................................................................................... 12
3.9 RECYCLE VALVE TYPES ......................................................................................................... 13
3.10 MULTIPLE RECYCLE VALVE ARRANGEMENTS .................................................................... 14
3.11 RECYCLE VALVE CONTROL.................................................................................................... 14
3.12 COMPRESSORS IN SERIES..................................................................................................... 15
3.13 GAS COMPOSITION CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................ 15
4 Valves and Associated Components................................................................................................ 16
4.1 SIZE AND CHARACTERISTIC................................................................................................... 16
4.2 TYPICAL VALVE ARRANGEMENTS......................................................................................... 17
4.3 SURGE CONTROL VALVE ACCESSORIES............................................................................. 17
4.4 POSITIONED VERSUS DIRECT CONTROLLED VALVES....................................................... 21
4.5 RECYCLING FOR PROCESS CONTROL ................................................................................. 22
4.6 INTERACTION BETWEEN SURGE AND PROCESS CONTROL............................................. 22
5 Flow-Measuring Elements and Transmitters................................................................................... 23
5.1 GENERAL SELECTION CRITERIA ........................................................................................... 23
5.2 COMPARISON OF COMMONLY USED FLOW-MEASURING ELEMENTS............................. 23

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Contents, Contd
6 Process Control .................................................................................................................................. 25
6.1 PRODUCT DESCRIPTION ........................................................................................................ 25
6.2 SUCTION PRESSURE ............................................................................................................... 25
6.3 DISCHARGE PRESSURE.......................................................................................................... 25
6.4 FLOW CALCULATOR ................................................................................................................ 25
6.5 FLOW CONTROL ....................................................................................................................... 26
6.6 SPEED CONTROL ..................................................................................................................... 26
6.7 PROCESS CONTROL USING ANTI-SURGE CONTROL VALVE ............................................ 27
6.8 SUCTION PRESSURE ............................................................................................................... 27
6.9 DISCHARGE PRESSURE.......................................................................................................... 28
6.10 COMMAND TO ANTI-SURGE VALVE ....................................................................................... 28
6.11 MULTIPLE UNIT LOAD SHARE CONTROLLER AND SURGE MARGIN EQUALIZER ........... 28
Appendix A – Yard Valve Sequencing .................................................................................................... 30
A-1 MILESTONES............................................................................................................................. 30
A-2 SEQUENCING MATRIX ............................................................................................................. 31
A-3 VALVE OUT OF POSITION ....................................................................................................... 31
Appendix B – Recycle System Design Check List ................................................................................ 34
B-1 RECYCLE SYSTEM DYNAMICS ............................................................................................... 34
B-2 RECYCLE LINE PIPING............................................................................................................. 34
B-3 FLOW-MEASURING ELEMENTS .............................................................................................. 34
B-4 COMPRESSOR INSTRUMENTATION ...................................................................................... 34
B-5 CHECK VALVES ........................................................................................................................ 35
B-6 RECYCLE VALVES .................................................................................................................... 35
B-7 PROCESS CONTROL VALVES................................................................................................. 35
B-8 COMPRESSORS IN SERIES..................................................................................................... 35
B-9 GAS COMPOSITION CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................ 35
Appendix C – K-Value Definitions ........................................................................................................... 36

Appendix D – Compressor Data Requirements ..................................................................................... 37

D-1 EXAMPLE OF ACCEPTABLE COMPRESSOR DATA .............................................................. 37
Appendix E - Surge Control Valve Accessories .................................................................................... 39

Appendix F – Glossary of Definitions ..................................................................................................... 40

Caterpillar is a registered trademark of Caterpillar Inc.

Solar, Titan, Mars, Taurus, Mercury, Centaur, Saturn, SoLoNOx, and Turbotronic are trademarks of Solar Turbines Incorporated.
Specifications subject to change without notice. Printed in U.S.A. © 2003 Solar Turbines Incorporated. All rights reserved.
SPGCCS/203

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 Anti-Surge and Process Control
for Gas Compressor Applications
1. Control System Overview
1.1 PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Solar Turbines Incorporated offers a control sys-
tem for the avoidance of surge in turbine driven
centrifugal compressors. The system creates a
mathematical model of the compressor perform-
ance and monitors the actual operating point of
the compressor against the model on a real-time
basis. It establishes a “surge line” that indicates
where surge is expected to occur and a “control
line” that is at a fixed margin, typically 10%, from
the surge line. If the compressor’s operating point
reaches the control line, the system initiates cor-
rective action.
The hardware required includes a recycle
piping loop with an anti-surge valve, the neces-
sary valve accessories, and instrumentation to
measure the flow through the compressor and
the suction and discharge pressures and tem-
peratures. Proper valve and instrumentation se-
lection, coupled with a suitable piping layout, is
critical to the successful operation of the system.
The corrective action taken by the system is
to open the anti-surge valve. This causes recy-
cling of some of the process gas to increase the
flow on the suction side of the compressor. This
moves the operating point away from the surge
line. Once the operating point is to the right of a
"deadband" line (typically 12% from the surge
line), the system instructs the anti-surge valve to
close. Operation of the valve is asymmetrical in
that it opens rapidly, but closes slowly.
Solar’s system scope typically includes the
following:
· Engineering to determine the optimum
control algorithms for the specific applica-
tion
· Software programmed and tested for the
selected compressor staging
· Engineering to specify the anti-surge con-
trol valve and accessories, including valve
performance evaluation over the compres-
sor performance map at varying valve po-
sitions
1
· Engineering to specify the flow-meter type
and size
· Evaluation of purchaser's piping and in-
strumentation diagram and physical layout
· Documentation, including all surge control
calculations and program constants
· Modified head-versus-flow control
· Automatic override of manual control mode
· Speed set point decoupling
· Surge detection with step valve opening
· On-screen, real-time graphic display
· On-screen, real-time control parameter
setting
· Availability of all surge control parameters
via serial communications link for remote
monitoring
· Suction flow transmitter *
· Suction pressure transmitter *
· Discharge gas temperature RTD
(100-ohm platinum) *
· Discharge pressure transmitter
* Shipped separately for installation
by purchaser
The following components and information
are typically required from the purchaser in order
to facilitate the surge control system design and
onsite operation:
· Expected compressor operating condition
ranges for suction pressure (P1), suction
temperature (T1), discharge pressure (P2),
flow, and gas specific gravity
· Flow-meter specification sheet
· Purchaser piping and instrumentation dia-
gram (P&ID) and physical layout drawing,
including suction and recycle pipe sizes
and schedule
 · Anti-surge control valve and its specifica-
tion sheet, unless included in Solar's scope
· Suction gas temperature signal (100-ohm
platinum RTD preferred)
1.2 ADVANTAGES OF INTEGRATED
CONTROL
Solar’s anti-surge control system is fully inte-
grated in the turbine unit control panel (UCP).
This integration allows for better interface with the
capacity and/or fuel control loops for optimum
performance and compressor safety.
All unit parameters are available to the sta-
tion process control system for station optimiza-
tion based on compressor performance and op-
timum envelopes. Because the anti-surge control
is part of the control processor program, all pa-
rameters and status indications are available via
a serial link, e.g., transmitters, control parame-
ters, PV, SP, OUTPUT, SM and status variables.
Integration of the process control, anti-surge
control, and the unit control minimizes interaction
complications. A seamless process provides
control from a reactive mode to a coordinated
mode of surge and process control.
With an integrated control system, the anti-
surge, process and station control valves can all
be used to avoid surge. This results in superior
performance through better resolution, faster re-
sponse (reduced risk of surge), and significantly
less noise. Also, redundant components are
eliminated, reducing cost.
1.3 OPEN ENVIRONMENT
Solar's anti-surge control system is easy to mod-
ify by changing the source code (changing as-
signed K-values). This feature is important when
gas conditions are expected to change or if the
compressor is restaged.
1.4 DISPLAY / OPERATOR INTERFACE
Solar’s system provides real-time indication of all
variables associated with anti-surge control on
one screen. The anti-surge control screen also
provides indication of the compressor operating
point relative to the recycle and surge lines. This
feature allows the operator to see how close the
compressor is operating to the unstable region.
The system has a manual mode, enabling the
operator to operate the recycle valve manually.
However, the system will automatically override
the manual mode if the operating point reaches
the control line.
2
1.5 COMPONENT DEVELOPMENT
Solar has made and continues to make a signifi-
cant investment in the development of surge
control components.
1.5.1 Control Processor
Solar uses control processor hardware and soft-
ware produced by Allen-Bradley. Solar works
closely with Allen-Bradley on the development of
hardware and software specifically for turbo-
machinery control. This has enabled the surge
control algorithms to become faster, more accu-
rate, and more sophisticated.
1.5.2 Instrumentation
Solar works continuously with instrumentation
manufacturers to improve the performance of the
instrumentation components. In flow measure-
ment, Solar’s primary focus is on the low delta-P
transmitters used with orifice plates and venturis,
since the speed of response of these devices
tends to be inversely proportional to their range.
1.5.3 Control Valves
Solar works continuously with valve manufactur-
ers to improve the performance of anti-surge
control valves. Solar-specified anti-surge control
valves employ asymmetrical stroking operation.
This enables the valve opening response to be
tuned beyond critical damping without producing
instability. Solar currently supplies valves with
opening speeds of less than 100 milliseconds per
inch of port size. Future plans call for doubling
that performance; i.e., reducing the time to 50
ms.
1.5.4 Flow Measurement Elements
Solar has worked with a wide variety of flow-
measuring elements, such as orifice plates, flow
tubes, and venturis. Solar has also worked with
compressor impeller eye flow measurement with
both Solar's compressors and other manufactur-
ers' compressors. Solar is currently working on
error correction schemes based on compressor
speed and pressure ratio when using impeller
eye flow measurement.
1.5.5 Tailored Algorithm
Solar provides anti-surge control in many differ-
ent forms. The anti-surge control algorithm is of-
ten tailored to the application. This provides uni-
formity with other compressor anti-surge control
systems at the site, changes in gas conditions,
and changes in compressor configurations. Solar
regularly examines several anti-surge control al-
gorithms to identify which one best suits the ap-
plication and minimizes gas recycle.
1.6 VARIED COMPRESSOR
CONFIGURATIONS
Anti-surge controls from Solar Turbines Incorpo-
rated are easily adapted to various arrangements
of compressors (series, parallel, and combina-
tions of both), varied piping arrangements, and
process control schemes. The integrated control
is clearly well suited to these applications due to
the large number of potential control conflicts and
interactions.
3
1.6.1 Surge Detection
In addition to the primary anti-surge control, a
surge detection algorithm is included. This soft-
ware detects changes in flow that would indicate
that a surge event has occurred. This algorithm
provides a backup to the primary anti-surge con-
trol and as such is seldom activated. This feature
will protect the compressor against a faulty or
incorrectly calibrated transmitter where the
transmitter is functioning, but providing incorrect
data.
1.6.1 Service
Solar provides worldwide service and technical
support for all of its turbomachinery, compressors
and controls.
2. Control System - Old versus New
Solar's enhanced anti-surge control system pro- where:
vides fast system response without sacrificing
controllability. Brief descriptions of several en- T = Temperature
hancements follow. Z = Gas compressibility
SG = Gas specific gravity
2.1 OVERVIEW
Solar's anti-surge control system determines the The resulting terms are as follows:
compressor operating point using pressure and
temperature monitored at the suction and dis- Reduced Head
charge sides of the compressor, along with flow s
monitored by a flow-measuring element and æ P2 ö
transmitter. In the earlier algorithm, only flow (Q) çç ÷÷ - 1
P
through the compressor and compressor head HR = è 1 ø
(P2 - P1) defined the compressor operating point. s
The new system compares the compressor
operating point to a third-order polynomial model
of the compressor's surge limit (theoretical surge and
line). The difference between the operating point
and the surge limit model, minus the protection Reduced Flow
margin, is the control error. A proportional and
integral (P+I) algorithm adjusts this difference, or
hW
“error,” to provide a control signal to the recycle QR =
valve. In the earlier system, the compressor P1
surge limit was defined by a straight line (y = mx +
b), as opposed to a polynomial equation.
where:
2.2 SURGE LIMIT MODEL
hW = Flow element pressure differential
The surge limit of the compressor can be ex-
pressed in terms of mathematically reduced
polytropic head and volumetric flow. The full ex- and, for ideal gases
pressions for polytropic head (Hp) and flow (Q)
are as follows: æT ö
lnçç 2 ÷÷
ìïæ P ö s üï T
s = è 1ø
íçç ÷÷ - 1ý × T × Z
2
æP ö
ïè P1 ø ïþ lnçç 2 ÷÷
Hp = k1 × î è P1 ø
s × SG

Since the reduced terms have an equal im-

hW × T × Z pact on both head and flow, a model of the surge
Q 2 = k2 ×
P1 × SG limit, in terms of reduced head and reduced flow,
is insensitive to changes in these parameters.
Since measured P1 is used in both terms, chang-
Since a number of terms are common to both ing compressor suction pressure is accounted
the head and flow equations, they can be re- for.
duced by: Prior to 1999, the surge limit model was
based on DP versus hW, where DP is the pressure
differential across the compressor and hW is the
T ×Z pressure differential across the flow-measuring
SG device. While simpler and usually suitable for

4
pipeline applications, this was inadequate in an
environment of changing gas conditions. Pres-
sure, temperature, or specific gravity compensa-
tion was difficult and made the algorithm com-
plex.
2.3 UNITIZATION FOR TUNING
AND DISPLAY
The data ranges for reduced head and reduced
flow are unitized; that is, they are expressed as
percentages (0 to 100%) instead of dimensioned
values for both the X and Y axes. This approach
produces similar surge lines for a wide range of
compressors. The gains for anti-surge control are
similar for different installations and onsite tuning
is simpler. With a dimensioned system, however,
the gains for different installations can vary by
orders of magnitude.
2.4 CURVE FIT
For a single-stage compressor moving light natu-
ral gas (pipeline, sales quality gas), a straight-line
surge model was usually sufficient. However,
multi-stage compressors running heavy gas pro-
duce a more complex curve. When surge limits
for these complex curves are modeled with a
straight line, the protection margin can be two
times the actual requirement near the center of
the curve. This causes unnecessary recycling.
The new, third-order polynomial-based system
models compressor surge limits accurately and
does not recycle gas unnecessarily.
From the compressor manufacturer’s surge
limit data, coefficients for a third-order polynomial
are developed for the operating range of the
compressor using the equation listed below:
x = Ay3 + By2 + Cy + D
where:
x = Reduced flow (Q) element
y = Reduced head (H) element of the
surge control algorithm
The constants, A, B, C, and D are the con-
stants or “K-values” defining the polynomial (see
Appendix C).
For display purposes (Figure 1), the surge
line and the accompanying control and deadband
lines are shown as straight lines. The surge line
is a tangent to the actual curve defined by the
polynomial, corresponding to the value of re-
duced head at the compressor’s operating point.
5
2.5 COMPRESSOR OPERATION
The operation of a compressor can be described
in terms of three parameters: head, flow, and
speed. The operating point is often defined in
terms of its relationship to surge, typically as the
ratio of any of these parameters to that parameter
at surge, holding any of the other parameters
constant. The three most commonly used values
are turndown, surge margin, and head rise to
surge.
Turndown is the ratio of flow greater than
surge to flow at the operating point, at a constant
head (Figure 2.) It is often used to describe the
margin of safety of operation of a compressor
especially where only head and flow are moni-
tored. It is typically expressed as a percentage.
Another definition of turndown is used to de-
scribe the rangeability of a compressor; that is,
the distance between surge and choke. In this
case, turndown is often expressed as a ratio; i.e.,
2:1.
Surge margin is the ratio of flow greater than
surge to flow at the operating point, at a constant
speed (Figure 3.) This is the most common de-
scription of the margin of safety of operation of a
compressor. It is usually expressed as a percent-
age.
Head rise to surge is the ratio of operating
head to head at surge, at a constant speed.
Again, this describes the margin of safety of op-
eration of a compressor. It is usually expressed
as a percentage.
Speed loss to surge, at constant head, de-
fines how far speed can be reduced, at constant
head, before the compressor surges. This rela-
tionship is useful in explaining the problem of
avoiding surge during a shutdown. If the volume
in either side of the compressor is maintaining the
head across the compressor, reducing speed will
induce surge.
The remaining two relationships are head
rise to surge at constant flow and speed fall to
surge at constant flow. Neither of these relation-
ships is very useful. Head across an operating
compressor is set by the upstream and down-
stream system. Head changes slowly in direct
proportion to the flow. Flow is only constant when
speed, upstream and downstream resistances
are held constant and the system has reached
equilibrium. Relating a change in any parameter
to a constant flow does not reflect an operating
scenario.
Solar’s control system uses the calculated
value of turndown to protect the compressor
against surge.
 hW
QR =
SRG
P1 SRG

hW
QR OP =
P1 OP

Figure 1. Anti-Surge Control Display

2.6 TURNDOWN CALCULATOR

REDUCED
The turndown (TD) calculator takes inputs of HEAD
pressure, temperature, and flow to calculate the FACTOR
turndown. Turndown is defined as the horizontal
distance (i.e., at constant reduced head factor)
between the reduced flow factor at the operating
point and the reduced flow factor at the surge
limit line, expressed as a percentage, shown
graphically in Figure 2 and mathematically as:

QR OP - QR SRG
TD = 100 ´
QR SRG

where:
REDUCED
hW FLOW
QR = FACTOR
SRG
P1 SRG
QR SRG
QR OP

and: Figure 2. Turndown

6
 hW
QR OP = HEAD
P1 OP

2.7 SURGE MARGIN

The surge margin is calculated in the same way
except that the value of QRsrg is derived from the
intersection of the constant speed line and the
surge line, as shown in Figure 3:

QR - QR
SM = 100 ´ OP SRG

QR
OP

FLOW
REDUCED
HEAD
FACTOR Q SRG Q MAXSPEED

Figure 4. Turndown (Rangeability)

2.9 PROPORTIONAL AND INTEGRAL

CONTROL ALGORITHM
In any control system, the maximum control gain
is limited by the time constant or system resonant
frequency. If gains are continually increased to
improve response, the system oscillates. Since
many system components respond non-linearly,
the system time constant changes. Even if the
REDUCED
FLOW system is initially optimally tuned, process condi-
FACTOR tions and/or the equipment change over time, and
the system can oscillate.
QR QR OP An anti-surge control system must 1) avoid
SRG surge with severe process changes and 2) con-
trol continuous recycle without oscillation or
Figure 3. Surge Margin hunting. Off-the-shelf valves and transmitters
must be used in a piping system where flow-
meter runs are not ideal and control volumes can
2.8 TURNDOWN (RANGEABILITY) be large.
When describing rangeability, turndown is Often, performance requirements cannot be
defined as: met with a conventional single gain system. To
ensure surge avoidance, valve opening speeds
QMAXSPEED far in excess of the system time constant can be
TD = required. To return to the normal process
QSRG smoothly, a much slower closure rate is required.
To achieve these conflicting objectives, Solar
where: uses two gains: high gains for opening the recy-
cle valve and low gains for closing the valve.
QMAXSPEED = Flow at maximum speed Solar's anti-surge controller uses conven-
(See Figure 4.) tional proportional plus integral control with gains

7
modified, depending on the location of the com-
pressor operating point relative to the control line.
Variable gains allow the recycle valve to open or
close appropriately, depending upon process re-
quirements.
2.10 POSITIONED VALVES
Until recently, Solar used only direct-acting
valves; i.e., valves controlled via a current / pres-
sure (I/P) transmitter, for anti-surge control. Ear-
lier valve assemblies that included positioners
were not judged acceptable due to their poor re-
8
sponse to commands from the control processor.
However, improvements in valve technology and
the use of ancillary components in the system,
including for example, a one-way volume booster
and a needle valve, now permit the successful
application of positioned valves. Therefore, Solar
now recommends the use of positioned valves.
Solar’s anti-surge system responds faster
than most, if not all, competing systems and pro-
vides precise control that allows continuous op-
eration at the surge control line.
3. Piping and Instrumentation
Design of the piping and the selection and 3.1 TIME CONSTANT OF THE SYSTEM
placement of instruments will significantly affect For surge avoidance, the system time constant
the performance of an anti-surge control system. can be defined as a volume and a valve. In the
The benefits of a good piping and instrument de-
simplest system, the volume is bounded by the
sign cannot be overemphasized. The cost of cor-
compressor, discharge check valve, and recycle
recting a poor design once the equipment is in
valve. The suction volume is typically several or-
operation can be extremely high. The following
ders of magnitude larger than the discharge vol-
guidelines are provided to help ensure proper ume and, therefore, is ignored (considered infi-
operation of the anti-surge control system.
nite, constant pressure). The time constant t of a
The typical simple recycle system is shown in
volume / valve system can be estimated by the
Figure 5. The system includes a flow-measuring
formula:
element in the compressor suction, a compres-
sor, an aftercooler, a discharge check valve, and
a recycle line and valve connected upstream of VP1 SG
t » 35 ´
the discharge check valve and upstream of the CV P2 ZT
compressor flow-measuring element. The control
monitors the compressor’s operating parameters where:
and compares them to the surge limit and opens
the recycle valve as necessary to ensure the de- t = Time constant in seconds
sired surge margin is maintained. (63.2% decay in pressure)

ENGINE COMPRESSOR
VV

SV AFTERCOOLER DV

FT PT TT PT TT
LV

SCRUBBER

ANTI-SURGE SV = SUCTION VALVE

CONTROLLER LV = LOADING VALVE
VV = VENT VALVE
DV = DISCHARGE VALVE
LIMIT
SWITCH
TT = TEMPERATURE
4 - 20mA
TRANSMITTER
POSITION
FT = FLOW TRANSMITTER
TRANSMITTER
SOLENOID PT = PRESSURE
4 - 20mA
ENABLE TRANSMITTER
24VDC

FAIL OPEN

ANTI-SURGE
CONTROL VALVE

Figure 5. Typical Piping and Instrumentation Outline

9
 CV = ISA flow coefficient for
the recycle valve
P1 = Inlet pressure of the recycle valve
P2 = Outlet pressure of the recycle valve
SG = Specific gravity of the gas
T = Absolute temperature of the gas
upstream of the recycle valve
V = Volume bounded by the compressor,
the check valve, and the recycle valve
Z = Compressibility of the gas
In a surge avoidance system, half of the
valve’s capacity will be consumed recycling the
compressor. Only the remainder can be used for
depressurizing the discharge volume. Therefore,
in the equation above, only that portion (CV) of
the valve not consumed in recycling the com-
pressor can be considered for depressurizing the
discharge. Ultimately, this time constant will de-
termine the fastest rate at which the surge avoid-
ance system can operate.
3.2 COMPRESSOR DECELERATION
The worst-case scenario is when the compressor
is operating near surge, without any recycle, and
an engine shutdown occurs. With the initiation of
a shutdown, the compressor can be expected to
decelerate approximately 30% in the first second.
With a 30% loss in speed, the compressor's head
capability at its surge limit will drop by approxi-
mately 50% (Fan Law). The surge control valve
must, therefore, reduce the pressure across the
compressor by one-half in that first second. To do
this, the surge control valve must move a propor-
tional amount of gas out of the discharge into the
suction. This is in addition to the flow required
through the compressor to avoid surge.
The larger the volumes in the system, the
longer it will take to equalize the pressures, the
more sluggish will be the response of the surge
control system, and the more likely the compres-
sor will surge. The larger the valve, the better the
potential of avoiding surge. However, the larger
the valve, the poorer the controllability will be at
partial recycle. The faster the valve, the quicker it
can get to the position where the required flow
can be achieved and the more likely surge will be
avoided. However, the speed of a valve cannot
simply be turned up infinitely. Increasing the gain
of the valve positioning system will at some point
produce instability. This can be overcome by in-
creasing the power of the actuator (improving the
relationship between the command and the valve
10
position). At some point, this becomes impractical
in both size and cost. An alternative is a valve
boosted only to open. This provides high opening
speeds for surge avoidance, while avoiding os-
cillation by very slow closing.
If the discharge volume / recycle valve can-
not be designed to ensure surge is avoided, a
short recycle loop (hot recycle valve) may be
considered. If only a single recycle valve can be
used, a rotary valve typically has 50% more turn-
down than a globe valve. Subsequently, use of a
ball valve can cut the depressurization time by
50% over a globe valve.
3.3 HEAT BUILDUP IN UNCOOLED
RECYCLE SYSTEMS
Virtually all of the energy put into the compressor
is reflected as heat in the discharged gas. In an
uncooled recycle system, this heat is recycled
into the compressor suction and then more en-
ergy added to it. At 100% recycle, eventually this
will lead to overheating at the compressor dis-
charge. Low pressure ratio compressors often do
not require aftercoolers. Compressors with only
hot recycle systems are not intended to recycle at
all during normal operation. The problem usually
occurs when there is a long period between the
initial rotation of the compressor and overcoming
the pressure downstream of the check valve.
A cubic foot of natural gas at 600 psi weighs
about 2 lb (depending on composition). The spe-
cific heat of natural gas is about 0.5 Btu/lb (again
depending on composition). 1 Btu/sec equals
1.416 hp. If the recycle system contains 1000
cubic feet, there is a ton of gas in it. 1416 hp will
raise the temperature of the gas about 1 degree
per second. This approximates what happens
with 100% recycle.
The analysis of the partial recycle scenario is
more complicated. The compressor discharge
temperature will rise asymptotically until the en-
ergy of the gas leaving the system equals the
energy input to the compressor.
Extending the length of the recycle line
downstream of the recycle valve increases the
total volume of gas in the recycle system, thus
reducing the heat buildup rate. Some heat will be
lost through the pipe walls. If the outlet is far up-
stream into a flowing suction header, dilution will
occur.
For start-up, a relatively small control valve
can be placed across the discharge check valve.
As compressor discharge temperature increases,
this valve can be opened, pushing some of the
hot recycled gas into the suction header tempo-
rarily.
3.4 RECYCLE LINE PIPING
3.4.1 Compressor Suction Side
The suction side of the recycle system is
bounded by the compressor suction, the suction
block valve or inter-stage check valve, and the
outlet of the recycle control valve. The connection
of the recycle line outlet should be as far away
from the compressor as possible. Conversely, the
flow-measuring element should be as close to the
compressor suction as possible. With this ar-
rangement, the introduction of recycle flows will
not overly adversely affect flow measurement.
3.4.2 Compressor Discharge Side
The discharge side of the recycle system is
bounded by the compressor discharge, the dis-
charge check valve, and the inlet of the recycle
control valve. This volume is critical to the per-
formance of the surge control system and should
be kept to a minimum.
3.4.3 Recycle Line Sizing
The recycle valve should have greater than 90%
of the total pressure drop across the recycle
system under maximum throttling conditions
(maximum head and speed).
For short recycle systems (<100 diameters),
1:1 line sizing (valve to pipe) should be adequate.
For longer recycle systems (downstream of the
recycle valve), larger pipe sizes may need to be
considered.
3.4.4 Suction Strainers
Strainers are often installed upstream of a com-
pressor for obvious reasons. Often, since the
compressor flow-measuring element is installed
very close to the compressor, there will be a ten-
dency to install only one pressure transmitter. If
the strainer is installed between the flow-
measuring element and the compressor, and
there is only one pressure transmitter, the pres-
sure drop across the strainer will impact the mar-
gin of surge protection. Monitoring the pressure
across the strainer will alleviate this problem and
help avoid the possibility of collapsing the
strainer.
3.5 FLOW-MEASURING ELEMENTS
3.5.1 Performance
Flow-measuring elements that develop high DP
signals are desirable. Flow-measuring elements
with low signal levels will often have low signal-
to-noise ratios. Pressure transmitters for low DP
signal ranges typically have slow response times.
11
Flow-measuring elements that create an abrupt
restriction or expansion to the gas, such as ori-
fices, cause turbulence and, subsequently, create
noise.
3.5.2 Placement
It is preferable to place the flow-measuring ele-
ment in the suction side of the compressor. Typi-
cally, variations in pressures, temperatures and
turbulence of the gas are fewer upstream of the
compressor. Also, the flow-measuring element
must be inside the innermost recycle loop (Figure
6).
3.5.3 Reliability
Failure of the flow-measuring element will at least
cause the compressor set to be shutdown until it
can be replaced. If the failure results in pieces
being ingested by the compressor, it will cause
an expensive overhaul. Devices cantilevered into
the gas stream are not recommended. Low cost
flow-measuring elements do not always result in
cost savings in the long run.
3.5.4 Permanent Pressure Loss
The power cost of operating a flow-measuring
element is often highlighted by manufacturers of
low permanent pressure loss (PPL) flow-
measuring elements. In some cases, this is over-
stated. The cost impact of operating a flow-
measuring element can be calculated. For exam-
ple, a flow meter developing a 100 in. H2O signal
and a 50% PPL flowing 100 MMSCFD (50 lb/sec)
is equivalent to about 20 hp.
3.6 COMPRESSOR INSTRUMENTATION
Optimal performance of any control system is
dependent on the speed, accuracy, and resolu-
tion of the instrumented process conditions. To
achieve optimal performance, the instruments
should have performance specifications an order
of magnitude better than the requirements for the
system. Typical gas compressor systems have a
first-time constant of about one second; hence,
no instrument should have a first-time constant of
greater than 100 ms. The surge control system is
expected to discriminate between single-digit
percentages of surge margin; hence, measure-
ment of the process parameters should be accu-
rate to 0.1%. The final control elements (recycle
valves) probably can resolve 1% changes in their
command signals; hence, the process variables
should be resolved to at least 0.1% (10 bits) of
their normal operating range. Over-ranging
transmitters degrade resolution.
 ENGINE
SV FM
LV SCRUBBER
ENGINE COMPRESSOR
SV FM
HBP
LV SCRUBBER
HBP = Hot Bypass Valve SRV = Station Recycle Valve
ASC = Anti-Surge Control Valve FM = Flow Measuring Device
Figure 6. Typical Recycle Valve Configurations
3.7 CHECK VALVES
A surge control system must contain at least one
check valve. Typically, it is located in the dis-
charge immediately downstream of the entrance
to the recycle line. When hot and cooled recycle
control valves are used, a second check valve
may be added immediately downstream of the
inlet to the hot recycle line. This second check
valve serves to reduce the effective discharge
volume for the hot recycle valve. Reducing the
volume to be depressurized improves the re-
sponsiveness of the surge avoidance system.
Check valves at the discharge of the com-
pressor do not lessen the impact of surge on the
compressor. A check valve at the discharge of
the compressor may actually increase the
damaging effects of surge by decreasing the
recovery time, subsequently increasing the
repetition rate. A check valve at the discharge of
the compressor will prevent backspin of the
compressor. However, a properly designed surge
COMPRESSOR
VV
AFTERCOOLER DV
HBP
ASC
VV
AFTERCOOLER DV
ASC
SRV
control system, with a minimized discharge
volume, cannot maintain enough energy to
backspin the compressor.
Premature compressor bearing failures have
been attributed to a check valve being placed too
close to the compressor’s discharge. If a check
valve is to be placed at the discharge of the com-
pressor, it should be at least 10 pipe diameters
downstream of the compressor.
3.8 RECYCLE VALVES
Recycle valves are used to allow the operation of
a compressor at delivered flows lower than those
within the operational boundaries of the com-
pressor.
A compressor driven by a two-shaft gas tur-
bines can decelerate very quickly with a loss of
power. The compressor’s ability to develop head
varies with the square of speed (Fan Law). Loss
of compressor speed will cause a very rapid
approach to the compressor’s surge limit. To
12
avoid surge, the valve(s) must be able to respond
accordingly. Conversely, when there is a gradual
approach to the surge limit (line packing), the
valve must be able to smoothly and precisely
throttle recycle to maintain the desired margin.
These demands push the valve size and posi-
tioning system in opposite directions.
The valve(s) responsible for surge avoidance
must meet two sizing requirements:
1. Capacity to recycle the compressor
2. Capacity to depressurize the discharge in
less than one second
If the capacity required to depressurize the
discharge exceeds three times the size required
to recycle the compressor, two valves should be
used. If only one valve is to be used, an equal
percentage characteristic will expand the throt-
tling range. For equal percentage, characteristic
globe valve capacity (Cv) is approximately equal
to travel squared. Noise-attenuating ball valves
have a characteristic where capacity (Cv) is ap-
proximately equal to travel cubed. As such,
noise-attenuating ball valves are a superior single
valve choice.
Valves specified or supplied by Solar will be
able to open in less than 50 ms per inch of port
size. If the enable solenoid is de-energized, the
valve should reach 63.2% open (first-time con-
stant) in less than 50 ms per inch of port size.
With a 50% step change in the input to the posi-
tioner (20 to 12 mA), the valve will reach 50%
open in less than 50 ms per inch of port size.
Throttling with large pressure drops across a
valve can result in significant temperature drops.
This can cause freezing both inside and outside
the valve, if sufficient water vapor is present.
Freezing can render the recycle valve inoperable.
These conditions most often occur with capacity
or station control valves around multiple com-
pressors in series with aftercoolers.
In most cases, the throttling process takes
place so rapidly and in such a small space that
there is neither sufficient time nor a large enough
area for much heat to transfer. Therefore, we as-
sume the process to be adiabatic. Since h = f(T)
for an ideal gas, we could expect no temperature
change during this constant h process. However,
even for nearly ideal gases, T2 will differ from T1.
This is known as the Joule-Thomson effect. The
Joule-Thomson coefficient (Uj) is defined as:
dT
Uj =
dP
13
The Joule-Thomson coefficient can be de-
rived from the gas composition and characteris-
tics. For typical natural gas compositions, the
temperature can be expected to drop 1°F for
every 20 psi.
3.9 RECYCLE VALVE TYPES
3.9.1 Start Bypass Valves (on / off)
The start bypass valve is an on / off valve con-
nected across the compressor inside the block
valves and upstream of the check valve. It is
open during start-up and shutdown. It is fail open.
It is configured for fast opening so that it can
bleed down the discharge to prevent surges in
the event of unscheduled shutdowns. A start by-
pass valve is seldom used alone. It is usually
used in conjunction with a surge control valve.
3.9.2 Surge Control Valves – Modulating
The surge control valve is a modulating valve
connected across the compressor inside the
block valves and upstream of the check valve. It
is open during start-up and shutdown. It is fail
open. It is configured for fast opening so that it
can bleed down the discharge to prevent surges
in the event of unscheduled shutdowns. A surge
control valve is often used alone. When the surge
control valve is used alone, its sizing becomes a
compromise between an appropriate size for
throttling recycle around the compressor and de-
pressurizing the head across the compressor. As
such, the noise-attenuating ball valve should be
the first choice. With its exaggerated equal per-
centage characteristic (70% travel is only 1/3 of
the fully open flow), it can best address both ap-
proaches to surge problems.
3.9.3 Capacity Control Valves
Capacity control valves are in parallel with the
surge control valves. They are fail open. The ca-
pacity control valve typically utilizes noise-
attenuating trim. If they are to be used to aid the
surge control valve and vice versa, the capacity
control valve must also have fast open capability.
This approach will reduce the size of both valves,
improve controllability, and reduce valve re-
sponse time in the event of a shutdown.
3.9.4 Station Recycle Control Valves
Station control valves are connected outside the
unit check valves and block valves. They are fail
closed. The station control valve typically utilizes
noise-attenuating trim. The flow capacity of the
station control valve cannot be considered for
surge protection.
3.10 MULTIPLE RECYCLE VALVE
ARRANGEMENTS
3.10.1 Parallel Valves, One Control Valve,
One On / Off
This combination (valves properly sized) provides
good protection for the compressor along with
good controllability at partial recycle. This is typi-
cally a rotary valve for the on / off and a globe as
the control valve. The control valve is sized to
flow at least the surge conditions. The on / off
valve is sized for discharge volume depressuriza-
tion. The on / off valve is often grossly oversized,
since it is not used for throttling. Both valves must
be configured for fast opening.
3.10.2 Parallel Control Valves (Globe)
This arrangement strives to achieve the turn-
down and noise control of a noise-attenuating
rotary valve. This combination (valves properly
sized) provides good protection for the compres-
sor along with good controllability at partial recy-
cle. The two valves are sized to flow at least the
surge conditions. A piping analysis may show
that the capacity needs to be larger. Optimally,
the valves should be cascaded by the control,
one having a slightly higher surge protection
margin (set point) than the other. This enables
both valves to open with large movements of the
process.
3.10.3 Station Control Valve
The station control valve is placed across multiple
compressors in parallel. It enables the operator to
continue operation of the current number of com-
pressors on line during periods of reduced de-
mand or supply. The arrangement of multiple
units with on / off surge avoidance valves (see
Section 6) at the unit level and a station control
valve will provide maximum protection for the
compressors, along with excellent controllability
at partial recycle with minimum piping and in-
struments.
3.11 RECYCLE VALVE CONTROL
3.11.1 Anti-Surge Control Valve (ASCV)
The valve will begin opening at less than 10%
surge margin (control line) and begin closing with
greater than 12% surge margin. High gains would
be employed if the operating point is to the left of
the control line. Low gains would be employed if
the operating point is to the right of the control
line.
14
3.11.2 Cooled Recycle Control Valve (CRCV)
The valve will begin opening at less than 11%
surge margin (control line) and begin closing with
greater than 11% surge margin.
3.11.3 Station Recycle Control Valve (SRCV)
The valve will begin opening at less than 12%
surge margin (control line) and begin closing with
greater than 14% surge margin. Between the
control line and the deadband line, the valve
control signal will not change.
3.11.4 Deadband
Valves, as with all mechanical devices, have fric-
tion, sticktion, and inertia. As such, there is a
minimum control signal change that will cause
any movement at all (resolution). In any control
system, there is always some error. With an inte-
grating control system, this will be reflected as a
continuous change in the control output. This will
result in hunting of the valve. If rather than the
control responding to the sign and magnitude of
the error it responds to <10% for opening and
>12%, there will be a 2% region or deadband
where the control system does nothing at all.
With cascaded recycle valves, it is desirable to
have only one valve throttling at steady state. To
ensure this, a deadband is only incorporated into
the outermost loop (the valve that will be in con-
trol at steady state). This allows the difference
between the set points of the cascaded valves to
be infinitely close together and ensures that two
valves will not be open in steady state.
3.11.5 Ramp for Initial Closure
Oftentimes, valves are ramped closed initially
rather than simply operating on the piping and
instrumentation diagram (P&ID). This provides for
much smoother onloading of the equipment. With
cascaded valves, the valves should be ramped
closed individually rather than simultaneously.
This can be accomplished as simply as ensuring
the next innermost valve is completely closed
before the ramp for a valve is released. In the
case of a system with hot and cooled recycle
valves, it may be desirable to close the hot recy-
cle valve much earlier in the start sequence to
avoid unnecessarily heating the compressor.
3.11.6 Cascaded Recycle Control Valves
Compressor recycle valves are operated in cas-
cade to optimize various aspects of the compres-
sor control that would be a compromise using a
single valve. Additionally, properly cascading the
control of the valves can significantly reduce the
sizes of the individual valves.
Hot recycle valves (directly around the com-
pressor) will provide the control system with very
fast response, since the controlled volume can be
very small. (A check valve must be installed im-
mediately downstream of the hot recycle loop).
However, continuous operation at significant per-
centages of recycle will overheat the compressor.
Cooled recycle valves allow continuous operation
at 100% recycle, but the impact to the process
variable lags behind the valve position due to the
size of the control volume (discharge piping and
cooler). Station control valves typically provide
recycle for several compressors (either series or
parallel). Station control valves are used to avoid
interaction between the unit recycle control sys-
tems. Again, the compressors can be recycled
continuously and the impact to the process vari-
able lags behind the valve position due to the
size of the control volume.
Cascading is accomplished by slightly in-
creasing the set points for the control of each
succeeding outer loop. The gains for each suc-
ceeding outer loop should be significantly lower
than the preceding inner loop. This occurs natu-
rally because the time constant of each suc-
ceeding outer loop is greater since the volume of
its system is larger.
At steady state, the outer loop will integrate
out its entire error, causing the error of the inner
loop to become positive and, subsequently, clos-
ing its valve completely.
3.11.7 Cooled Recycle Valves with a Hot
Bypass (on / off)
In this arrangement, the cooled recycle valve
provides all the modulating control and the by-
pass valve is used only during start-up and shut-
down.
This combination (valves properly sized) pro-
vides the maximum protection for the compressor
along with good controllability at partial recycle.
This approach does not require a control as com-
plex as the cascaded valve arrangement; how-
ever, the size of the valves cannot be reduced
since the valves operate independently (one does
not aid the other).
3.12 COMPRESSORS IN SERIES
Compressors in series can be treated just as
though they were individual compressors. How-
ever, due to the close coupling and slow instru-
15
ments, recycling one compressor drives the oth-
ers into surge before their controls can react.
A single control valve can be used around
the entire series. By cascading this valve with the
unit surge control valves, interaction between
units is avoided as long as the unit valves are
kept from opening. This approach works well, as
long as there are no side streams. The control of
the single valve is much simpler than controlling
the unit valves. The valve will be smaller than any
of the unit control valves due to the increased
pressure drop. The increased pressure drop
leads to an increased temperature drop at the
outlet of the valve. If the inlet to the recycle valve
is downstream of an aftercooler, freezing may
occur downstream of the recycle valve. To en-
sure this does not happen, a heater line may be
added between the inlet of the valve and the dis-
charge of the compressor.
The other approach is some form of control
anticipation. If any unit in the series begins recy-
cling, the outputs to the other recycle valves can
be forced open in some proportion to the amount
and speed at which the initial valve was opened.
This is not a form of feed-forward control since
the processes are interactive. An improperly de-
signed anticipation system will drive all the valves
fully open due to wrap around.
3.13 GAS COMPOSITION
CONSIDERATIONS
3.13.1 Corrosives
The presence of various chemicals in the gas
may attack the piping and components. Gener-
ally, the recycle system is designed and fabri-
cated to the same requirements as the main pip-
ing. However, since the recycle system is only
used intermittently, it may not need to meet the
same requirements as the piping for continuously
flowing gas.
3.13.2 Hydrate Formation and Temperature
Drop at the Outlet of the Surge Valve
In cases where the pressure differential across a
recycle valve is sufficiently high, hydrates (forma-
tion of water vapor) may drop out of the gas. If
this occurs and the outlet temperature of the gas
is too low, ice may form at the outlet of the valve,
restricting recycle flow back to the compressor.
For these cases (usually occurring in multi-body
compressor sets), a temperature control valve
may be necessary to heat the recycle valve’s inlet
gas to levels high enough to prevent ice forma-
tion at the outlet of the valve.
4. Valves and Associated Components
Surge control valves are primarily sized to fit the
compressor. During steady-state recycling, the
required capacity of the recycle valve can be di-
rectly derived from the compressor map. To han-
dle transient conditions, the required capacity
must be greater to allow for the volumes on either
side of the compressor. With the initiation of a
shutdown, the compressor can be expected to
decelerate approximately 30% in the first second.
With a 30% loss in speed, the head the compres-
sor can develop at its surge limit will drop by ap-
proximately 50%. The recycle control valve must,
therefore, reduce the pressure ratio across the
compressor by one-half in that first second to
avoid surge.
The following guidelines pertain to a typical
one valve, one compressor arrangement. More
complex systems of cascaded valves or valves
around multiple compressors require a more de-
tailed analysis.
To facilitate both precise throttling at partial
recycle and the need to reduce the DP across the
compressor quickly during a shutdown, Solar
recommends surge control valves with an equal
percentage characteristic (Figure 7). The equal
percentage characteristic spreads the first 2 of
the valve's fully open capacity over the first b of
the valve’s travel. This greatly improves control-
GLOBE VALVE EVALUATION
EQUAL PERCENTAGE CHARACTERISTIC
(Percentage Open)
3.5
60%
3.0
RATIO, P2/P1
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0 500 1000
FLOW, acfm
Figure 7. Typical Globe Valve Flow Characteristics (% Open) versus Compressor Map
16
ability at partial recycle throttling. In order to avoid
surge during a shutdown, the valve must open to
the required capacity in significantly less than one
second.
Solar recommends surge control valves that
meet the following:
4.1 SIZE AND CHARACTERISTIC
Surge control valves are sized to meet two di-
verse objectives. During steady-state recycling,
the required capacity of the recycle valve can be
directly derived from the compressor map: the
smaller the valve, the smoother the control. Dur-
ing transient conditions, the required capacity
increases due to the volumes on either side of
the compressor. Therefore, to avoid surge during
a shutdown, the bigger the valve, the better.
To facilitate both smooth throttling at partial
recycle and the need to reduce the pressure dif-
ferential (DP) across the compressor quickly
during a shutdown, control valves with an equal
percentage characteristic are recommended.
With an equal percentage characteristic, the
more the valve is opened, the greater the in-
crease in flow for the same travel. Solar recom-
mends two types of valves for surge control:
globe valves and noise-attenuating ball valves.
The globe valve’s capacity (Cv) varies with the
70%
100%
1500 2000 2500
square of the percentage travel. The noise-
attenuating ball valve’s capacity (Cv) varies with
the cube of the percentage travel. Both valves
are sized to be throttling at about two-thirds open
at surge conditions. As such, the noise-
attenuating ball valve will have 50% more capac-
ity to depressurize the discharge volume than the
globe valve. This additional capacity makes the
noise-attenuating ball valve the better choice in
installations where there is a single surge control
valve, which means there is no hot bypass and
the discharge volumes are large; e.g., the dis-
charge system includes an aftercooler.
4.1.1 Operation
The surge control valve assembly should be in-
creasing signal to close. The surge control valve
assembly should be fail open. The valve should
open with loss of either electrical signal or control
air supply.
4.1.2 Interface Definition
The surge control valve closure should be en-
abled by supplying 24 volts to a three-way sole-
noid. Removal of the 24 volts should cause the
valve to open. Solenoid valves with opening
speeds of less than 20 ms and a Cv of greater
than 0.6 are recommended.
The surge control valve assembly should
transmit a 4-to-20 mA signal corresponding to the
position of the valve, ranging from fully open to
fully closed.
The surge control valve assembly should
provide isolated contact closures, representing
fully open (contact closure >2% travel, contact
open <7% travel) to fully closed (contact closure
<98% travel, contact open >93% travel).
Noise attenuation should not be employed
unnecessarily. Where high noise levels are pre-
dicted, conditions should be realistic; i.e., 100%
recycle at full speed of the compressor is not very
likely. Noise-attenuating trims typically consist of
small holes that can collect deposits and, subse-
quently, block the flow path. Since this will nullify
surge protection, they are not recommended. If
noise-attenuation trims must be used, the follow-
ing are suggested:
17
· Rotary valves with noise-attenuation trims
that are within the rotating element and that
rotate out of the flow path are unlikely to
become clogged.
· Globe valves with noise-attenuation cages
can have full-size ports for the last 50% of
the plug travel. This way, the cage should
not become completely clogged.
· Inverted construction globe valves (push
down to open) allow access to the trim for
cleaning and inspection without removing
the actuator.
4.2 TYPICAL VALVE ARRANGEMENTS
The following figures illustrate typical valve and
accessory instrumentation arrangements that
Solar recommends for accurate control of:
· Globe valve (Figure 8)
· Ball valve with single spring and piston ac-
tuator (Figure 9)
· Ball valve with double spring and piston
actuator, which may be used with larger
ball valves (Figure 10)
4.3 SURGE CONTROL VALVE
ACCESSORIES
The accessories required for these instrumenta-
tion arrangements include:
· Electro-pneumatic positioner, yoke
mounted
· Pressure regulator (for globe valves only)
· Three-way 24-Vdc solenoid valve
· Exhaust booster
· Position transmitter, 4 to 20 mA, propor-
tional to percent closed with fully open and
fully closed relay outputs
· Needle valves
For current recommended part numbers, re-
fer to Appendix E.
 24 VDC
EXHAUST
BOOSTER THREE-WAY 24-VDC
SOLENOID VALVE

NEEDLE VALVE AND

CHECK VALVE

POSITION
TRANSMITTER
4-20 mA
4-20 mA

LIMIT SWITCH CLOSED

ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC
LIMIT SWITCH OPEN
POSITIONER
YOKE-MOUNTED
4-20 mA, 6-30 psig
4-20 mA

INSTRUMENT
AIR SUPPLY
PRESSURE REGULATOR
(AIRSET 35-50 psig)

Figure 8. Instrumentation for Globe Anti-Surge Valve

18
 4-20 mA
POSITION
CLOSED LIMIT SWITCH TRANSMITTER 24 VDC
OPEN LIMIT SWITCH 4-20 mA

F5
THREE-WAY 24-VDC
SOLENOID VALVE
4-20 mA
EP5
80-100 psig EXHAUST
BOOSTER

ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC POSITIONER
YOKE-MOUNTED 4-20 mA, 6-30 psig
NEEDLE VALVE AND
CHECK VALVE

Figure 9. Instrumentation for Ball Anti-Surge Valve with Single Spring and Piston Actuator

19
 ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC
POSITIONER THREE-WAY 24-VDC
YOKE-MOUNTED SOLENOID VALVE
4-20 mA, 6-30 psig
POSITION TRANSMITTER
4-20 MA

4-20 mA
24 VDC
CLOSED LIMIT SWITCH 80-100 psig
OPEN LIMIT SWITCH VOLUME
BOOSTER
F5

4-20 mA

EP5
80-100 psig
NEEDLE VALVE AND
CHECK VALVE

EXHAUST EXHAUST
BOOSTER BOOSTER

Figure 10. Instrumentation for Ball Anti-Surge Valve with Double Spring and Piston Actuator

20
4.3.1 Performance
20 0
The following minimum requirements apply to the
opening of the valve. Valve closing performance

VALVE POSITION, % open

should not exceed 10 times slower than the
opening time under positioner control.

With the valve command at 20 mA, removal
of power from the solenoid should cause the
valve to reach 63.2% of full open in less than 50
ms per inch of port size (Figure 11).
With a step change from 20 to 12 mA, the
valve should reach 50% open in less than 50 ms
per inch of port size (Figure 12).
The exhaust booster or quick exhaust should
be tuned to minimize opening time without ex-
cessive overshoot. Responding to a step change
to half open (20 mA to 12 mA), the valve should
not overshoot its ultimate position by more than
10% of the total valve travel.
The valve's minimum resolvable position
(stick and slip) should not exceed 2% of the total
travel.
Shutoff classifications are per ANSI / FCI 70-
2-1991, Class V for soft seated valves and Class
IV for metal seats.
4.3.2 Testing
All surge control valves provided by Solar are
tested to ensure performance requirements are
met. Solar recommends periodic testing of surge
control valves to ensure required performance is
maintained.
0 while the valve plug has not lifted off its seat and
24
VALVE POSITION, % open
CURRENT, mA
12 50
Opening Time
4 100
TIME
Figure 12. Valve Response to 50%
Step Change Command
4.4 POSITIONED VERSUS DIRECT
CONTROLLED VALVES
With a direct controlled valve, a change in the
control signal is converted into a pressure change
at the actuator. This does not necessarily corre-
late with a change in the position of the valve.
With a globe valve, a significant percentage of
the pressure to the actuator is consumed driving
the plug into the seat to achieve the desired shut-
off. This introduces a significant lag in the re-
sponse of the process variable to a control output
change when the valve is fully closed. In a dy-
namic situation, the error continues to increase
the control system output increases at a progres-
sively higher rate. When the valve plug finally lifts
off its seat, it will begin moving at an inappropri-

ately high rate. With cascaded valves, there is the

potential of two valve systems operating out of
VOLTAGE, VDC

phase with lag and then overshoot. If this occurs,

Opening Time compensating valve control schemes can be in-
corporated to suppress the interaction.
63.2 Positioned valves employ a second control at
the valve to cause the valve position to corre-
spond to the control signal. Selection of the posi-
tioner is critical where high-speed actuation of the
0
valve is required. Most valve positioners will not
100 provide the performance required for surge con-
trol applications. Excellent performance has been
TIME achieved with PMV EP5 positioners. Certain
Fisher and Neles-Jamesbury electro-pneumatic
positioners have also provided satisfactory per-
Figure 11. Valve Response to formance. No manufacturer has demonstrated
De-Energization of Solenoid satisfactory performance with smart positioners.

21
 Solar recommends positioned valves for all
recycle applications.
4.5 RECYCLING FOR PROCESS
CONTROL
The majority of process control is managed by
manipulating the power from the engine. When
the process conditions change more rapidly than
the engine can respond, recycling can be em-
ployed to ensure the minimum suction pressure is
maintained, maximum discharge pressure is not
exceeded, or the flow set point is not exceeded. If
the process demands conditions below the mini-
mum speed for the compressor, recycling can
also be employed. This is achieved in the same
way as cascading the valves. When the differ-
ence between the set point and the process vari-
able exceeds some value, the recycle valve will
22
be opened to ensure this distance from the set
point is not further exceeded. If the engine power
reaches the point where the compressor can
meet the process conditions, the recycle valve
will close.
4.6 INTERACTION BETWEEN SURGE
AND PROCESS CONTROL
Surge and process controls operate continuously
within the turbo-compressor control processor.
The control demanding the recycle valve(s) to be
the least closed will be in control. Each process
control has gains best suited for that control
mode. Surge control has different gains for
opening and closing the recycle control valve(s)
to ensure maximum protection for the compres-
sor without the risk of control oscillation. Hand-off
between any of the controls requiring recycle is
bumpless.
5. Flow-Measuring Elements and Transmitters
5.1 GENERAL SELECTION CRITERIA
5.1.1 Cost
The total life cost of the instrument should always
be the deciding factor. Low acquisition costs may
result in higher operating cost and low reliability.
In a control system, slower response or poorer
accuracy may increase costs due to their impact
on the overall process controlled.
5.1.2 Permanent Pressure Loss
(operating cost)
Ideally, the differential developed across a flow
meter would be totally recovered downstream.
With the best flow tubes, the pressure recovery is
greater than 90%; with orifice plates, the pressure
recovery is more likely to be about 50%. For
comparison purposes, permanent pressure loss
should always be expressed as a ratio.
5.1.3 Signal Level
High signal levels typically produce higher signal-
to-noise ratios. High signal levels are read by
higher range transmitters, which typically have
shorter time constants.
5.1.4 Reliability
Devices installed perpendicular to the flow path
may resonate at certain flow conditions, eventu-
ally leading to failure. Devices with ports facing
into the flow path rather than perpendicular to it
may be susceptible to clogging. Devices with
fragile parts or moving parts in the flow stream
are more likely to fail compared to those without
such parts.
5.1.5 Characteristic
Typically, flow is proportional to the square root of
the differential pressure. Devices with more com-
plex characteristics will produce a more inaccu-
rate flow prediction or require complex compen-
sation when used over a wide range of flows.
5.2 COMPARISON OF COMMONLY USED
FLOW-MEASURING ELEMENTS
5.2.1 Orifice Plates
An orifice plate is a plate mounted perpendicular
to the flow path with a hole bored in it (typically in
the center). The bore is sometimes chamfered
from the downstream side, producing a sharp
edge at the upstream face. An orifice produces
23
an abrupt reduction in the flow area. The fluid
velocity increases to pass through its bore; sub-
sequently, the pressure at the orifice is reduced.
The orifice is the most commonly used device for
measuring compressor flow. It is probably more
commonly used than all other types combined.
Advantages
Well documented, standardized, well understood,
low initial cost, low cost to change.
Disadvantages
High permanent pressure loss. Deviation from
typical Q is proportional to the square root of
pressure differential.
5.2.2 Nozzles
A nozzle is a horn-shaped device that produces a
gradual acceleration of the fluid. Flow nozzles
have gradual reductions in the flow area. As the
fluid is accelerated, it remains attached to the
walls of the flow-measurement device.
Advantages
Well documented, standardized, understood.
More accurate than an orifice when characterized
by a single coefficient,
0 .5
æh ö
Q = C ' çç w ÷÷
è P1 ø
when used over a wide range of flows.
Disadvantages
High permanent pressure loss. Higher initial cost
than an orifice.
5.2.3 Compressor Suction to Impeller Eye
The issue of "compressor suction-to-eye flow
measurement" has been confused by its names,
including "impeller eye" and "eye of the volute." It
is only a nozzle. In single overhung wheel com-
pressors where the shaft does not extend through
the impeller, this is easier to visualize. The pres-
sures obey the same laws as those for a nozzle.
The differential pressure is directly proportional to
the increase in velocity resulting from the de-
creased flow area between the compressor suc-
tion flange and the pressure tap in the inlet
shroud near the impeller inlet: V2 = 2GH. Pre-
dicting the differential pressure across an orifice
is much more complicated, although there are
many inexpensive computer programs available
to do it.
Advantages
"Suction-to-eye" is lower in initial cost. It is pro-
vided as standard on all of Solar’s compressors
that have it available. It is not an option; there is
no additional cost. The cost of providing an addi-
tional compressor flow-measuring device is
avoided along with the cost of the additional per-
manent pressure loss (horsepower).
"Suction-to-eye" provides a much higher sig-
nal level, typically four times that of an orifice.
With the higher signal level, the signal response
time is reduced. This is especially important in
surge avoidance. With the higher signal level, the
signal-to-noise ratio is often increased, reducing
the need for filtering the flow signal.
Solar's Surge Control Engineering has
worked with "suction-to-eye" flow measurement
on both Solar's compressors and compressors
from other manufacturers. Solar's Surge Control
Engineering recommends "suction-to-eye" flow
whenever it is available.
Disadvantages
The compressor must be properly calibrated. This
may require special testing. Deviation from typical
Q is proportional to the square root of pressure
differential. Often more difficult to calibrate ini-
tially.
5.2.4 Nozzles with Divergence Cones
(Flow Tubes)
In these devices, the fluid is gradually acceler-
ated to its maximum velocity in the throat and
gradually decelerated back to its original velocity.
The fluid flow remains attached to the walls of the
flow-measurement device. Subsequently, perma-
nent pressure losses are often less than 10%.
Advantages
Low permanent pressure loss. More accurate
than an orifice when characterized by a single
24
coefficient, {Q = C’(hw/P1)0.5}, when used over a
wide range of flows.
Disadvantages
High initial cost.
5.2.5 Venturi, ISO 5167 (Classical)
As with nozzles with divergence cones (flow
tubes), the fluid is gradually accelerated to its
maximum velocity in the throat and gradually de-
celerated back to its original velocity. The fluid
flow remains attached to the walls of the flow-
measurement device. Subsequently, permanent
pressure losses are often less than 20%.
Advantages
Low permanent pressure loss. More accurate
than an orifice when characterized by a single
coefficient, {Q = C’(hw/P1)0.5}, when used over a
wide range of flows.
Disadvantages
High initial cost.
5.2.6 Averaging Pitot Devices
(Annubars and Verabars)
In the pitot flow-measuring system, the static and
velocity heads are measured. The pressure dif-
ferential between the pitot and static is propor-
tional to the square of the flow. The same form of
equation is used for pitot devices as is used for
orifices and venturis. A flow coefficient (K) re-
places the discharge coefficient and a pipe
blockage factor replaces the d/D ratio (b).
Advantages
Low initial cost.
Disadvantages
Low differential pressure. Potential for failure es-
pecially if misapplied. Ports facing flow path
rather than perpendicular to it may be susceptible
to clogging.
6. Process Control
6.1 PRODUCT DESCRIPTION PIC-6102KP

Solar offers a control system to control the proc-

ess for gas compressors. The system maintains a PIC-6102KI
desired process variable by automatically adjust- R GAINS
E
ing the speed of the turbine. For single turbine PIC-6102RSP
M
compressor packages, depending on the options - SP PI
NGP
PIC-6102OP
SP
chosen, control is available based on: PIC-6102LSP
L
O
C PV
· Suction pressure PT-6102
· Discharge pressure
· Suction or discharge flow Figure 13. Suction Pressure Control I/O
· A combination of any two of the
above variables
NGP is modulated to control the PV of the com-
· All three of the above variables pressor train to the desired set point. The PIC de-
creases the NGP when the pressure is above the
For multiple identical turbine compressor set point. The PIC increases the NGP when the
packages operating in parallel, the same types of pressure is below the set point.
control are available, including equal load sharing PIC uses a PI algorithm to modulate NGP.
between compressor trains. KP and KI can be adjusted at the operator inter-
Set points for the process variables may be face. The pressure set point can be adjusted lo-
entered at the unit control panel (UCP) or pro- cally at the operator interface. Alternatively, a
vided to the UCP from a remote location via serial remote pressure set point can be used by the
link or hard wire connection. PIC. The LSP or RSP can be selected at the op-
erator interface.
6.2 SUCTION PRESSURE Figure 14 shows the specific I/O used with
the PIC.
A pressure-indicating controller (PIC) controls the
suction pressure of the compressor train. Under
PIC-6104 KP
this control mode, the gas turbine speed (NGP) is
modulated to control the suction pressure (PV) of PIC-6104 KI
the compressor train to the desired set point. The R GAINS
PIC increases the NGP when the pressure is PIC-6104 RSP
E
M
above the set point. The PIC decreases the NGP - SP PI
NGP
PIC-6104 OP
SP
when the pressure is below the set point. PIC-6104 LSP L
O
The PIC uses a proportional-integral (PI) al- C PV
gorithm to modulate NGP. The gains (KP and KI) PT-6104

for the PI algorithm can be adjusted at the op-

erator interface. The pressure set point can be
adjusted locally at the operator interface. Alterna-
tively, a remote pressure set point can be used
by the PIC. The local set point (LSP) or remote
set point (RSP) can be selected at the operator
interface.
Figure 13 shows the specific input / output
(I/O) used with the PIC.
6.3 DISCHARGE PRESSURE
A PIC controls the discharge pressure of the
compressor train. Under this control mode, the
Figure 14. Discharge Pressure Control I/O
6.4 FLOW CALCULATOR
A flow calculator (FC) generates a volumetric flow
(Q) based on inputs of pressure (P), temperature
(T), pressure differential across the flow meter
(hW), gas specific gravity (SG), gas compressibility
(Z), and design pressure (PD), design tempera-
ture (TD), design gas specific gravity (SGD), and
design gas compressibility (ZD). The following
equation is based on AGA Report 3:

25
 hW ´ P ´ TD ´ SG ´ Z D 6.6 SPEED CONTROL
Q = C' The speed-indicating controller (SIC) selects the
T ´ SG D ´ Z NGP set point that will be used to control the fuel
actuator. The SIC has two operating modes:
auto and manual. The output of these two modes
are inputs to the SIC fuel control.
Figure 15 shows the specific I/O used with
the FC. The units for Q are MMSCFD.
6.6.1 Auto Mode

FT-6104 hw
In auto mode, the NGP set point output from the
process controller described above is input to a
PT-6104 P
rate limiter. If the compressor surge margin drops
TT-6711 T
below an operator adjustable set point (typically
SG-6104 SG
12 to 15%), then the rate limiter reduces the NGP
Z-6104 Z FC Q FC-6104 acceleration and deceleration. The rate limiting
TO-6711 TD prevents any interaction between the NGP con-
SG0-6104 SG D trol and recycle valve that will be modulating to
Z0-6711 ZD keep the compressor away from the surge limit
C-6711 C' line. If the surge margin is greater than the set
point, then NGP is allowed to accelerate or de-
celerate at its maximum rate of 0.5% per second.
Figure 15. Flow Calculator I/O The NGP set point output of the rate limiter is
an input to the load share controller (LSC) and
surge margin equalizer (SME). Refer to Sections
6.5 FLOW CONTROL 6.11.1 and 6.11.2 for descriptions of these func-
A flow-indicating controller (FIC) controls the flow tions. If the LSC is off, then the NGP set point is
of the compressor train. Under this control mode, input to the fuel control algorithm. If the LSC is
the NGP is modulated to control the flow PV of on, then the NGP set point is compared with
the compressor train to the desired set point. The other units in the same group and the maximum
FIC decreases the NGP when the flow is above value is selected. This base NGP set point is in-
the set point. The FIC increases the NGP when put to the SME. If the SME is off, then the base
the flow is below the set point. NGP set point is input to the fuel control algo-
FIC uses a PI algorithm to modulate NGP. rithm. If the SME is on, then the surge margin
KP and KI can be adjusted at the operator inter- equalization speed bias is added to the base
face. The flow set point can be adjusted locally at NGP set point and is then input to the fuel control
the operator interface. Alternatively, a remote algorithm.
flow set point can be used by the FIC. The LSP
or RSP can be selected at the operator interface. 6.6.2 Manual Mode
Figure 16 shows the specific I/O used with In manual mode, the NGP set point is adjusted
the FIC. directly by the operator (LSP) or by an RSP into
the control system. If the compressor surge mar-
gin drops below an operator adjustable set point
FIC-6104 KP
(typically 12 to 15%), then a rate limiter reduces
FIC-6104 KI
the NGP RSP acceleration and deceleration. The
R GAINS rate limiting prevents any interaction between the
FIC-6104 RSP
E
M
NGP control and recycle valve that will be modu-
- SP PI
NGP
SP
FIC-6104 OP lating to keep the compressor away from the
L
FIC-6104 LSP
O
surge limit line. If the surge margin is greater than
C PV the set point, then NGP RSP is allowed to accel-
FC-6104
erate or decelerate at its maximum rate of 0.5%
per second.
The manual mode NGP set point output is an
Figure 16. Flow Control I/O input to the LSC. If the LSC is off, then the NGP

26
set point is input to the fuel control algorithm. If
the LSC is on, the other units in the group follow
the unit's NGP set point. Note that in NGP Master
mode, the SME is automatically disabled. The
NGP set point is then input to the fuel control al-
gorithm.
6.6.3 Fuel Control
In the fuel control algorithm, the NGP set point is
compared with the maximum NGP limit based on
T5, the minimum power turbine speed (NPT), and
the minimum NGP limit. The SIC selects the low-
est set point from this group and generates the
appropriate output signal to the fuel actuator
controller.
Figure 17 shows the specific I/O used with
the SIC.
6.7 PROCESS CONTROL USING
ANTI-SURGE CONTROL VALVE
In addition to anti-surge control duty, the anti-
surge control (ASC) can control the compressor
train suction and discharge pressures as well.
The ASC can be coupled with up to two
PICs: one for suction pressure and one for dis-
charge pressure. The set point for the ASC suc-
tion pressure controller is the set point of the
standard suction pressure controller subtracted
by an operator-adjustable pressure offset. In turn,
the set point for the ASC discharge pressure
controller is the set point of the standard dis-
charge pressure controller added to an operator
adjustable pressure offset. Staggering the set
points eliminates interaction between the speed
and valve control loops.
6.8 SUCTION PRESSURE
The ASC suction PIC (designated here as PIC-
6102A) will modulate the anti-surge valve (ASV) if
the suction pressure drops below its set point.
When PIC-6102A is in control of the suction pres-
sure, standard suction pressure control (PIC-
6102) will continue to reduce speed because its
set point has not been achieved. As PIC-6102
reduces speed, PIC-6102A will detect a rise in
suction pressure and begin to close the ASV.

DH+ FROM
OTHER UNTS

UNIT
UNIT
SM-6511 2 SM
SM A
V UNIT
E 3 SM
R
A UNIT
DH+ TO
PV SME SP G n SM
OTHER UNTS
E
PIC-6102OP UNIT
LSC
10 SM
PIC-6103OP A
O
U
F
FIC-6104OP T
F
-
- DH+ TO
M
O OTHER
R A
RS N UNTS FUEL
SIC-6000RSP E N
UNIT VALVE
P
M SPD SP + FUEL
-
L
+ CONT

XXXX.X LSP O
C UNIT 2
SPD SP SME
MAX T5
O
UNIT 3
N
SPD SP
- MAX NGP
> O
UNIT n
F
SPD SP MIN NGP
F
DH+ FROM UNIT 10
OTHER UNTS SPD SP MIN NPT

Figure 17. Speed Control I/O

27
PIC-6102 will continue to reduce speed until it
satisfies its set point, which will cause PIC-6102A
to close the ASV because the pressure will be
above its own set point. At this point, the control
system has recovered from the process transient.
However, if PIC-6102 reaches the minimum NGP
limit before achieving its set point, then PIC-
6102A will continue to recycle gas to maintain its
pressure set point.
Figure 18 shows the specific I/O used with
the suction PIC.
PIC-6102AKP
6.10 COMMAND TO ANTI-SURGE VALVE
The outputs of ASC suction PIC, ASC discharge
PIC, and the ASC are, in turn, inputs to a mini-
mum function that selects the most open valve
command of the three controllers. This ensures
that the ASV will open as necessary to satisfy
any pressure or ASC requirements. The ASV will
close if the pressure and ASC requirements are
met. The final valve command is used as a reset
for the three controllers to prevent wind-up.
Figure 20 shows the specific I/O used with
the min. function.

PIC-6102AKI PIC-6102AOP
GAINS
PIC-6102OFS
PIC-6104AOP < ASV-6511CMD
- ASV
PIC-6102SP + SP PI PIC-6102AOP
OP
ASC-6511OP
PV
PT-6102

Figure 20. Minimum Function I/O

Figure 18. Suction Pressure Control I/O
6.11 MULTIPLE UNIT LOAD SHARE
CONTROLLER AND SURGE
6.9 DISCHARGE PRESSURE
MARGIN EQUALIZER
The ASC discharge PIC (designated here as PIC-
A load share controller (LSC) and a surge margin
6104A) will modulate the ASV if the discharge
equalizer (SME) manage the operation of multiple
pressure exceeds its set point. When PIC-6104A
units to ensure stable load sharing of the proc-
is in control of the discharge pressure, standard
ess. One LSC and one SME reside in each of the
discharge pressure control (PIC-6104) will still
UCPs. A dedicated link is used for communica-
reduce speed because its set point has not been
tion of selected control variables.
achieved. As PIC-6104 reduces speed, PIC-
Units can be organized into load share
6104A will detect a fall in discharge pressure and
groups. Each unit is assigned a load share group
begin to close the ASV. PIC-6104 will continue to
number. This number identifies which group the
reduce speed until it satisfies its set point, which
unit is currently configured to operate in a load-
will cause PIC-6104A to close the ASV because
sharing scheme. For example, in a five-unit sta-
the pressure will be below its own set point. At
tion, two units share the same suction and dis-
this point, the control system has recovered from
charge headers. These two units are defined to
the process transient. However, if PIC-6104
be Group 1 and they load share. The remaining
reaches the minimum NGP limit before achieving
three units share the same suction and discharge
its set point, then PIC-6104A will continue to re-
headers, different from the first two. These three
cycle gas to maintain its pressure set point.
units are defined to be Group 2 and they load
Figure 19 shows the specific I/O used with
share as a group. Later on, the two units are
the discharge PIC.
switched over to operate in parallel with the other
three. In this case, all the units' group numbers
PIC-6104AKP are set to "2" and they load share as a group.
PIC-6104AKI
The group numbers are defined by the operator.
GAINS Up to four groups can be used.
PIC-6104OFS
+
PIC-6104SP + SP PI
ASV
PIC-6104AOP 6.11.1 Load Share Controller
OP
The LSC has three modes of operation: off, on,
PV
PT-6104
and NGP master.

Off. When the LSC is off, the UCP ignores the

Figure 19. Discharge Pressure I/O actions of the other units. Likewise, the other

28
units ignore the actions of the UCP. There is no
load sharing.
On. When the unit is under automatic control
(under the control of a PIC or FIC) and the LSC is
turned on, then the unit load shares with other
units in the group. The units communicate their
respective speed set point to the rest of the
group. The highest of these is selected as the
group's base speed set point. All the units in the
group control on this base speed set point. Note
that as process conditions vary, the base speed
set point will change to keep the process variable
in line with its process set point.
NGP Master. When the unit is under manual
speed control and the LSC is turned on, then the
unit becomes an NGP master. The other units in
the group will follow the speed of the NGP master
unit.
6.11.2 Surge Margin Equalizer
The SME has two modes of operation: off and
on.
29
Off. When the LSC is off, the SME is automati-
cally turned off. When the LSC is on, the SME
can be turned on or off. When the SME is off, the
bias added to the LSC base speed set point is
zero.
On. When both the LSC and SME are on, then
individual biases are added to the base speed set
points of each unit to equalize the group's com-
pressor surge margins. The units communicate
their respective surge margin to the rest of the
group. In the case of multiple compressors, the
lowest surge margin is used. An average of all
the surge margins is calculated and used as the
group's surge margin set point. Units operating
below the surge margin set point automatically
have their speed set point biased up to 2%, which
increases the surge margin. Note that the speed
set point communicated to the LSC above does
not include the speed bias generated by the
SME. Units above the surge margin set point
have a bias of zero. A PI algorithm is used to
generate the speed bias of each unit. KP and KI
for the PI algorithm can be adjusted at the op-
erator interface.
Appendix A – Yard Valve Sequencing
The control system will sequence the yard valves
during start-up, normal operation, and shut-
downs.
A-1 MILESTONES
Sequencing of the yard valves is associated with
certain milestones, which are defined below and
used in Table A-1.
A-1.1 Manual Yard Valve Sequence
The operator has manual control of the yard
valves from the UCP. Manual operation of the
yard valves is permitted only during pre-start.
Manual operation of the suction and discharge
valves is permitted only when the compressor is
pressurized.
A-1.2 Compressor Pressurized
The process piping and compressor are pressur-
ized and the yard valves are positioned as shown
in Table A-1.
A-1.3 Compressor Depressurized
The process piping and compressor are not
pressurized and the yard valves are positioned as
shown in Table A-1.
A-1.4 Start
A unit start is initiated when the following condi-
tions have been met:
Start Command. The command to start the unit
is given at the UCP or from a remote input.
Permissives OK. Interlocks from other systems,
such as emergency shutdown (ESD) and fire and
gas, must be OK to allow a UCP start.
Automatic Yard Valve Sequence. The UCP
has automatic control of the yard valves. Selec-
tion of automatic and manual yard valve se-
quence modes is performed at the operator in-
terface. When a start is initiated, the UCP places
the yard valves under automatic control.
Compressor Seal System OK. The UCP acti-
vates and checks the compressor seal system. A
successful check allows the start sequence to
continue.
30
Engine Lube Oil System OK. The UCP acti-
vates and checks the engine lube oil system. A
successful check allows the start sequence to
continue.
A-1.5 Compressor Purge
The process piping and compressor are purged
through their respective loading valve and vent or
blowdown valve for a period of five minutes (ad-
justable).
A-1.6 Pressurize Compressor
Process gas upstream of the suction valve is
used to pressurize the process piping and com-
pressor through their respective loading valve
upstream of the compressor. If during the com-
pressor pressurization sequence, the pressurized
state is not reached within five minutes (adjust-
able), then the start is aborted and the unit is fast
stopped pressurized.
A-1.7 Depressurize Compressor
Process gas is vented through the vent or blow-
down valve(s) with the suction and discharge
valves closed.
A-1.8 Idle
The unit is operating at the NPT idle set point (50
to 60% typical) or the NGP idle set point (72 to
78% typical), whichever is greater.
NPT Idle Set Point. The lowest operating speed
required to avoid power turbine and driven
equipment critical speeds.
NGP Idle Set Point. The operating speed for
idling the gas producer.
A-1.9 On Load Speed
The unit is operating above both the NPT load set
point and the NGP load set point.
NPT Load Set Point. The lowest normal oper-
ating speed for the driven equipment. For com-
pressors, the set point is the last speed line of the
performance map.
NGP Load Set Point. The lowest speed re-
quired for normal operation of the gas producer.
A-1.10 Cooldown Lockout / Non-Lockout
Shutdown
A shutdown that causes the UCP to ramp the unit
down to idle speed. The unit remains at idle for
an operator-defined time period (typically 10 min-
utes) before the UCP automatically fast stops the
unit. If during the cooldown idle time the operator
acknowledges and resets the shutdown, then the
cooldown timer is reset to its full period. If during
the cooldown idle time the shutdown condition
goes away and the operator acknowledges and
resets the shutdown, then the unit may be re-
loaded. A lockout type shutdown does not allow
remote acknowledge or reset of the shutdown. A
non-lockout type shutdown allows remote ac-
knowledge and reset of the shutdown.
A-1.11 Fast Stop Lockout / Non-Lockout
Shutdown
A shutdown that causes the UCP to close the fuel
valve to stop the unit. A lockout type shutdown
does not allow remote acknowledge or reset of
the shutdown. A non-lockout type shutdown al-
lows remote acknowledge and reset of the shut-
down.
A-1.12 Fast Stop Pressurized Shutdown
The unit is stopped with the compressor pressur-
ized (the vent and/or blowdown valves remain
closed). The unit remains pressurized during the
pressurization hold time period (field adjustable).
When the timer expires, the unit is depressurized.
A-1.13 Fast Stop Depressurized Shutdown
After the suction and discharge valves have
closed, the vent and/or blowdown valves open.
To minimize the flaring of gas, only the following
fast stop shutdowns will cause depressurization:
· Compressor seal system failure
· Engine lube oil system failure
31
· Fire detected
· Manual fast stop
A-2 SEQUENCING MATRIX
The yard valves are sequenced as in Table A-1.
A-3 VALVE OUT OF POSITION
The control system verifies the correct position of
all the valves described above with their respec-
tive commands. If a valve fails to transfer or hold
its position, then the valve is considered out of
position (OOP). Valve out of position logic is
given in Table A-2.
A-3.1 Valve Out of Position Checks
There are three types of possible valve checks
that are performed:
Both Limit Switches On (ZSC & ZSO On)
If the valve's open and closed limit switches are
both on, then the specified action is initiated.
Command versus Limit Switches
(Cmd vs ZSC/ZSO)
If the valve's open or closed limit switch is incon-
sistent with the fully open or fully closed com-
mand for the specified time delay, then the speci-
fied action is initiated. After the specified time
delay, if a valve falls out of position when its re-
spective command is static at fully open or fully
closed, then the specified action is executed im-
mediately (without the time delay).
Command versus Position (Cmd vs Pos)
This criterion applies to valves with position
transmitters. If the valve position feedback is in-
consistent with the command (± the hysteresis)
for the specified time delay, then the specified
action is initiated.
Table A-1. Yard Valve Sequencing

LV SV DV LPVV HPVV ASV

Suction Suction Discharge Low High Anti-
Loading Valve Valve Pressure Pressure Surge
Valve Vent Valve Vent Valve Valve
SDV- SDV- SDV- SDV- SDV- ASV-
Sequencing Description
6211 6212 6217 6214 6215 6511
Manual Yard Valve Sequence
Compressor Pressurized O/C O/C O/C O/C O/C O/C
Compressor Depressurized O/C C O/C O/C O/C O/C
Compressor Depressurized + Start
Compressor Purge O C C O C O
Compressor Purge O C C C O C
Pressurize Compressor O C C C C O
Compressor Pressurized C O O C C O
On Load C O O C C A/M
Compressor Pressurized + Start
Pressurize Compressor O C C C C O
Compressor Pressurized C O O C C O
On Load C O O C C A/M
Cool Down Shutdown
Not on Load C O O C C A
On Load C O O C C O
Idle C O O C C O
Fast Stop Pressurized Shutdown
Shutdown Initiated C C C C C O
SV and DV Confirmed Closed C C C C O O
Depressurize Compressor C C C C O O
Compressor Depressurized C C C O C O
Fast Stop Pressurized Shutdown
Shutdown Initiated C C C C C O
O = Open
C = Close
O/C = Open or close
A = Automatic mode
M = Manual mode
A/M = Automatic or manual mode

32
Table A-2. Valve Out of Position Logic

Valve Tag No ZSC & ZSO On Cmd vs ZSC/ZSO Cmd vs Pos OOP Criteria
N/A N/A N/A Hysteresis (±%)
N/A 15 N/A Time Delay (sec)
LV SDV-6211
Always Armed Always Armed N/A Arming Point
FS-LO FS-LO N/A Action
N/A N/A N/A Hysteresis (±%)
N/A 20 N/A Time Delay (sec)
SV SDV-6212
Always Armed Always Armed N/A Arming Point
FS-LO FS-LO N/A Action
N/A N/A 10 Hysteresis (±%)
N/A 5 5 Time Delay (sec)
ASV ASV-6511 NGP<Load Speed NGP>Load Speed
Always Armed Arming Point
SP SP
FS-LO FS-LO Alarm Action
N/A N/A N/A Hysteresis (±%)
N/A 20 N/A Time Delay (sec)
DV SDV-6217
Always Armed Always Armed N/A Arming Point
FS-LO FS-LO N/A Action
N/A N/A N/A Hysteresis (±%)
N/A 15 N/A Time Delay (sec)
LPVV SDV-6215
Always Armed Always Armed N/A Arming Point
FS-LO FS-LO N/A Action
N/A N/A N/A Hysteresis (±%)
N/A 15 N/A Time Delay (sec)
HPVV SDV-6214
Always Armed Always Armed N/A Arming Point
FS-LO FS-LO N/A Action
N/A N/A 10 Hysteresis (±%)
N/A 15 5 Time Delay (sec)
LCV LCV-6611
Always Armed Always Armed Always Armed Arming Point
FS-LO FS-LO FS-LO Action

33
Appendix B – Recycle System Design Check List
B-1 RECYCLE SYSTEM DYNAMICS
· Determine the discharge pressure decay time for the over-capacity of the recycle valve and the dis-
charge pipe volume.
· If there is no aftercooler, determine the discharge temperature build up time at minimum compres-
sor speed and the desired surge protection margin (nominally 10%).
· Determine the potential temperature drop across all recycle valves.

B-2 RECYCLE LINE PIPING

Compressor Suction Side Volume (if determinable):
Suction Side Recycle Line Gas Velocity:
Compressor Discharge Side Volume:
Discharge Side Recycle Line Gas Velocity:

B-3 FLOW-MEASURING ELEMENTS

Description (orifice, venturi, or other):
Location (suction, discharge):
Signal Level at Minimum Compressor Flow
(minimum speed at surge):

· If there is a strainer between the flow-measuring element and the compressor (not recommended),
ensure the suction pressure transmitter for the compressor is downstream of it.

Model Response Time

Instrumentation Manufacturer Number Location Range (Damping)
Flow Transmitter

B-4 COMPRESSOR INSTRUMENTATION

Model Response Time
Instrumentation Manufacturer Number Location Range (Damping)
Suction Pressure
Transmitter
Discharge
Pressure
Transmitter
Suction
Temperature
Transmitter
Discharge
Temperature
Transmitter

34
B-5 CHECK VALVES
· Identify the purpose of each check valve within the compressor’s recycle system.
· Ensure that no check valve is within 10 pipe diameters of the compressor

B-6 RECYCLE VALVES

Specification Start Bypass Valve Surge Control Valve
ANSI Class
Flange Size
Style (globe, ball, other)
CV
Characteristic
Fail Position (open, closed)
Noise Attenuating?

B-7 PROCESS CONTROL VALVES

Specification Capacity Control Valves Station Recycle Control Valves
ANSI Class
Flange Size
Style (globe, ball, other)
CV
Characteristic
Fail Position (open, closed)
Noise attenuating?

B-8 COMPRESSORS IN SERIES

· Are there side streams?
· Does the gas composition change significantly in the process?
· Are there common coolers?
· Is there a flow-measuring element for each compressor?
· Are there pressure and temperature instruments at the suction and discharge of each compressor?
· Is there a surge control valve for each compressor?

B-9 GAS COMPOSITION CONSIDERATIONS

· Is a detailed gas composition available?
· Are there significant quantities of water, CO2, or H2S in the gas?
· Are there pressures high enough or temperatures low enough for hydrates to form?
· Will any components of the gas makeup liquefy at process temperatures and conditions?
· Is there a potential for ice formation in or on recycle valves?

35
Appendix C – K-Value Definitions
K-Value Definition
These are gain values for the proportional and integral control. Fast gains
are used when the operating point is to the left of the control line (yellow).
HPC KPFAST Slow gains are used when the operating point is to the right of the deadband
HPC KIFAST line (green). These gains are a reflection of the customer’s discharge piping
HPC KPSLOW volume and the size of the surge control valve. The larger the volume, the
HPC KISLOW slower the system will be and the smaller the slow gains will need to be. The
larger the surge control valve, the smaller the fast gains will need to be. In all
cases, the fast gains should be at least 10 times larger than the slow gains.
HPC_KCLFCT These are the set points for the control line and the deadband line. The con-
trol line is normally set at 10 (10% more flow than at surge) and the dead-
HPC_KDBFCT band line at 2 (2% more flow than at the control line).
HPC_SCVOPN These K-values set the rate of opening and closing of the surge control
HPC_SCVCLS valve in manual operation.
HPC_QXMTR These are the ranges for the compressor flow transmitter, the compressor
suction pressure transmitter, and compressor discharge pressure transmit-
HPC_SCVCLS
ter. It is imperative that these values match the values of the scaled ranges
HPCDISPXMTR of the transmitters in English units (in. H2O and psig).
These are the coefficients for the third-order polynomial that models the
HPCASC_A
surge control line:
HPCASC_B
x = Ay3 + By2 + Cy + D
HPCASC_C
where x is % reduced flow and y is % reduced head.
HPCASC_D
These values are not field adjustable.
This is the actual maximum value of reduced flow. Reduced flow values are
HPCASCXMAX divided by this number to unitize (reduce range to 0 to 1 or 0 to 100%) the
values. This value is not field adjustable.
HPCASCYMIN This is the unitized minimum value of reduced head. It is expressed in %.
This is the actual maximum value of reduced head. Reduced head values
HPCASCYMAX are divided by this number to unitize (reduce range to 0 to 1 or 0 to 100%)
the values. This value is not field adjustable.
This K-value controls the filter for the flow signal. It determines the weight of
the incoming sample of the flow signal in the value being averaged. The K-
value must be greater than 0 and less than or equal to 1. If the K-value = 1,
HPCASC_KF
no filtering takes place. Filtering the flow signal increases the response time
of the surge control. This number should only be reduced from 1 if the flow
signal is excessively noisy.

36
Appendix D – Compressor Data Requirements
Compressor data are typically provided at constant suction conditions (typically normal operating condi-
tions). Constant discharge pressure and discharge flow data are acceptable.
The compressor data should contain at least six approximately evenly distributed speed lines be-
tween the minimum and maximum compressor operating speed. Each speed line should consist of at
least six approximately evenly distributed data points. Each data point should provide the actual volumet-
ric flow, head, and efficiency.
The compressor data should contain at least three pairs of approximately evenly distributed constant
efficiency lines intersecting the previously defined speed lines. Each constant efficiency line should con-
sist of at least six approximately evenly distributed data points. Each data point should provide the actual
volumetric flow, head, and speed.
NOTE: If any paired efficiency lines fall to the left of the surge line, their corresponding data would not
be listed.
The surge line should span the minimum and maximum compressor operating speed. The surge line
should consist of at least six approximately evenly distributed data points. Each data point should provide
the actual volumetric flow, head, efficiency, discharge pressure, and discharge temperature.

D-1 EXAMPLE OF ACCEPTABLE COMPRESSOR DATA

Design Conditions
SG 0.6000 Q HEAD ETA
K1 1.295 (ACFM) (FT-LBF/LBM)
K2 1.283
PCP 671.4 PSIA CONSTANT RPM = 14000
PCT 359.5 DEG R 2049.1 6570.8 0.75369
2287.3 6445.0 0.77418
EMCH 0.980
2525.4 6264.7 0.79023
K50 1.301
2763.5 5984.8 0.79698
K300 1.238
3001.6 5594.9 0.79326
P1 1012.00 PSIA
P2 1307.00 PSIA 3239.7 5093.4 0.77790
H IS 10700.6 FT-LBF/LBM 3477.8 4450.3 0.74390
Q 2742.27 ACFM 3715.9 3285.6 0.61005
SQ 310.03 MMSCFD
PWR 3865 HP CONSTANT RPM = 13000
RPM 9544 1785.5 5680.1 0.75535
Z1 0.8609 2006.7 5563.3 0.77637
Z2 0.8707 2227.9 5391.9 0.79189
P/P 1.292 2449.2 5146.3 0.79863
DEL T 38.3 2670.4 4812.0 0.79572
T2 108.3 DEG F 2891.7 4382.9 0.78077
ETA 0.846 3112.9 3797.4 0.73867
S MAR 0.355 3334.1 2840.1 0.60928
T1 70.0 DEG F CONSTANT RPM = 12000
MN 0.481 1573.3 4840.0 0.75997
1773.4 4729.2 0.78033
Q HEAD ETA 1973.4 4564.6 0.79359
(ACFM) (FT-LBF/LBM) 2173.4 4349.9 0.79949
2373.5 4065.9 0.79639
CONSTANT MAX RPM = 14300 2573.5 3707.5 0.78210
2157.8 6838.9 0.75519 2773.6 3187.2 0.73118
2397.4 6707.9 0.77503 2973.6 2420.0 0.60759
2637.0 6522.7 0.79055
2876.6 6225.8 0.79643
3116.3 5817.1 0.79180
3355.9 5300.4 0.77627
3595.5 4639.3 0.74382
3835.1 3419.8 0.60958

37
 Q HEAD ETA Q HEAD ETA
(ACFM) (FT-LBF/LBM) (ACFM) (FT-LBF/LBM)
CONSTANT RPM = 11000 CONSTANT ETA =0.80000
1407.1 4049.4 0.76710 2589.6 5235.3 13396
1582.5 3942.1 0.78509 2597.6 5177.3 13230
1757.9 3792.8 0.79586 2580.5 5064.2 13222
1933.3 3607.8 0.80075 2562.1 4986.2 13000
2108.7 3370.6 0.79677 2300.8 4180.3 12000
2284.1 3077.0 0.78235 2047.2 3488.3 11000
2459.5 2627.3 0.72195 1793.4 2864.0 10000
2634.9 2024.7 0.60405 1543.2 2311.2 9000
CONSTANT RPM = 10000 CONSTANT ETA =0.79000
1247.2 3331.5 0.77344 3144.1 5757.1 14300
1399.7 3233.0 0.78916 3052.2 5488.3 14000
1552.1 3099.0 0.79727 2755.1 4647.8 13000
1704.5 2943.2 0.80090 2462.9 3905.6 12000
1856.9 2750.2 0.79647 2191.0 3232.8 11000
2009.3 2495.0 0.77463 1902.0 2674.6 10000
2161.7 2140.4 0.71480 1646.3 2156.9 9000
2314.1 1665.7 0.60019
CONSTANT ETA =0.77000
CONSTANT MIN RPM = 9000.0 3402.2 5172.6 14300
1093.8 2684.3 0.77842 3295.0 4943.9 14000
1225.4 2596.6 0.79175 2948.2 4233.1 13000
1357.0 2484.0 0.79874 2621.1 3583.8 12000
1488.7 2354.9 0.80091 2319.9 2985.1 11000
1620.3 2200.3 0.79603 2021.1 2467.6 10000
1751.9 1980.5 0.76548 1732.5 2013.0 9000
1883.6 1707.6 0.70695
2015.2 1342.2 0.59639 CONSTANT ETA =0.74000
3602.3 4604.5 14300
CONSTANT ETA =0.77000 3484.7 4416.4 14000
2336.7 6741.1 14300 3105.9 3815.9 13000
2238.7 6470.6 14000 2738.9 3277.3 12000
1939.7 5598.7 13000 2407.1 2761.7 11000
1671.9 4785.4 12000 2097.5 2289.8 10000
1435.4 4032.1 11000 1809.2 1861.7 9000
1334.0 3721.1 10543
CONSTANT ETA =0.69000
CONSTANT ETA =0.79000 3691.5 4150.3 14300
2628.5 6529.4 14300 3573.7 3981.3 14000
2522.0 6267.2 14000 3196.1 3437.3 13000
2201.0 5412.8 13000 2840.2 2931.5 12000
1919.3 4609.2 12000 2507.0 2464.0 11000
1662.4 3874.1 11000 2194.7 2037.7 10000
1415.4 3219.2 10000 1903.8 1651.6 9000
1208.1 2608.2 9000
CONSTANT ETA =0.80000 Q HEAD ETA P2 T2
2589.6 5235.3 13396 (ACFM) (FT-LF/LBM) (PSIA) (DEG F)
2576.2 5242.9 13230
2556.6 5236.3 13200 CONSTANT SURGE
2498.9 5178.9 13118
2472.0 5120.0 13000 2157.8 6838.9 0.75519 1283.4 302.6
2090.1 4425.3 12000 2049.1 6570.8 0.75369 1229.4 294.9
1816.5 3736.1 11000 1785.5 5680.1 0.75535 1062.4 267.4
1556.7 3100.8 10000 1573.3 4840.0 0.75997 921.3 240.5
1293.7 2528.8 9000 1407.1 4049.4 0.76710 802.1 214.6
1247.2 3331.5 0.77344 704.4 190.9
1093.8 2684.3 0.77842 624.5 169.6

38
Appendix E - Surge Control Valve Accessories
The following accessories have been found to provide fully satisfactory performance when used in con-
junction with a correctly specified anti-surge valve and Solar’s anti-surge control system. This information
is provided for guidance and is subject to change. Users should consult Solar to confirm its validity.

Supplier Solar Turbines

Description Supplier
Part No. Drawing No.
Electro-Pneumatic Positioner; Yoke Mounted, 4-20 mA,
PMV EP5 1032456
6-30 psig
Pressure Regulator (globe valves only) Fisher 67CFR
Three-Way 24-Vdc Solenoid Valve ASCO EF8327G2 221784
Exhaust Booster Fisher 289RC 1033516
Position Transmitter, 4-20 mA, Proportional to % Close
PMV F5 1032456
with Fully Open and Fully Closed Relay Outputs
Needle Valve Swagelok
Check Valve Swagelok

NOTES
· For larger actuators, a larger capacity regulator may be required to achieve desired closing speeds,
e.g., Fisher part number 64R /1041930.
· For larger actuators, a needle valve with greater free flowing capacity may be required to achieve
desired closing speeds.

Supplier Company Name Internet Site

PMV Palmstiernas Mekaniska Verstad http://www.pmvusa.com
Fisher Fisher (Emerson Electric Co.) http://www.emersonprocess.com/fisher/index.html
Automatic Switch Co. (Emerson http://www.ascoswitch.com
ASCO
Electric Co.)

39
Appendix F – Glossary of Definitions
Absolute Pressure. Arithmetic sum of gauge
and atmospheric pressures. It must be used in all
calculations involving the basic gas laws.
Absolute Temperature. Temperature of a body
referred to the absolute zero, at which point the
volume of an ideal gas theoretically becomes
zero. On the Fahrenheit scale, this is -459.67°F;
on the Celsius scale, it is -273.15°C. (Engineering
values of -460°F and -273°C are used herein.)
Adiabatic Process. Process during which there
is no heat added to or removed from the system.
Aftercooling. Cooling of gas in a heat exchanger
following the completion of compression to re-
duce the temperature and liquefy condensable
vapors.
Compressibility. Property of a gas or a gas
mixture that causes it to differ in volume from that
of a perfect gas when each is under the same
pressure and temperature conditions. Occasion-
ally, it is called deviation. It must be experimen-
tally determined.
Compressibility Factor (Z). Ratio of the actual
volume of the gas to the volume determined ac-
cording to the perfect gas law. It is a multiplier of
perfect gas volume.
Compression Efficiency. Ratio of the theoretical
work (using a stated process, e.g., polytropic or
isentropic) to the actual work required to be done
on the gas for compression and delivery. Ex-
pressed as a %, compression efficiency accounts
for leakage and fluid friction losses and for ther-
modynamic variations from the theoretical proc-
ess.
Compression Ratio. Ratio of the absolute dis-
charge to the absolute intake pressure.
Compressor Capacity. Quantity of gas actually
delivered when operating between specified inlet
and discharge pressures. Capacity is a volume
measured at the conditions of pressure, tem-
perature, gas composition, and moisture content
existing at the compressor inlet flange.
40
Corrosive Gas. Gas that attacks normal materi-
als of construction. Water vapor when mixed with
most gases does not make them corrosive within
the sense of the above definition. In other gases,
CO2, for example, it makes them corrosive.
Note: The words "corrosive" and "noncorro-
sive" are of the relative type. They do not de-
fine with exactness and there are differences
of degree in the application of these terms.
Specifications must make clear what is
meant by these terms if they are used.
Critical Pressure. Saturation pressure at the
critical temperature. It is the highest vapor pres-
sure that the liquid can exert.
Critical Temperature. Highest temperature at
which a gas can be liquefied.
Discharge Pressure. Total gas pressure (static
plus velocity) at the discharge flange of the com-
pressor.
Note: Pressure may be expressed as gauge
or absolute pressures: psig plus atmospheric
pressure equals psia.
Note: psig does not define a pressure unless
the barometric pressure (atmospheric) is also
stated.
Discharge Temperature. Temperature existing
at the discharge flange of the compressor.
Note: In a multi-body compressor, the vari-
ous bodies will have differing discharge pres-
sures and temperatures.
Inlet Pressure. Total pressure (static plus veloc-
ity) at the inlet flange of the compressor.
Note: Pressure may be expressed as gauge
or absolute pressures: psig plus atmospheric
pressure equals psia.
Note: psig does not define a pressure unless
the barometric pressure (atmospheric) is also
stated.
Inlet Temperature. Temperature at the inlet
flange of the compressor.
Note: In a multi-body compressor, the vari-
ous bodies may have differing inlet tempera-
tures.
Irreversible Process. Process in which a portion
of the original system energy is dissipated and
cannot be returned to the system through its own
operation. The system and/or surroundings can-
not be returned to their original state.
Isentropic Head. The work required to com-
press a unit mass of gas in an isentropic com-
pression process from the inlet pressure and
temperature to the discharge pressure.
Isentropic Process. Process wherein the en-
tropy remains constant. This is a reversible proc-
ess.
Isothermal Process. Process in which there is
no change in temperature.
Polytropic Head. The reversible work required
to compress a unit mass of the gas in a polytropic
compression process.
Polytropic Process. Process in which changes
in gas characteristics during compression are
considered.
Process. Occurs whenever the system under-
goes either a change in state or an energy
transfer at a steady state.
Psychrometry. Study of the properties of air-
water vapor mixtures in the atmosphere.
Ratio of Specific Heats. Ratio of the specific
heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at
constant volume. It may vary considerably with
pressure and temperature.
Reduced Pressure. Ratio of the actual absolute
gas pressure to the absolute critical pressure.
Reduced Temperature. Ratio in absolute units
of the actual gas temperature to the critical tem-
perature.
41
Reversible Process. Ideal process that may be
stopped and made to retrace its steps and re-
store to the system or surroundings all work and
heat previously removed. It is frictionless.
Specific Gravity. Ratio of the density of a given
gas to the density of dry air, both measured at the
same specified conditions of temperature and
pressure, usually 14.696 psia and 60°F. It should
also take into account any compressibility devia-
tion from a perfect gas.
Note: Deviation is not accurately known for
all gases, particularly certain hydrocarbons.
Specific Heat (Heat Capacity). Rate of change in
enthalpy with temperature. It is commonly meas-
ured at constant pressure or at constant volume.
The values are different and are known as Cp
and Cv, respectively.
Standard Conditions. Unless specifically stated
otherwise, standard conditions are:
Pressure. 14.696 psia
Temperature: 60°F
Suction Pressure. Absolute static pressure pre-
vailing at the suction of the ejector.
Super Compressibility. Used with various
meanings, most frequently the same as com-
pressibility, although this is not assured. A current
ASME Power Test Code uses it as a ratio of gas
densities rather than volumes; in this case,
therefore, it is 1/Z. Super compressibility should
never be used unless its meaning is clarified
completely. Compressibility is much to be pre-
ferred and is used herein.
Surge. Reversal of flow within a dynamic com-
pressor that takes place when the capacity being
handled is reduced to a point where insufficient
pressure is being generated to maintain flow.
Turndown. Also referred to as rangeability. A
measure of the range of flows through a device,
expressed as a ratio.
FOR MORE INFORMATION
Telephone: (+1) 619-544-5352
Telefax: (+1) 619-544-2633
Internet: www.solarturbines.com

Solar Turbines Incorporated

P.O. Box 85376
San Diego, CA 92186-5376 U.S.A.

SPGCCS/203