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EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

EEE2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III

State variable methods: state space mode representation, similarity transformations, state transition, flow graphs and canonical
forms; geometrical interpretation of eigenvalues and eigen-vectors; time solution by transition matrix and inverse.

Laplace techniques: canonical forms in relation to controllability and observability; the observer, simple pole placement design
technique.

Discrete systems: sampling, data extra-polators and spectral characteristics; design of Z-transform, impulse in variance and hold
equivalent; block manipulation and pulse transfer functions; Z-transform inversion; stability and damping; discrete compensator
realisation design examples; bilinear transformation; root space. Frequency domain identification using least squares.

References
1. Modern Control Engineering, Kastuhiko Ogata
2. Discrete Time Control Systems, Kastuhiko Ogata
3. Advanced Control Engineering, Roland S. Burns
4. Modern Control Engineering , P. N. Paraskevopoulos
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

EEE2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III ...................................................................................................1


1.0 STATE VARIABLE METHODS .............................................................................................................................2
1.1 State space representation ......................................................................................................................................2
1.2 State Equations from Transfer Functions ..............................................................................................................5
1.3 Similarity Transformation .....................................................................................................................................9
1.4 Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors ......................................................................................................................... 10
1.5 Repeated Eigen values ......................................................................................................................................... 11
1.6 Laplace Transform Technique ............................................................................................................................. 13
1.7 Transfer Function from state space equations ..................................................................................................... 14
1.8 Time Solution of state equations ......................................................................................................................... 15
1.9 Controllability and Observability ........................................................................................................................ 18
1.10 Pole Placement Design Technique .................................................................................................................... 20
1.11 State Observer Design ....................................................................................................................................... 27
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

1.0 STATE VARIABLE METHODS

1.1 State space representation


State space approach is a generalized time-domain method of modelling, analysing and designing a wide range of control systems.

The approach can deal with


i. Multiple input, multiple output (MIMO) systems or multivariable systems
ii. Nonlinear and time invariant systems
iii. Alternative controller design approaches

The analysis require


i. Input variables
ii. Output variables
iii. State variables

Definitions

State:
State of dynamic system is the smallest set of variables (state variables) such that knowledge of the variables at time plus
knowledge of the inputs for , this information determines the behaviour of the system for any time .

State variables:
These are variables making up the smallest set of variables that determine the state of the dynamic system. Let a dynamic system
have variables to describe the behaviour of the system while the input is given for and the initial state at
is specified. If the future state of the system is determined, then such variables are a set of state variables.

State vector:
The behaviour of a given system is described by state variables and can be considered to be components of a vector x. Such a
vector is called a state vector. A state is thus a vector that determines uniquely the system state for any once the state
at is given and the input for is specified.

State space:
The dimensional space whose coordinate axis consists of axis is called state space. Any state can be represented by
a point in the state space.

Consider the dynamic system shown below

The above dynamic system has MIMO.


The state of the system is described by a set of first order differential equations in terms of the state variables and
input variables as

̇
̇
. (1.1)
.
̇

The output of the system may be a function of input variables, state variables and time. This may be
described as

.
. (1.2)

Definitions of and would be


EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

State vector

[ ]

Input vector

[ ]

Output vector

[ ]

Using the above vectors, equations (1.1) and (1.2) become

̇ state equation (1.3)

output equation (1.4)

Time invariant systems


If the vector functions of and do not involve time, then the system is said to be a time invariant system
Then
̇ (1.5)

(1.6)

If equations 1.5 and 1.6 are linear then

̇ (1.7)

(1.8)

where A, B, C and D are constant matrices

Time varying systems


If the system is time varying, then equations 1.3 and 1.4 result to

̇ (1.9)

(1.10)
where
– state matrix
– input matrix
– output matrix
– direct transition matrix

Example 1.1
Obtain the state space representation of the system described by

where is the output and is the input to the system


EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

Solution
Knowledge of ̇ and ̈ together with the input for determines completely the future of the system. Thus if
̇ and ̈ are a set of the state variables then

Defining the state variables as

̇
̈
Then
̇ ̇
. .
̇
. .
̈

By use of vector matrix notation, then the 3 first order differential equations can be combined into one as

̇
[ ̇ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
̇

The output y is given by

[ ][ ]

Example 1.2

Write the state variable formulation of the parallel RLC network shown below
A

Solution
Applying KCL at node A then

Differentiating with respect to t and rearranging yields

Choosing

The vector-matrix differential form of the state equation can be written as

̇
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ] u(t)
̇
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

and the output


[ ][ ]

NB
Usually in the circuit problem, the current through the inductor and voltage across the capacitor are chosen as the state variables

1.2 State Equations from Transfer Functions


Consider a system defined by

̇ ̇ (1.11)

where is the input and is the output

The equation can be written as

The state space representation of the system defined by equation (1.11) and (1.12) can be presented in controllable canonical form,
observable canonical form and diagonal canonical form

Controllable canonical form

The controllable canonical form of the state space representation is given by

̇
̇

̇
[ ̇ ] [ ][ ] [ ]

and

[ ]

[ ]

Example 1.3
Consider the system given by

Obtain the controllable canonical form of the state space representation

Solution

̇
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
̇

[ ][ ] [ ]
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

[ ][ ]

[ ][ ]

Observable canonical form

For the transfer function

The observable canonical form of the state space representation is given by

̇
̇

̇
[ ̇ ] [ ][ ] [ ]

and

[ ]

[ ]

Example 1.4
Obtain the observable canonical form of the state space representation for the system with the transfer function

Solution

̇
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
̇

[ ][ ] [ ]

[ ][ ]

[ ][ ]

Diagonal canonical form

If the denominator polynomial has distinct roots then the transfer function can be written as
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

The diagonal canonical form of the state space representation of the system is given by

̇
̇

̇
[ ̇ ] [ ][ ] [ ]

and

[ ]

[ ]
Example1.5

Obtain the diagonal canonical form of the state space representation for the system with the transfer function

Solution

̇
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
̇

[ ][ ] [ ]

[ ][ ]

[ ][ ]

Jordan Canonical Form

If the denominator polynomial involves multiple roots then the state space representation can be written in Jordan canonical form.
For example, if the ‘s are different from one another except that the first three are equal i.e. , then the factored
form of the transfer function becomes

The partial fraction expansion of the equation becomes


EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

The state space representation of the system in Jordan canonical form becomes

̇
̇
̇
̇

[ ̇ ] [ ][ ] [ ]

and

[ ]

[ ]

The characteristic equation of a given system remains invariant under different forms of state variable representation. This can be
true for the transfer function also. The choice of the states is not unique

Example 1.6
Consider the system

⃛ ̈ ̇

where is the output and is the input. Obtain the state space representation of the system

Solution I

Let
̇
̇ ̇
̈ ̇

These can be written in the vector matrix differential equation form as

̇
[ ̇ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
̇

[ ][ ]

The characteristic equation becomes

| |

Solution II

⃛ ̈ ̇

The transfer function is obtained as


EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

By partial fraction expansion

Defining

where

The state space representation becomes

̇
[ ̇ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
̇

[ ][ ]

The characteristic equation this case becomes

| |

1.3 Similarity Transformation

It has been stated that the choice of states is not unique for a given system. Suppose that there exists a set of state variables

[ ]

We may take another set of state variables

[ ]

So that a linear or similarity transformation exists

Let

where is a non-singular transformational matrix


Differentiating equation (1.27) yields
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

̇ ̇

Using the general state space equations

Then equation (1.28) becomes

̇
From equation (1.27)

Equation (1.29) becomes

̇
and

Equations (1.30) and (1.31) can be written as

̇ ̂ ̂
̂

where ̂ ̂ ̂

Hence similarity transformation the transformed system can be represented in the vector-matrix differential form as

̇ ̂ ̂ and the output as


̂

NB
i. The characteristic equations and hence the Eigen values of and ̂ are invariant under similarity transformation
ii. The transfer function remains invariant under similarity transformation

1.4 Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors

Given the matrix equation

(1.34)

The values of the scalar for which non trivial solutions exist are called Eigen values and the corresponding solutions are
called Eigen vectors

Equation (1.34) can be written in the form

where I is the identity matrix

| | is the characteristic equation of A


The roots of the characteristic equation are called Eigen values of the matrix A

Corresponding to each Eigen value is a non-zero solution of = . This is called the Eigen vector of A corresponding to
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

Example 1.7
Determine the Eigen values and Eigen vectors of where [ ]

Solution

| |

For , becomes

[ ][ ] [ ]

Eigen vector corresponding to is

[ ] [ ] simplest form

For , becomes

[ ][ ] [ ]

Eigen vector corresponding to 1is

[ ] [ ] simplest form

We obtain the transformation matrix from the Eigen vectors as follows

[ ] [ ]

The matrix ̂ is then obtained

̂ [ ] [ ][ ] [ ]

Under similarity transformation the characteristic equation does not change i.e.

| | | ̂|

1.5 Repeated Eigen values

In some cases, the matrix will have repeated Eigen values. The Eigen vectors are evaluated as follows
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

Example 1.8

Determine the Eigen values and Eigen vectors of where [ ]

Solution

| |

| |

For

[ ][ ] [[ ]]

This yield

and the simplest form of the corresponding Eigen vector as

[ ]

For

[ ][ ] [[ ]]

The simultaneous equations obtained are

We let where are and constants

The above equation becomes

and the resulting Eigen vector as

[ ] [ ]

For , [ ]
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

For , [ ]

The transformation matrix is obtained as

[ ]

The matrix ̂ is then obtained as

̂ [ ] [ ][ ]

[ ]

Checking the characteristic equation

| | | ̂|

1.6 Laplace Transform Technique

Recall I

The Laplace transform of a function is defined as the integral

{ } ∫ (1.35)
Example 1.9

Obtain the Laplace transform of

Solution
{ } ∫

Recall II

{ } { } (1.36)

{ } { } (1.37)

and so on for Laplace transform of higher derivatives (you should be able to prove this with a lot of ease)

Example 1.10

Use the Laplace transform of second derivative to derive

{ }
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Solution

and

Using equation (1.37)

{ } { }

{ } { }

{ }

{ }

1.7 Transfer Function from state space equations

The transfer function is given by

The general state space representation of any given systems is

̇ (1.38)

(1.38)

Taking the Laplace transforms of (1.38) and (1.39)

(1.40)

(1.41)

Assuming that the initial conditions of the system are zero i.e. and rearranging (1.40) then

(1.42)

Substituting (1.42) into (1.41) yields

(1.43)

and the transfer function is obtained as

[ ] (1.44)

Example 1.11

Obtain the transfer function of the system whose state space representation is given as
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

̇ [ ][ ] [ ]

[ ][ ]

Solution

[ ] where

[ ], [ ], [ ] and

[ ]

[ ] [ ][ ][ ]

1.8 Time Solution of state equations

Consider the homogenous case

̇ (t) (1.45)

Approach A

Assume a solution of the form

(1.46)

Substituting (1.46) into (1.45) yields

̇ [ ] (1.47)

If the assumed solution is to be a true solution, equation (1.47) must hold true for any value of
This implies that

.
.

The value of is determined by substituting into equation (1.46) i.e.

The solution of can be written as


EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

[ ]

But

Therefore

(1.48)

Approach B

Using Laplace transform of the homogeneous equation (1.45)

Taking the inverse Laplace transform

State Transition Matrix


The approach to the solution of homogeneous scalar equation can be extended to the solution of homogeneous state
equation

̇ (1.49)

Taking Laplace transform

Taking the inverse Laplace transform

(1.50)

(1.51)

Where

is called the state transition matrix and contains all information about the free motions of the system described by
(1.49)

Example 1.12

Obtain the state transition matrix of the following state equation

̇
[ ] [ ][ ]
̇

Solution
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

[ ]

[ ]

[ ]
[ ]

[ ]

=[ ]

Non Homogeneous state equations

Consider the non-homogeneous state equation

̇ (1.52)

Multiplying equation (1.52) by both sides

[ ̇ ]

[ ] (1.53)

Integrating equation (1.53) between 0 and t results in

∫ (1.54)

From equation (1.54)


 The first term on the right hand side is the response to the initial conditions
 The second term is the response to the input

Extending the same approach to the solution of homogeneous state equation yields

∫ (1.55)

The solution of is the sum of a term consisting of the transition of the initial state and a term arising from the input
vector

Example 1.13

Obtain the time response of the following system

̇
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
̇
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

where is a unit step input

Solution

From the previous example

=[ ]

=[ ]

[ ][ ]

[ ]

∫ ∫

[ ]

[ ]

[ ][ ] [ ]

1.9 Controllability and Observability

These tells us whether it is at all possible to control all the states of the system completely by suitable choice of input and whether
it is possible to reconstruct the states of a system from its input and outputs

Controllability

For the linear time invariant system

̇
(1.56)

The system is said to be controllable if it is possible to find some input that will transfer the initial state of the system to
the origin of the state space, with finite. The solution of the state equation yields

∫ where (1.57)

For the system to be controllable

∫ with finite (1.58)


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A linear time invariant continuous time system is completely controllable iff the RANK of the controllability matrix is
equal to n

[ ] (1.59)

The rank of a matrix is the maximum number of linearly independent columns of ; that is, it is the order of the largest
nonsingular matrix contained in A. This implies that the controllability matrix must be nonsingular for the system to be
completely controllable.

If a system is not completely controllable, it implies that it has one or more natural modes that cannot be affected by the
input directly or indirectly.

Example 1.14

Determine whether the system represented by the given state space is controllable

̇
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
̇

Solution

The controllability matrix is given by

[ ]

[ [ ] [ ]]

[ ]

| | | |

The matrix is singular hence the system is uncontrollable

This is more obvious if we write the two differential equations separately as

It is evident that whereas can be changed by the state is unaffected by our choice of the inputs since it is not
coupled either directly to the input or to the state hence this state of is uncontrollable

On the other hand if we had

The controllability matrix is obtained as

[ ]

| | | |

The matrix is nonsingular hence the system is controllable.


EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

can be controlled indirectly through

Observability

The linear time invariant system is said to be observable if the initial condition can be determined from the output
function for where is finite

∫ (1.57)

Thus given and for with being some finite value, the system is observable if equation (1.57) can be
solved for

The system is observable if the observability matrix N is nonsingular i.e. the rank of N is equal to n

[ ] (1.58)

Example 1.15

Consider the system represented by

̇
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
̇

[ ][ ]

Determine whether the system is observable

Solution

The observability matrix is given by

[ ]

[ ][ ] [ ]

| | | |

The matrix is singular and therefore the system is unobservable


The state does not affect the output nor does it affect the state which is coupled to the output

1.10 Pole Placement Design Technique

𝐒tate space design enables the design of a system having the desired closed loop poles or desired characteristic equation
It also enables inclusion of initial conditions if necessary

Pole placement design is based on the state model of the system. We assume that all the state variables are measurable and
are available for feedback
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

State model equations

̇ (1.59)

The plant input is made a function of the states of the form

(1.60)

Equation (1.60) is called the control rule or control law. In pole placement design, the control law is specified as a linear
function of the states of the form

(1.61)

This control law allows the poles of the closed system to be placed in any desirable location and is expressed as

(1.62)

The design problem is the specification of the desired root locations of the systems characteristic equations and the
calculations of the gains to yield these desired root locations.

A necessary and sufficient condition that the closed-loop poles can be placed at any arbitrary location in the s-plane is that
the system must be completely state controllable.

Determination of the Matrix

i. Using Direct substitution method

If the system is of low order, direct substitution of matrix into the desired characteristic polynomial may be simpler.

e.g. if and the desired poles are then

[ ]

Desired characteristic polynomial

This is also obtained as

|[ ]|
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

We equate

|[ ]|

to obtain the values of

Example 1.16

Consider the system

̇ where [ ] [ ]

The system uses the state feedback control law . It is desired to have closed loop poles at

. Determine the state feedback gain matrix K

Solution

We first check for controllability of the system

[ ]

| | | |

The matrix is nonsingular hence the system is completely state controllable

Next we solve for

Let [ ]

|[ ]|

|[ ] [ ] [ ][ ]|

(i)

The desired characteristic equation is

(ii)

Comparing equations (i) and (ii)

[ ]

ii. U g A kerm ’ F rm l

Cayley Hamilton Theorem


EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation i.e. if the characteristic equation of the nth order square
matrix is
| |

| | (1.63)
Then

(1.64)

To obtain the inverse of the matrix A, we divide equation by A on both sides

[ ] (1.65)

Example 1.17

Determine the inverse of the matrix

[ ] using Cayley Hamilton Theorem

Solution

| |

| |

[ ]

[ ]

Consider the state equation


̇ (1.66)

Where the state feedback control law

We assume that the system is completely state controllable and that the desired closed loop poles are at

Equation (1.66) becomes

̇ [ ] (1.67)
Defining ̂

Then the desired characteristic equation is

| ̂|
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Use of Cayley Hamilton theorem which states that ̂ satisfies its own characteristic equation we obtain

( ̂) ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ (1.68)

T der ve A kerm ’ formula, we consider the case when

Considering that
(1.69)

̂ (1.70)

̂ [ ]

̂ (1.71)

̂ [ ] [ ]
[ ̂ ][ ]
= ̂ ̂ (1.72)

Multiplying both sides of equations (1.69), (1.70), (1.71) and (1.72) with where

̂ [ ]

̂ [ ̂]

̂ = ̂ ̂

Adding the two sides of the equations

̂ ̂ ̂+ ̂ ̂ ̂ (1.73)

Since

̂ ̂ ̂+ ( ̂) and then

̂ ̂ ̂ (1.74)

[ ̂ ̂ ] [ ̂]

̂ ̂
[ ][ ̂ ] (1.75)

̂ ̂
[ ] [ ̂ ] (1.76)

Premultiplying both sides of (1.76) by [ ] and rearranging we obtain


EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

[ ][ ] (1.77)

For an arbitrary positive integer , then

[ ][ ] (1.78)

Example 1.18

Consider the system

̇ where [ ] [ ]

The system uses the state feedback control law . It is desired to have closed loop poles at

De erm e he e feedb k g m rxK g A kerm ’ f rm l r

Solution

The desired characteristic equation is given by

where [ ]

[ ]

[ ] [ ]

[ ][ ]

[ ][ ] [ ]

[ ]

iii. Using Transformation Matrix T

Suppose that the system defined by


̇

and the control law is given by

The matrix can be obtained as follows

a) Check the controllability condition for the system. If the system is completely controllable then

b) Determine the characteristic polynomial of the matrix A

| |
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

Determine the values of

c) Determine the transformation matric T that can transform the system state equation in controllable canonical
form. If the system is already in controllable canonical form then

Else

Where is the controllability matrix and

[ ]

d) Write the desired characteristic polynomial

Determine the values of

e) Obtain the matrix K as

[ ] (1.79)

Example 1.19

Consider the system

̇ where [ ] [ ]

The system uses the state feedback control law . It is desired to have closed loop poles at

. Determine the state feedback gain matrix K using transformation matrix

Solution

Check the system for controllability

[ ]

| | | |

The matrix is nonsingular hence the system is completely state controllable

Obtain the characteristic polynomial of the matrix

|[ ]|
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

|[ ] [ ]|

Comparing with

then

The desired characteristic polynomial is given by

Comparing this with then

Since the system is already in controllable canonical form then

The matrix K is obtained as

[ ]

[ ]

1.11 State Observer Design

In the pole placement design approach, we assumed that all state variables are available for feedback. In practice, however, not
all the state variables are available for feedback. Then we need to estimate unavailable state variables. A state observer
estimates the state variables based on the measurement of output and control variables

If a state observer estimates all state variables of the system, regardless of whether some state variables are available for direct
measurement, it is called a full order state observer. A necessary and sufficient condition for observer design is that the system
must be completely state observable.

Consider the system


̇
(1.80)

The state variables can be estimated from the measured output and control variables
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

where
-state observer gain matrix
̃-estimated output
̃-estimated state variables
For the observer

̃̇ ̃ ̃
(1.81)
̃ ̃

But and ̃ ̃

Equation (1.81) becomes

̃̇ ̃ ̃ (1.82)

Subtracting (1.82) from (1.80) we obtain

̇ ̃̇ [ ̃] [ ̃]
(1.83)
̃ [ ̃]

Taking ̃ ̂ ̇ ̃̇ ̂̇ and ̃ ̂ equation (1.83) becomes

̂̇ [ ]̂
(1.84)
̂ ̂

We can choose appropriate Eigen values of [ ] to enable placement of poles of the closed loop system at desired locations

The control design problem is to determine the matrix matrix

where [ ]

Determining the matrix

i. Using Direct Substitution method

Similar to the case of pole placement, if the system is of low order, then direct substitution of the matrix G into the desired
characteristic polynomial may be simpler. e.g. if is a 3 vector then can be written as

[ ]

Substituting this into the desired characteristic polynomial

| |

By equating the coefficients of the powers on both sides of this equation, we can obtain the values of
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Example 1.20

Consider the system ̇

Where [ ] [ ] and [ ]

Design a full order state observer assuming that the desired Eigen values of the observer matrix are

Solution

Test the system for observability

Observability matrix [ ] [ ]

| |

The system is completely state observable and determination of observer gain matrix is possible

Let
[ ]

| |

⌈ ⌉

The desired characteristic equation is given by

Comparing the two equations

[ ]

ii. Using Ackermann’s Formula

The observer gain matrix is given by

[ ] [ ]

Where

Example 1.21

Determine the observer gain matrix for example 1.20 using Ackermann’s formula
EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

Solution

[ ] [ ]

[ ] and [ ]

The desired characteristic equation is given by

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

[ ][ ][ ] [ ]

iii. Using Transformation Matrix

Following the same procedure as in deriving the state feedback matrix then

a) Check the observability condition for the system. If the system is completely observability then

b) Determine the characteristic polynomial of the matrix A

| |

Determine the values of

c) Determine the transformation matric that can transform the system state equation in controllable canonical
form. If the system is already in observable canonical form then

Else

Where is the observability matrix and

[ ]

d) Write the desired characteristic polynomial

Determine the values of

e) Obtain the observer gain matrix as


EEE 2502 CONTROL ENGINEERING III by Asaph Mbugua

[ ] (1.85)

Example 1.21

Determine the observer gain matrix for example 1.20 using Ackermann’s formula

Solution
Observability has already been tested

[ ] and [ ]

| | | |

Comparing this with

The system is already in state observable form, therefore

[ ]

The desired characteristic equation is

From this we obtain the values of

[ ]

[ ][ ] [ ]

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