Chapter2 Carbohydrates 1

Chapter 2
Carbohydrates –
Structure and
Function
Chapter 18
Table of Contents
18.1 Occurrence and Functions of Carbohydrates

18.3 Classification of Carbohydrates
18.4 Classification of Monosaccharides
18.5 Biochemically Important Monosaccharides
18.6 Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides
18.7 Haworth Projection Formulas
18.8 Reactions of Monosaccharides
18.9 Disaccharides
18.10 Oligosaccharides
18.11 General Characteristics of Polysaccharides
18.12 Storage Polysaccharides
18.13 Structural Polysaccharides
18.14 Acidic Polysaccharides
18.15 Dietary Considerations and Carbohydrates
18.16 Glycolipids and Glycoproteins: Cell Recognition
18.17 Unavailable Carbohydrates
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 2

Section 18.2
Occurrence and Functions of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates • storehouse of chemical energy

(glucose, starch, glycogen)
• The most abundant class of – a gram of digested
bioorganic molecules on earth carbohydrate gives about 4
• produced by the kcal of energy
photosynthetic activity of the – complex carbohydrates are
green plants best for diet
• also referred to as saccharides • supportive structural components
because of the sweet taste of in plants and some animals
(cellulose, chitin)
many carbohydrates
• form part of the structural
• (Latin, saccharum, meaning framework of DNA & RNA
sugar) • carbohydrate “markers” on cell
surfaces play key roles in cell-cell
recognition processes.

Section 18.3
Classification of Carbohydrates
• Simpler Formula: • Classification based on
– CnH2nOn or Cn(H2O)n products of acid hydrolysis:
(hydrates of C) • Monosaccharides
– n= number of atoms – the simple sugars
• polyhydroxy aldehydes or – contain a single polyhydroxy
aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone
polyhydroxy ketones or unit
compounds that produce such – cannot be degraded into simpler
substances upon hydrolysis. products by hydrolysis reactions
– pure monosaccharides are water-
soluble, white, crystalline solids
• Disaccharides
– contains 2 monosaccharide units
covalently bonded to each other
– crystalline and water soluble
substances
– upon hydrolysis they produce
monosaccharides

Section 18.3
Classification of Carbohydrates
• Oligosaccharides
– contains 2-10 monosaccharide – homopolysacchrides – polymers
units - covalently bonded of a single monosaccharide
– disaccharides are the most (glycogen, cellulose, starch)
common type – heteropolysaccharides – contain
– trisaccharides (raffinose) more than one kind of
monosaccharide (hyaluronic acid,
– tetrasaccharides (stachyose) heparin, chondroitin sulfate)
– free oligosaccharides, other than
disaccharides, are less common • Derived carbohydrates
in nature – those where carbohydrate
– usually found associated with moieties have undergone some
proteins and lipids in complex reactions converting them into
molecules that serve structural other products
and regulatory functions – sugar acids, sugar alcohols,
deoxysugars, and sugar amines
• Polysaccharides
– consist of tens of thousands of
monosaccharide units covalently
bonded

Section 18.8
Classification of Monosaccharides
• carbohydrates that have the

general formula CnH2nOn
– n varies from 3 – 8.
• grouped together according to
the number of carbons they
contain
– C3H6O3 triose
– C4H8O4 tetrose
– C5H10O5 pentose
– C6H12O6 hexose
– C7H14O7 heptose -presence of a ketone group is
usually indicated by using the
– C8H16O8 octose ending “___ulose” in naming the
• may either be: sugar
– an aldose – contains aldehyde - e.g., levulose
group
– a ketose – contains ketone group

Section 18.8
Exercise
Classify each of the following monosaccharides according
to both the number of carbon atoms and the type of
carbonyl group present.

Section 18.8
Exercise
Classify each of the following monosaccharides according
to both the number of carbon atoms and the type of
carbonyl group present.
Answers:
a. aldopentose; b. ketohexose;
c. aldohexose; d. ketopentose

Section 18.8
• Trioses • Pentoses
• the parent member of the • aldopentoses
family of monosaccharides
– D-(-)-lyxose
• from them emanates the other • a constituent of the heart
members of the muscle
monosaccharide family. – D-(-)-ribose
• the final form of carbohydrate • ribose and 2-deoxyribose –
into which all carbohydrates, present as intermediates in
metabolic pathways and are
regardless of their complexity, important building blocks
are degraded in the body of RNA and DNA
during carbohydrate • ketopentoses
metabolism.
– D-ribulose
• D(+)- glyceraldehyde
– D-xylulose
– an aldotriose
• Dihydroxyacetone
– a ketotriose

Section 18.8
• Hexoses • D-mannose
• the most common of all the – found in certain bacteria, fungi,
and plants
monosaccharides
– converted to usable glucose in the
• aldohexoses body, but has no real
– D-(+)-mannose physiological significance
– D-(+)-glucose
• A 5% (m/v) glucose solution
is often used in hospitals as
an intravenous source of
nourishment for patients who
cannot take food by mouth.
– D-(+)-galactose
• ketohexose
– D-(-)-fructose

Section 18.8
• Monosaccharides can be
classified based on their spatial
orientation (stereochemistry).
• A monosaccharide can be
classified as a D or L isomer,
depending on the spatial
orientation of the –H and –OH
groups attached to the carbon
atom adjacent to the terminal
primary alcohol group.
• The D isomer is represented when
the –OH is written to the right of
this carbon in the Fischer
projection formula. The L isomer is
represented when this –OH is
written to the left.

Section 18.9
Biochemically Important Monosaccharides
Glucose and Fructose

1. Most abundant in nature
2. Nutritionally most important
3. Grape fruit good source of glucose (20 -
30% by mass) -- also named grape
sugar, dextrose and blood sugar (70 -
100 mg/100 mL of blood)
4. Six membered cyclic form
1. Ketohexose
2. Sweetest of all sugars; the fruit sugar
3. Found in many fruits and in honey
4. Good dietary sugar-- due to higher
sweetness
5. Five membered cyclic form

Section 18.9
Biochemically Important Monosaccharides
Galactose and Ribose

1. A component of milk sugar
2. Synthesized in human
3. Also called brain sugar-- part of brain and
nerve tissue
4. Used to differentiate between blood types
5. Six membered cyclic form
6. Galactosemia
- a result of genetic deficiency in the infant – the gene responsible for
the enzyme that converts D-galactose to D-glucose. Such infants cannot
metabolize galactose and it builds up in the blood and tissue.
1. Part of RNA
2. Part of ATP
3. Part of DNA
4. Five membered cyclic form

Section 18.10
Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides
Hemiacetals and Hemiketals

• The dominant form of • Two types of ring structures are
monosaccharides with 5 or more possible:
C atoms is cyclic – five-membered ring, or furanose ring,
derived from parent compound furan
• Hemiacetals and hemiketals are
– six-membered ring, or pyranose ring,
formed from the reaction between derived from parent compound pyran
two functional groups: aldehyde or
ketone and alcohol
– may take place either
intermolecularly or
intramolecularly as in the case of
sugars, provided there are
sufficient number of carbons
between the aldehyde or ketone
and the alcohol group to permit a
stable ring formation
– five- or six-membered hemiacetal
rings are stable

Section 18.10
Cyclic Hemiacetal Forms of D-Glucose
• In the cyclic hemiacetals of

glucose, C1*, is now a chiral
center (an anomeric carbon)
– two anomers of D-glucose: -D-
glucose & -D-glucose
• The cyclic hemiacetals are
readily interconvertible in
aqueous solution
– this intercoversion of - and -
anomers in solution is
accompanied by a change in
specific rotation called
MUTAROTATION.
– only sugars that form hemiacetal
or hemiketal structure mutarotate.

Section 18.10
• 2 anomeric forms of D- • Any —OH group at a chiral center

that is to the right in a Fischer
glucose:
projection formula points down in
– Alpha-form: -OH of C1 and the Haworth projection formula
CH2OH of C5 are on and any —OH group to the left in
opposite sides a Fischer projection formula points
– Beta-form: -OH of C1 and up in the Haworth projection
CH2OH of C5 are on same formula.
sides 6 6
CH2 OH Anomeric CH 2OH
• Anomers: Cyclic O Carbon O OH
5 5
monosaccharides that differ 4 1
4
OH OH
1
only in the position of the OH
2 OH OH
2
3 Anomeric
substituents on the anomeric OH
3
OH Carbon
carbon atom. a-D-Glucose b-D-Glucose

Section 18.10
• All aldoses with five or more • Fructose and other ketoses
carbon atoms establish similar with a sufficient number of
equilibria, but with different carbon atoms also cyclize
percentages of the alpha, beta,
and open-chain forms

Section 18.11
Haworth Projection Formulas
Practice Exercise
• Which of the monosaccharides glucose, fructose, galactose, and

ribose has each of the following structural characteristics? (There
may be more than one correct answer for a given characteristic)
a. It is a pentose.
b. It is a ketose.
c. Its cyclic form has a 6-membered ring.
d. Its cyclic form has two carbon atoms outside the ring.

Section 18.11
Haworth Projection Formulas
Practice Exercise
• Which of the monosaccharides glucose, fructose, galactose, and

ribose has each of the following structural characteristics? (There
may be more than one correct answer for a given characteristic)
a. It is a pentose.
b. It is a ketose.
c. Its cyclic form has a 6-membered ring.
d. Its cyclic form has two carbon atoms outside the ring.
Answers:
a. Ribose
b. Fructose
c. Glucose, galactose
d. Fructose

Section 18.12
Reactions of Monosaccharides
• Five important reactions of monosaccharides:

– Oxidation to acidic sugars
– Reduction to sugar alcohols
– Phosphate ester formation

– Amino sugar formation
– Glycoside formation
• These reactions will be considered with respect to
glucose; other aldoses, as well as ketoses, undergo
similar reactions.
Section 18.12
Oxidation
• Gives three different types of
acidic sugars depending on the
type of oxidizing agent used:
– Weak oxidizing agents like
Tollens and Benedict’s solutions
oxidize the aldehyde end to give
an aldonic acid.
– Strong oxidizing agents can
oxidize both ends of a
monosaccharide at the same time
to produce aldaric acid.
– In biochemical systems enzymes
can oxidize the primary alcohol
end of an aldose such as
glucose, without oxidation of the
aldehyde group, to produce an
alduronic acid.

Section 18.12
Reduction
• The carbonyl group in a
monosaccharide (either an
aldose or a ketose) is reduced
to a hydroxyl group using
hydrogen as the reducing
agent.
– product is the
corresponding polyhydroxy
alcohol, sugar alcohol
– e.g., Sorbitol (glucitol) -
used as moisturizing
agents in foods and
cosmetics and as a
sweetening agent in
chewing gum
Section 18.12
Redox Reactions of Monosaccharides

Section 18.12
Redox Reactions of Monosaccharides

• Under prescribed conditions, • The Benedict, Barfoed, and
Fehling tests are based on the
some sugars reduce silver ions
formation of a brick red copper(I)
to free silver and copper(II) oxide precipitate as a positive
ions to copper(I) ions. Such result while the Tollens test is
sugars are called reducing based on the formation of a silver
sugars. mirror.
• A reducing sugar will have one
of the following groups. • The Barfoed test is more sensitive
• an aldehyde group (as in in that it can distinguish a reducing
glyceraldehyde) monosaccharide from a reducing
• a hydroxyketone (as in fructose) disaccharide.
• a cyclic hemiacetal group (as in
glucose and maltose)
• The sugars are oxidized to
carboxylic acids and the metal
ions are reduced

Section 18.12

Section 18.12
Reducing sugars
• Sugars with the hemiacetal • Many clinical tests that monitor
structure can be reducing sugars color change are based on the
under alkaline conditions because oxidation reaction shown here.
the ring opens forming an
aldehyde group.

Section 18.12
Phosphate Ester Formation

• The hydroxyl groups of a
monosaccharide can
react with inorganic
oxyacids to form
inorganic esters.
• Phosphate esters of
various monosaccharides
are stable in aqueous
solution and play
important roles in the
metabolism of
carbohydrates.
Section 18.12
Amino Sugar Formation

• One of the hydroxyl groups of
a monosaccharide is replaced
with an amino group
• In naturally occurring amino
sugars the carbon 2 hydroxyl
group is replaced by an amino
group
• Amino sugars and their N-
acetyl derivatives are important
building blocks of
polysaccharides such as chitin
and hyaluronic acid

Section 18.12
Glycoside Formation
• The cyclic forms of
monosaccharides, the
hemiacetals, react with
alcohols to form acetals (also
called glycosides)
• A glycoside is an acetal
formed from a cyclic
monosaccharide by
replacement of the hemiacetal
carbon —OH group with an —
OR group to form a double
ether
• A glycoside produced from
glucose - glucoside
• from galactose – galactoside
Section 18.12
p622
Section 18.13
Disaccharides
• The two monosaccharides are • Condensation of the hydroxyl
linked together by acetal function of the hemiacetal
formation to form disaccharide group of one monosaccharide
• One monosaccharide act as a with the hydroxyl group of
hemiacetal and other as another monosaccharide forms
alcohol and the resulting ether the bond, called a glycosidic
bond is a glycosidic linkage. bond, joining the 2 saccharide
units.

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Maltose (reducing sugar)
– -1,4-glycosidic bond means that
• Malt sugar, found in corn syrup,
the first sugar is in -configuration
malt, and germinating seeds and its C#1 is linked to C#4 of the
• consists of two molecules of second sugar component
glucose joined by -1,4-glycosidic – the second sugar may be either
bond an α- or a β-anomer.

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Maltose (reducing sugar)

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Cellobiose (reducing disaccharide)

• one of the major fragments • the 2 glucose units are joined
isolated after extensive by a -1,4-glycosidic linkage
hydrolysis of cellulose
• Maltose is digested easily by

humans because we have
enzymes that can break α-
(14) linkages but not β-
(14) linkages of cellobiose
Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Lactose (reducing disaccharide)

• Lactose intolerance: a condition in
• Milk sugar which people lack the enzyme
– human - 7%–8% lactose lactase needed to hydrolyze
– cow’s milk - 4%–5% lactose lactose to galactose and glucose.
• consists of -galactose with a • Lactose intolerance is unpleasant,
-1,4-glycosidic linkage to - but its effects can be avoided by a
glucose (or -glucose) diet that rigorously excluded milk
and milk products.

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
• Galactosemia: the genetic disease
Lactose intolerance caused by the absence of the
vs Galactosemia enzymes needed for conversion of
galactose to glucose.
• When undigested, lactose attracts • A reduced form of galactose,
water causing fullness, discomfort, called dulcitol (galactitol), a toxic
cramping, nausea, and diarrhea. metabolite, is produced and
• Bacterial fermentation of lactose accumulates.
along the intestinal tract produces • If galactosemia is not treated, it
acid (lactic acid) and gas, adding leads to severe mental
to the discomfort. retardation, cataracts, and early
deaths

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Sucrose (nonreducing disaccharide)

• the common table sugar & the
most abundant of all
disaccharides found in plants.
• produced commercially from
the juice of sugar cane and
sugar beets.
• the -anomeric carbon 1 of
glucose joins the -anomeric
carbon 2 of fructose (-1,2-
glycosidic bond)

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Invert sugar
• Optical activities:
– Sucrose : +66.5
– Glucose : +53
– Fructose : -92
– Invert sugar : -39
• invert sugar has a much greater • Honeybees and many other
tendency to remain in solution. insects possess an enzyme called
invertase that hydrolyzes sucrose
• In the manufacture of jelly and
to invert sugar.
candy and in the canning of fruit,
crystallization of the sugar is • Thus honey is predominantly a
undesirable, therefore conditions mixture of D-glucose and D-
leading to the hydrolysis of fructose with some unhydrolyzed
sucrose are employed in these sucrose.
processes; in addition, fructose is
sweeter than sucrose

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Practice Exercise
• Which of these disaccharides, i.e., maltose, cellobiose, lactose, and

sucrose, have the following structural or reaction characteristics?
(There may be more than one correct answer for a given
characteristic)
a. Two different monosaccharide units are present.
b. Hydrolysis produces only monosaccharides.
c. Its glycosidic linkage is a “head-to-head” linkage.
d. It is not a reducing sugar.

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Practice Exercise
• Which of these disaccharides, i.e., maltose, cellobiose, lactose, and

sucrose, have the following structural or reaction characteristics?
(There may be more than one correct answer for a given
characteristic)
a. Two different monosaccharide units are present.
b. Hydrolysis produces only monosaccharides.
c. Its glycosidic linkage is a “head-to-head” linkage.
d. It is not a reducing sugar.
Answers:
a. Lactose, sucrose
b. Maltose, cellobiose, lactose, sucrose
c. Sucrose
d. Sucrose

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Artificial sweeteners

Section 18.13
Disaccharides
Artificial sweeteners

Section 18.14
Oligosaccharides
• Commonly found in onions, cabbage, broccoli and wheat
• In humans, intestinal bacteria action on the undigestable raffinose
and stachyose present in beans produces gaseous products that
can cause discomfort and flatulence.

Section 18.14
Oligosaccharides
• Solanin - a potato toxin, is a oligosaccharide found in association

with an alkaloid
• bitter taste of potatoes is due to relatively higher levels of solanin.

Section 18.12
Antigens used in the ABO blood group classification

Section 18.15
General Characteristics of Polysaccharides
The Polymer Chain
• many monosaccharide
units bonded with
glycosidic linkages
• branched or unbranched
• homopolysaccharide or
heteropolysaccharides

Section 18.15
General Characteristics of Polysaccharides
• alternate name is glycan

• not sweet and don’t show • Homopolysaccharides
positive tests with Tollen’s and – starch
Benedict’s solutions – glycogen
• limited water solubility – cellulose
• Storage polysaccharides – chitin
– starch – carageenan
– glycogen • Heteropolysaccharides
• Structural polysaccharides – hyaluronic acid
– cellulose – heparin
– chitin
– chondroitin sulfate
• Acidic polysaccharides
– alginic acid
– heparin
– hyaluronic acid

Section 18.16
Storage Polysaccharides
Starch
• the chief caloric distributor in the diet; the reserve carbohydrates for plants
• Amylose - straight chain polymer; 15 - 20% of the starch; water-soluble fraction; 60
– 300 glucose units joined by -1,4-glycosidic bonds
• experimental evidence indicates that the molecule is actually coiled like a spring and
is not a straight chain of glucose units.
• When coiled in this fashion the molecule has just enough room in its core to
accommodate an iodine molecule.
• The characteristic blue color that starch gives when treated with iodine is due to the
formation of the amylose-I2 complex.

Section 18.16
Starch
• Amylopectin
– branched chain polymer
– 80 - 85 % of the starch
– the water-insoluble fraction
– composed of 300 – 6000
glucose units joined
primarily by -1,4-
glucosidic bonds and
occasionally by -1,6-
glucosidic bonds
– -1,6 bonds are
responsible for branching
which occurs about once
every 25-30 units.
Section 18.16
Glycogen
• the animal starch
• glucose storage molecule of
animals
• stored in granules in liver and
muscle cells
• like amylopectin, is a nonlinear
polymer of glucose units joined
by -1,4- and -1,6-glycosidic
bonds but has lower molecular
weight
• more highly branched structure
• its branches are shorter
• gives red-brown color with I2

Section 18.17
Structural Polysaccharides
Cellulose • It serves as dietary fiber in food--

readily absorbs water and results
• a fibrous carbohydrate found in all in softer stools
plants where it serves as the • 20 - 35 g of dietary fiber is desired
structural component of the plant’s everyday
cell wall
• a linear polymer of glucose units
joined by -1,4-glucosidic bonds
• linear nature of chains allows
close packing into fibers, making it
difficult for solvent molecules to
pull the chains apart, thus
cellulose is inert towards most
solvents
• Cotton ~95% cellulose and wood
~50% cellulose

Section 18.17
Cellulose
• yields D-glucose upon hydrolysis

yet man & the carnivorous animals
can’t utilize cellulose as a source
of glucose.
• human‘s digestive juices lack the
enzyme cellulase that hydrolyze -
1,4-glucosidic linkages.
• ruminants (cows, goats) and
termites have, within their
digestive tracts, microorganisms
that produce cellulase

Section 18.17
Chitin
• Similar to cellulose in both • itself is inert and practically
function and structure insoluble in most solvents. Its
• polymer of N-acetyl-D- derivative, chitosan, can be
glucosamine bound by β-1  4 prepared by simple alkali-
glycosidic linkages (has a linear catalyzed deacylation. Chitosan
extended structure like cellulose) derivatives are commercially used
• Function is to give rigidity to the as films, fibers, surface coatings
exoskeletons of crabs, lobsters, and ultrafiltration membranes
shrimp, insects, and other
arthropods

Section 18.17
• widely used in food industry
Carageenan • its gelling property is used in
enhancing the texture of various
• occurs as hydrocolloid extracted
dairy products and in preventing
from selected species of red algae
oiling off in caramel and toffee
• locally obtained from Eucheuma during hot weather
• striatum, Eucheuma spinosum • also serve as coating to retard
and Acanthapora moisture loss from foods and fresh
• sulphated polysaccharides, produce like fruits and vegetables
consisting of polymers of
sulphated D-galactopyranose
bonded through alternating α-
13 and β-14 glycosidic
linkages

Section 18.18
Acidic Polysaccharides
Hyaluronic acid • highly viscous - serve as
lubricants in the fluid of joints and
• repeating unit is a disaccharide part of vitreous humor of the eye
composed of -D-glucuronic acid
• when some insects sting, they
and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine in a
inject an enzyme called
-(13)-linkage.
hyaluronidase, which breaks
• each disaccharide is attached to hyaluronic acid linkages and
the next by -(14)-linkage facilitates the spread of the venom
• alternating -(13) and -(14)-
linkages

Section 18.18
Heparin Alginic acid
• locally extracted from Sargassum
• consists of repeating units of D-
seaweeds
glucuronic acid and D-
glucosamine • consist of repeating units of β-
14 bonded mannuronic and α-
• an anticoagulant in blood that
14 bonded L-guluronic acid; cell
inhibits blood clot formation
wall material
• used in open-heart surgery
• serves as base coatings in meats
and fish which reduces moisture
loss and fat absorption

Section 18.18
Chondroitin sulfate
• consists of repeating units of D-
glucuronic acid-D-glucosamine
sulfate
• structural role in cartilage, bone,
and cornea of the eye

Section 18.19
Dietary Considerations and Carbohydrates
Glycemic Foods
• A developing concern about intake of carbohydrates
involves how fast the given dietary carbohydrates are
broken down to glucose within the human body
• Glycemic index refers to:
– how quickly carbohydrates are digested
– how high blood glucose rises
– how quickly blood glucose levels return to normal
• Glycemic index (GI) has been developed for rating foods
• Low-GI foods are desirable

Section 18.20
Glycolipids and Glycoproteins: Cell Recognition
• A glycolipid is a lipid molecule that has one or more

carbohydrate (or carbohydrate derivative) units
covalently bonded to it.
• A glycoprotein is a protein molecule that has one or

more carbohydrate (or carbohydrate derivative) units
covalently bonded to it.
• Such carbohydrate complexes are very important in

cellular functions such as cell-cell recognition, cell
adhesion and cellular communication.

Section 18.19
• If absent fecal matter is hard, and has
Unavailable carbohydrates a long transit time.
• Long sojourn will dehydrate it and will
• those not hydrolyzed by digestive make it harder to remove.
enzymes
• It also increases the rate at which
• they constitute the dietary fiber digestive wastes move through the
• Fiber in the diet aids in the formation intestinal tract, which lessens the time
of bulk in the intestinal tract, which the intestine comes in contact with any
increases the absorption of water ingested carcinogens.
along the tract. • Some forms of diverticulitis
• Dietary fiber, as it reaches the gut, is (inflammation of the colon) have been
intact in structure where they form a relieved by increasing the quantity of
meshwork fiber in the diet.
• The meshwork has spaces where fecal • Straining at stool because of lack of
matter and water are trapped dietary fiber can lead to
• The effect is soft fecal matter which hemorrhoidsand nervous disorders.
can be easily removed.

Section 18.19
• There is also a correlation between
Dietary fiber ischaemic heart disease and gallstone
• Lack of dietary fiber may also lead to formation with the lack of dietary fiber.
overnutrition. • Cholesterol can be trapped in the
• When one does not masticate, the meshwork reducing the concentration
secretion of digestive hormones (such of blood cholesterol.
as gastrin and cholecystokinin) is not • With dietary fiber, bile will not be
induced. supersaturated with cholesterol.
• Without these hormones, it takes • In its absence, bile will be
longer to reach the feeling of satiety. supersaturated with cholesterol and
• Dietary fiber may also be beneficial in gallstone formation results.
weight maintenance. • When cholesterol is trapped plaque
• Fiber increases the bulk in the formation will be reduced.
stomach and intestines without • In the absence of dietary fiber, excess
contributing to the caloric intake. cholesterol can lead to plaque
formation leading to ischaemic heart
disorders.
• About 20-35 grams of dietary fiber
daily is a desirable intake.

Section 18.19

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Chapter 2

18.1 Occurrence and Functions of Carbohydrates

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Carbohydrates • storehouse of chemical energy

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• carbohydrates that have the

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Glucose and Fructose

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Galactose and Ribose

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Hemiacetals and Hemiketals

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• In the cyclic hemiacetals of

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• 2 anomeric forms of D- • Any —OH group at a chiral center

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• Which of the monosaccharides glucose, fructose, galactose, and

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• Which of the monosaccharides glucose, fructose, galactose, and

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• Five important reactions of monosaccharides:

– Phosphate ester formation

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Redox Reactions of Monosaccharides

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Redox Reactions of Monosaccharides

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Phosphate Ester Formation

Amino Sugar Formation

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Cellobiose (reducing disaccharide)

• Maltose is digested easily by

Lactose (reducing disaccharide)

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Sucrose (nonreducing disaccharide)

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• Which of these disaccharides, i.e., maltose, cellobiose, lactose, and

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• Which of these disaccharides, i.e., maltose, cellobiose, lactose, and

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• Solanin - a potato toxin, is a oligosaccharide found in association

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Antigens used in the ABO blood group classification

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The Polymer Chain