A Guide for Technical Report Writing

Efficient Communication
PRIMARY AIM
The primary aim of every technical report should be to communicate information accurately.
Write as concisely as you can, without omitting essential information and without sacrificing
smooth transitions from one topic to another.

SPECIFIC AUDIENCE
Design every technical report for the needs and understanding of a specific reader or group of
readers. Before you write, determine how much knowledge of your subject area in general and of
your investigation in particular your intended reader will bring to his (or her) 1 reading. Find out
why he would want the information you have gathered and how he might use it.

You must realize that the processes of writing a report, transmitting it to a reader, and having him
read it constitute an open-ended communication system. One of the most difficult writing
techniques to develop is that of anticipating a reader’s needs. Too often we look for shortcuts in
the writing job and forget that in order to make the reading easy, more work has to go into the
writing effort. Picture the reader as looking over you shoulder as you write, constantly asking
“Why?” and “So what?”

For class purposes (unless otherwise specified) assume your audience to be next year’s student
who is extending your work or doing something related to it. Write your report so that he would
be able to reproduce your results if he wished to.

A PLAN OF ATTACK
Troubles arise in report writing when the writer tries to do everything at once or works without a
sensible plan of attack. You can help yourself if you divide the job into several well-defined
tasks and take these one at a time:

• outline you material

• write a rough draft, including visual aids
• take a rest
• read our draft and polish it into final copy
• proofread carefully

1
From remarks of some of our readers, we find it necessary to explain that we use the pronoun “his” in one of its
customary meanings as “a person’s.”
Outlining: Basic Principles and Form of Reports
BASIC PRINCIPLES
State your basic ideas early. The first thing any reader needs when he opens a report is an
overview of your investigation. He needs to be able to fit whatever is being reported into a
context that will be meaningful to him. As a writer, you can satisfy this need by paying careful
attention to the wording and content of your title and abstract. (See Section B, Form of Report,
for further details.)

Describe the whole before the parts. Within the text itself, whenever you confront the reader with
a new device, process, or concept, you should describe the essence, the function, the purpose of
this device, profess, or concept before you go into details about the parts. (A circuit schematic or
a list of equipment does not serve this purpose.)

Emphasize the importance of information. A common fault in technical writing is the burial of
the important, significant information under a mass of details. You should emphasize important
ideas by (1) eliminating superfluous details; (2) putting details of secondary importance in an
appendix; (3) eliminating unnecessary words; (4) putting the important ideas in a prominent
(early) position and in independent grammatical constructions and (5), using appropriate
typography (capitalization, underlining). For instance, data sheets should not be included in a
report unless specifically requested. Development of equations should be placed in an appendix
if the reader has only a casual interest in how the final equations were reached.

Use headers liberally. By all means use headings and subheadings freely. They are the trademark
of technical reports. By acting as signposts they make the reader’s task much easier; and they
help the writer by furnishing him with ready-made transitions and by keeping his organization
logical. If you have prepared a proper outline, it will supply you with most of your headings and
subheadings.

Make use of visual aids. Graphs, drawings, block diagrams, schematics, photographs, and tables
are important aids to efficient and effective communication. Plan for their use when you outline
your report rather than include them hit or miss later on. Figures in the text are primarily to give
a correct general impression; more quantitative results if needed belong in an appendix.
Remember that every figure and every table must be keyed to the text by a specific reference.
The reference should come as early as possible in the related discussion and it should precede the
figure or table to which it refers.

FORM OF REPORTS
Reports may vary in completeness from a simple reporting of the raw data to elaborate studies
including theoretical analyses; they may vary in length from a few sentences in the case of
routine tests following some standard code, to many pages in the case of research work; they may
vary in scope from a study of small part to an analysis of a complete machine; and they may vary
in style according to the person or persons to whom they are addressed. In spite of all these
variations, there are certain elements common to most good reports:
• a meaningful title
• a concise, but informative, abstract
• an introduction that properly briefs the reader
• an accurate, clear, and compact presentation of the message

Since formal technical report is an all-inclusive reporting medium, it will be used here to
illustrate the forms in which the above elements may be included in a laboratory project report:
• cover
• title page
• abstract
• table of contents
• foreword
• body of report
• appendix

Cover and title page. The cover should carry a label that identifies the report and the author(s).
The title page should carry these items plus the name of the group leader and members of his
group, the name of the project supervisor, the name of the place where the work was done, and
the date. The title itself should contain key words that identify the investigation. It should reveal
the thesis of the message.

Abstract. The abstract is the report in miniature. It must be self-sufficient, and the report must
be self-sufficient without it. Since abstracts must be brief (short enough to get on a 3 x 5 card)
they emphasize important results, conclusions, and recommendations. Together with the title, an
abstract states the thesis of the investigation, supported by key data. For example, a good abstract
will answer such questions as: How much will the design cost? Should the project be continued
or abandoned? Which process is superior? Is the situation “go” or “no go”?

For convenience of discussion, abstracts may be divided into two categories: indicative and
informative. The indicative abstract amounts to a prose table of contents. It says that such and
such a design is investigated, and the operation of a prototype is described. The informative
abstract, on the other hand, gives actual information concerning the main specifications and
parameters. Unless company regulations dictate otherwise, the informative abstract is the one to
use. An example of an abstract prepared for a materials-laboratory report and designed to fit on a
3x5 card is given below.

Failure of Pipe Flanges

Levine, Mike May 4, 1970

Three ½ in. O.D. pipe flanges of cast iron, aluminum, and brass were tested in simulated
conditions on a tensile testing machine. The fracture occurred partly on the predicted 45
degree planes, while the actual load for fracture was 15% higher than estimated from limit
analysis based on the yield strength of the material.
Table of Contents (optional). The table of contents is reserved for a lengthy report, usually one
that will be used as a reference and therefore will be consulted frequently. Its function is to serve
as an outline and an index.

Foreword (optional). The foreword is a “service” element of a report. It supplies general

orientation and background. Why was the report written? Under what special circumstances?
Who authorized it? How should the report be used? It also often is used to convey
acknowledgments for assistance rendered.

Introduction. The introduction should convince the reader that there is a need for a study and
report on the subject at hand. In reports on routine inspection tests, this need may be taken for
granted, or simply referred to in a phrase; in reports on research projects it usually is necessary to
describe the prior state of the art, how the problems arose, and the purpose of the present
investigation.

Theoretical analysis (if needed). If the theoretical structure on which a report is based is novel or
especially involved or important, then the theory should be developed to give an idea of what is
known about the problem without testing, and what experimental knowledge is necessary to
derive the equation for the stress in a simple beam, but if the object were to determine the stress
in a part of complicated shape, then the theoretical solution would be of interest. Equation
numbers near the right margin are used for identification and reference.

Experimental procedure (if needed). This section of the report describes the material, equipment,
and method of testing in sufficient detail so that one skilled in the art could repeat the tests. This
detail varies with the audience to whom the report is addressed. If it is addressed to a co-worker
in the same laboratory, less detail is required then if it were intended for the engineering
profession in general. On the other hand, a junior co-worker may need more than an experienced
engineer elsewhere.

Results and discussion. The results are most effectively presented in graphical form. Give an
estimate of their accuracy in terms of an estimated uncertainty. The discussion should include a
comparison of the results with what would be expected from theory or from related testing where
this is appropriate. The results and discussion should lead the reader to a firm belief in the
conclusions, which are an answer to the problem originally set forth, or else to recommendations
for further work to get an answer. In a long report, the results and discussion may be separated;
in the limiting case of a short report, they may be combined into a sentence or two.

Conclusions (and recommendations). It is well to recapitulate the conclusions in a separate

section, so that they leave the reader with a strong impact and provide a ready reference.

If recommendations are in order, they may be listed in a separate section following the
conclusions or combined as a subsection with the conclusions. If the latter scheme is followed,
the heading would read “Conclusions and recommendations.”
Appendix (if needed). References, data, calculations should be included in the appendix, in order
that they will not interrupt the train of thought of the main report. References should be given for
unfamiliar empirical constants, for theoretical analyses whose results are included in the report,
and for detailed description of often omitted from a report, or included only in abbreviated form,
with the original filed in the laboratory headquarters.

Writing Style
Say things simply and directly. Avoid pretentious language; it will confuse ten people for every
one it impresses.

Use the passive voice for straight reporting. When describing what you did and how you did it,
use the passive voice if the agent (you) is clearly implied. If, however, you are reporting action
taken by someone else, you should name the agent and use the active voice.

Prefer the active voice in expressing opinion. “I believe” is clear; “It is believed that” (meaning
“I believe”) is not. If you are instructed not to use the first person, substitute “the writer” for “I”.

Choose the proper tense. In reporting action completed, use the simple past tense (a time in the
past not extending to the present). Even though you may have just finished an experiment,
consider it over and done with at the time of reporting. Do not use the present tense to describe
action completed (the “historical” present). Reserve the present tense to describe and action or
condition existing at the time of writing (such as an opinion) and also to express the something
that is universally true.
• “The component was tested.” (simple past action)
• “The group recommends that the experiment be repeated.” (present opinion)
• “A body in motion tends to remain in motion.” (universal truth)

Control the pace. The pace at which information is fed to a reader is proper if he can understand
what you are saying as he reads along. (He should not have to stop and reread). Whenever your
material is complex or heavily detailed, slow down on your pace, especially if the subject is
unfamiliar ground to the reader. You can achieve this adjustment by breaking long, overcrowded
sentences into a series of two or three short sentences and by building short paragraphs.

Eliminate all deadwood. “Deadwood” refers to words and phrases that are not working for you
but just going along for the ride:
• completely eliminate (eliminate)
• it is shown in the figure that (the figure shows)
• due to the fact that (because)
• take into consideration (consider)
• make an approximation as to how much (estimate)

Cut down on “it” constructions. They have a thousand variations, usually victims of the passive
voice:
• it is apparent that (apparently)
• it should be noted that (note that)
• it is essential that X (X must)
• it is needless to say that (why say it, then?!)

Prefer the simple, familiar word. Word choice is governed by meaning. Most technical words
have single meanings; therefore, the problem of usage is one of definition; should the word be
defined for the reader? Plain English words, however, usually have many meanings. When you
have a choice among words to express a given idea, prefer the simple, familiar word to the
uncommon, ornate one. For example, why say “evince” if you mean show?

Get out of the jargon rut. Jargon and coinages weaken the writing. They can be vague,
unintelligible, time-consuming and dull. A newly coined word is just a hole in a sentence until
the reader is told what it means. Here are some examples of jargon:
• “The court at first considered the prisonization was the proper treatmentalism, but eventually
decided that domicilarization was more suited to the prisoner.”
• “The materials were put in twelve-quart measures for volumetric assessment.”
• “Weather-wise, it is going to rain.”

Avoid meaningless qualifiers. If you feel that you must qualify a statement, make sure that your
qualification is meaningful. (Ask yourself: “Will all my readers interpret what I have to say in the
same way?”)
• “The project will cost well under a million dollars” is not meaningful. “The project will cost
between $500,000 and $700,00 is meaningful because it sets specific limits.

Put subordinate thoughts in subordinate constructions. If you are expressing two (or more)
thoughts in a single sentence that are not of equal importance or weight. Put the primary thought
in primary grammatical construction and the secondary thought in a subordinate (secondary)
construction.
• “This value is shown in the table and is 50 volts.”
REVISED: “This value, shown in the table, is 50 volts.”

Note: the conjunction “and” should be used to connect thoughts of equal weights.

Mechanics
HEADINGS
• Main headings should be centered, and underlined, with principal words in initial-caps.
• First degree subheadings should be flush to the left hand margin, with only the first word in
initial caps. Underlining is recommended.
• Second degree subheadings should be indented 5 spaces and underlined, with the continuing
on the same line.
• Supply extra lines (“white space”) on the top and bottom of all headings so that they stand
out from the text. Use the format of this guide as a specimen.
• It is not customary to use the punctuation at the end of a heading, except after a second-
degree sub-heading, or when the heading asks a question.

Numbering the headings. We recommend that you number your headings and subheadings. Two
possibilities are:

• Decimal System:

1. Main heading
1.1 First degree subheading
1.1.1 Second degree subheading. . .text. . . .

• Combination System :

I. Main heading
A. First degree subheading
1. second degree subheading. Text. . .
a. third degree subheading. Text. . .

Numbering figures. Number all figures (curves, drawings, photographs, block diagrams,
schematics) in the Arabic system. Place the number at the bottom of the illustration. Number all
tables in capital roman numerals. Place table numbers at the top of each table. Always supply
captions to figures and titles to tables. For the reader’s convenience, put figures and tables on the
page following the first reference. (If they are referred to from many different places in the
report, put them all at the end. Printers prefer them that way.)

Numbering Equations. In any derivation that contains more than just a few equations, it is
customary to number the equations serially. Each equation number is enclosed in parentheses
and is usually placed at the right-hand margin opposite the equation takes up more that one line,
place the equation number opposite the last line.

In referring to equations in the text, it is not necessary to enclose the equation number in
parentheses. For example:

• “Values of these parameters may be obtained by making proper substitutions in Equation

(11).”

In this construction, the parentheses are separating the inseparable. The name of the equation is
Equation (11). It may be abbreviated as Eq. 11, except at the beginning of a sentence. For a long
piece of writing, such as a thesis, equations can be numbered by sections or chapters: Equation
2.14 means the fourteenth equation in Section 2 or Chapter 2.
Numerals in text. Don’t be afraid to use the numerals freely in technical writing (except at the
beginning of a sentence). The injunction to spell out numbers applies chiefly to non-technical
writing.

• Logical exceptions: . . .two 12-inch pipes (not 2 12 inch)

. . .5 billion

References to the literature. You are undoubtedly familiar with the custom of using superscripts
to refer to literature sources contained in footnotes or in a separate List of References at the end
of the text. Of the two systems, prefer the listing at the end if you have more than just a few
sources. Footnotes distract the reader and therefore should be kept to a minimum. (It would be
foolish to make a separate list for just two references, however.)

Another system, not so well known but actually more helpful to the reader, is to omit the
superscript and substitute the last name of the author(s) and the date of publication. The list of
references also is different, the date of each publication coming directly after the name of the
author. The following list illustrates the system.

For similar treatments of the definition of stress and strain and the equation of equilibrium, see
Crandall and Dahl (1959), Chapter 4; Eirich (1956), Chapter 2; and Timoshenko and Goodier
(1951), Chapters 8 and 9. The treatment of infinitesimal strains by Jaeger (1956) is at a
comparable level, but Jaeger goes much further in discussing the transformation of components
of strain and also in discussing some definitions suitable for large strains. Green and Zerna
(1954), Love (1944), Muskhelishvili (1953), and Sokolnikoff (1956) treat finite strains and also
present the definition of strain in a general tensor form which is suitable for curvilinear as well as
rectangular coordinate systems. These latter books present the theory of elasticity at the graduate
level.
• Bridgeman. P.W. Studies in Large Plastic Flow and Fracture. New York: McGraw-Hill.
1952
• Cook, N.H. Physical Measurement and Analysis. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. 1963
• Cosserat, E. and Cosserat F. Théorie des corps déformables. Paris: Hermann. 1909
• Crandell, S.H. and Dahl, H.C. (eds.) An Introduction to the Mechanics of Solids. New York:
McGraw-Hill. 1959
• Durelli, A.J., Phillips, E.A. and Taao, C.H. Introduction to the Theoretical and Experimental
Analysis of Stress and Strain. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1958
• Eirich, F.R. (ed.) Rheology: Theory and Applications, Vol. 1. New York: Academic Press.
1956.
• Franklin, P. Methods of Advanced Calculus. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1944
• Frocht, M.N. Photoelasticity, Vols. 1 & 2. New York: Wiley. 1948
• Green, A.E. and Zerns, W. Theoretical Elasticity. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1954
Standard abbreviations. Symbols and abbreviations should conform to accepted standards in the
field (Winer, 1975).

Table I: Names of International Units

Physical Quantity Name of Unit Symbol Basic Units

length metre m

mass kilogram kg

time second s

temperature kelvin K
-1
frequency hertz Hz (s )

velocity metre per second m/s

angular velocity radian per second rad/s

2
acceleration metre per second m/s
squared
2
force newton N (kg m/s )
2
pressure and stress pascal Pa (N/m )
2
dynamic viscosity pascal-second Pa s (N s/m )

work, energy, quantity of joule J (N m)

heat

power watt W (N m/s)

-1 -1
specific heat joule per kilogram Kelvin J kg K
-1 -1
thermal conductivity watt per metre Kelvin Wm K

For the uninitiated reader, the basic units are clearer than the names (e.g. Nm-2 for Pa, N s/m2 for
Pa s). Powers of 10 are already being given with exponential notation: 1 Btu = 1.055 E3 J.

Table I: Names of International Units

Factor by which Prefix Symbol
Unit is Multiplied
12
10 tera T
3
10 giga G
4
10 mega M
2
10 kilo k
2
10 hecto h
10 deka da
 -1
10 deci d
-2
10 centi c
-3
10 milli m
-6
10 micro
-9
10 nano n
-22
10 pico p
-11
10 femto f
-33
10 atto a

Preparing Figures. The appendix contains recommended forms that you can trace over to help
you make plots (they are adapted from ASME [1947]). To save time, make even your rough
plots with these forms as underlays; you can then trace your final figures directly. To choose the
best underlay, remember that for good reproduction as slides and for 2-to-1 reduction for a
printed paper, the plots should be about 5 inches wide by 3.5 inches high. In a few cases you
may wish to extend your plot to a full seven inches high or to turn it on the paper for viewing
from the right, with the x-axis seven inches long and the y-axis five inches high.

With the overall size chosen, select the form with the proper scale on the basis of these three
guidelines:
1. The range of variables should include not only all the data, but also such limiting significant
values as zero, unity, or an ideal value. Practically unimportant errors will then usually
appear unimportant. Remember that doubling the scale only adds about another third of a
decimal place, so it is rarely worthwhile. Precise data belong in tables, or as differences from
and ideal value.
2. In families of plots, use the same scales on each to highlight the differences and similarities
between plots.
3. Generally use a linear scale. (Use a logarithmic scale only where the range of interest
extends over many orders of magnitude, where there are theoretical reasons to fit a
logarithmic relation, or where data are perceived logarithmically, as in seeing or hearing.

With these guidelines in mind, select the appropriate form in the appendix for the ranges of
variables you need over your height of plot. For instance, in plotting the efficiency of a torque
converter as a function of fraction of rated speed, the variables will run from zero to unity in each
direction, so use the form labeled “horizontal rectangles,” which fits the desired ranges of a
multiple of 10 in a space 3-1/2 inches high by 5 inches wide. For all forms the corresponding
scales provide smallest divisions of one, two or five units in some decimal place, which follows
professional society recommendations, and which has been shown by psychological testing to
lead to more accurate reading than other subdivisions (Chapanis, Garner, Morgan, 1949; ASME,
1947).

Slip your selected underlay under a sheet of translucent tracing paper or even ordinary white
paper. Draw the border of the plot, but indicate the scale simply with tic marks around the
boundary to avoid obscuring your curves and labels with a grid. Use the symbols shown in the
left margin of the underlays, not dots, for points. As an aid to the reader, label curves directly
rather than through a symbol code. Avoid color because of the cost of reproduction. Use
lettering at least as large as the guidelines on the underlay indicate. Lower case letters are easier
to read but capital letters are more common.

If a large number of decimal places is required, label the last numbered coordinates on the scale
with the appropriate exponent (for example 50 x 103) or label the axis as “stress in thousands of
psi”. Avoid the form “stress x 10-3”; it is too often misused or misread. Place your figure
number and caption at the bottom of the sheet.
 Final Report Writing

Questions Report Attempts to Answer Basic Outline

What is the problem studied? Problem Statement / Introduction
What have other researchers found that is relevant? Literature Review
How did you attack the problem? Methods / Materials
What did you find out? Results
What does it mean? Discussion
Summary

KEY POINTS:
• Do not write a diary
• Do not derive and describe previous well known
methods

• Use subtitles!!!
• Define all terms (empathize with your audience)
• Revision, revision, revision …
• Decide how your report will sound to a junior in BE
402 (not currently doing any project) – if you do not
think he/she could understand it, rewrite it so that the
student could
 Research Reports
(MORE DETAIL)

PURPOSE OF REPORT:

• Convince the reader of the existence of a scientific

problem

• Give results of ‘experiments” which help solve problem

• Explain how experiments were conducted so that reader

believes veracity of results

• Draw conclusions, make suggestions

 More Complete Outline for
Final Report Content

MAJOR SECTIONS:
• Title Page
• Abstract (always one page)
• Table of Contents
• Glossary (List of Symbols)
• Introduction
⇒ problem statement
⇒ previous approaches and current limitations (brief review of literature)
⇒ scope of manuscript (your approach or what you did and how the report is organized)
⇒ summary of conclusions (get reader interested immediately)
• Detailed Background (literature)
• methods (again, not historical)
⇒ theory (mathematics and derivations)
⇒ experimental methods, materials used
• Results
⇒ data and/or simulations
⇒ well-thought-out graphs and tables which speak for themselves and show
(comparisons) the message you think the data indicates (again, not historical)
• Discussion
⇒ meaning (consequences) of results
⇒ focus on most significant results first – leave interesting but only speculative results
to the end
⇒ through words and the evidence in the results you must draw the reader to the same
conclusions you came to or else he will dismiss your work
⇒ likewise for speculations (do you have a right to them based on the data presented?)
• Summary and Recommendations
⇒ restate what you have accomplished and how it impacts on the problem you tried to
solve
⇒ re-justify your effort
⇒ suggest future directions
• References
• Appendices (detailed information that distracts from flow of report body, e.g. side derivations)
• Figure Legends if not in Report
 Methods to Help Write the Report

• Outline, outline, outline – then write

• Write the complete introduction then revise outline

• In some cases, it may be easier to write complete

introduction first then outline

• Do not be impressed with your first draft – 99% of the time

it stinks

• Do not read draft immediately – revise it the next day

• Remember, you are not writing for your advisor, but for a
much more general audience
 BE 466 Senior Project

ANNOUNCEMENTS:

• Presentation day is first reading day – all day plan ahead!!!

WRITTEN REPORTS:

• First draft to technical advisor by the Friday before due date

• Final draft signed off on by technical advisor due in my office no later than
5:00PM, Friday, before oral presentation (with abstract)

• Group projects can hand in a single report with technical advisor’s consent

SUGGEST:

• By _______ have outline prepared

• By _______ write intro (use proposal and progress reports to help)

• Over following weekend, write body and begin discussion

• Finish discussion and write body over the last two weeks of April

Note: LEAVE SOME GAPS IF EXPECTING LAST-MINUTE

DATA, BUT WRITE AS MUCH AS YOU CAN NOW
I. Problems statement and brief introduction
II. Summary of conclusion and recommendations
A. Effluent should build a new facility
B. Expanding the present facility not sufficient
1. Would be in adequate within ten years
2. Would be too expensive as a short term solution.
III. Background
A. Brief history of the plant
B. Current status
1. Description of the facility
2. Demand
3. Cost to operate
C. EPA / state violations
1. Legal basis
2. Probable consequences
IV. Scope of this study
A. Alternative investigated
B. Methods
V. Criteria
A. Must meet projected demands for the next 20 years
B. Must comply with regulations
C. Must see cost guidelines
1. Initial cost
2. Operating cost
VI. Evidence
A. Projected demand-demographics
B. Regulations and standards
VII.Comparison of alternative
A. Build
1. Adequacy
2. Time necessary to build
3. Cost
B. Expand
1. Adequacy
2. Time
3. Cost
VIII.Conclusion
A. Building would meet all criteria
B. Expanding would not
IX. Recommendation: build
(This section or appendix could include specifications for the new plant.)

Figure I Outline of Report, Example One

 DESIGN OF A HIGH-EFFICIENCY SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM
B. A. Smith
Energy Technologies, Inc., Wayward, Massachusetts

ABSTRACT
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Current design trends in solar energy
B. Need for higher efficiencies
C. New design approaches
1. Dual concentrator collector array
2. Improved transport fluids
II. THEORY OF THE DUAL CONCENTRATOR COLLECTOR ARRAY
A. Principle of multistage concentration of light rays
1. Use of both Fresnel lenses and mirrors for tracking arrays.
2. Method of successive concentrations.
B. Comparative analysis of collector arrays
1. Energy gain calculations
2. Effects of adding successive array levels
3. Parasitic heat losses
C. Theoretical limits of energy concentrators
1. Comparison of lens and mirror configurations.
2. Choice of optimum design.
III. APPLICATION TO SOLAR ENERGY DESIGN
A. Basic design of the collector
1. Lens system
2. Mirror system
3. Minimization of heat loss
B. Design of storage tanks, circulation loop, and heat exchanger
C. Selection of transport fluid
1. Properties: high heat capacity, low corrosion
2. Advantages over water
IV. OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
A. Collector array performance
1. Incident solar energy
2. Collector efficiencies
B. Heat transfer performance
1. Using water as transport fluid
2. Choice of 64/36 ratio of propylene glycol/water
C. Cost Efficiency
1. Data for dual concentrator design
2. Comparison with flat-plate array designs
V. CONCLUSIONS
A. Significance of the concepts
1. Multistage concentrator
2. Transport fluid with high heat capacity
B. Energy efficiencies of the system
C. Limitations of the design
D. Cost savings
E. Potential application to other design problems
VI. REFERENCES
VII. APPENDIX: Derivation of energy gain algorithm
Figure 2 Outline of Report, Example Two