Hormonal Feedback and the Regulation of

the Male Reproductive Function

 An Introduction to Development

• Development
• Gradual modification of anatomical structures and
physiological characteristics from fertilization to
maturity.
 Development Embryological Development
Occurs during first two months after fertilization
• Differentiation Study of these events is called embryology
• Creation of different types of cells required in development Fetal Development
• Occurs through selective changes in genetic activity
• As development proceeds, some genes are turned off, others are
Begins at start of ninth week
turned on Continues until birth
• Fertilization
• Also called conception • Prenatal Development
• When development begins
• Fusion of two haploid gametes, each containing 23
• Embryological and fetal development stages
chromosomes.
• Produces zygote containing 46 chromosomes.
• Postnatal Development
• Commences at birth
• Inheritance
• Continues to maturity, the state of full development
• Transfer of genetically determined characteristics from
generation to generation or completed growth
• Genetics
• Study of mechanisms responsible for inheritance
 Fertilization
• Gamete
• Provides:
• Cellular organelles
• Inclusions
• Nourishment
• Genetic programming necessary to
support development of embryo for a
week
Fertilization

A secondary oocyte and

numerous sperm at the time of
fertilization. Notice the
difference in size between the
gametes.
Fertilization Oocyte at Ovulation
Occurs in uterine tube within a Ovulation releases a secondary
day after ovulation oocyte and the first polar body;
Secondary oocyte travels both are surrounded by the corona
a few centimeters radiata. The oocyte is suspended in
Spermatozoa must cover metaphase of meiosis II.
distance between vagina
and ampulla

Capacitation Corona First polar

Must occur before radiata body
spermatozoa can fertilize
secondary oocyte
Contact with secretions of
seminal glands
Exposure to conditions in
Fertilization
female reproductive tract
Zona
pellucida
 Fertilization
• Acrosomes
• Release hyaluronidase and acrosin Hyaluronidase
• Penetrate corona radiata, zona pellucida, toward oocyte
surface Enzyme breaks down bonds between adjacent follicle cells
Allows spermatozoon to reach oocyte
• Oocyte Activation
• Contact and fusion of cell membranes of sperm and oocyte Acrosin
• Follows fertilization Is a proteolytic enzyme
• Oocyte completes meiosis II, becomes mature ovum Is required to reach oocyte
 Fertilization
Polyspermy
Fertilization by more than one sperm
Prevented by cortical reaction
Cortical Reaction
Releases enzymes that:
Inactivate sperm receptors
Harden zona pellucida
Fertilization and Oocyte
Activation
Acrosomal enzymes from multiple
sperm create gaps in the corona
radiata. A single sperm then makes
contact with the oocyte membrane,
and membrane fusion occurs,
triggering oocyte activation and
completion of meiosis.
Fertilizing Second polar
spermatozoon body
 Fertilization

Pronucleus Formation
Begins
Female Pronucleus The sperm is absorbed into
Nuclear material the cytoplasm, and the female
remaining in ovum after pronucleus develops.
oocyte activation
Male Pronucleus
Swollen nucleus of
spermatozoon Nucleus of Female
Migrates to center of cell fertilizing pronucleus
spermatozoon
Fertilization

Spindle Formation and

Cleavage Preparation
The male pronucleus
develops, and spindle fibers
appear in preparation for the
first cleavage division.
Male Female
pronucleus pronucleus
 Fertilization

Amphimixis Occurs and

Cleavage Begins
Amphimixis
Fusion of female pronucleus
and male pronucleus
Moment of conception
Cell becomes a zygote with
Metaphase of first
46 chromosomes cleavage division
Fertilization is complete
 Fertilization

Cleavage Begins
Cleavage
Series of cell divisions The first cleavage division
Produces daughter cells nears completion roughly
Differentiation 30 hours after fertilization.
Involves changes in
genetic activity of some
cells but not others

Blastomeres
Gestation
Time spent in prenatal development Consists of three integrated
trimesters, each three months long

1. First Trimester
• Period of embryological and early fetal development
• Rudiments of all major organ systems appear
2. Second Trimester
• Development of organs and organ systems
• Body shape and proportions change
3. Third Trimester
• Rapid fetal growth and deposition of adipose tissue
• Most major organ systems are fully functional
The First Trimester
• First Trimester
• Includes four major stages
1. Cleavage
2. Implantation
3. Placentation
4. Embryogenesis
 Blastomeres

• Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation

• Blastocyst
• Formed by blastomeres Polar bodies

• Hollow ball with an inner cavity 4-cell stage

2-cell stage
• Known as blastocoele

DAY 1 DAY 2

First cleavage
division
DAY 0:
Fertilization

Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation

• Trophoblast
• Outer layer of cells separate outside
world from blastocoele Early morula

• Cells responsible for providing

nutrients to developing embryo DAY 3 Advanced
DAY 4 morula

Hatching
• Inner cell mass
Inner cell
• Clustered at end of blastocyst mass

• Exposed to blastocoele DAY 6

• Insulated from contact with outside

Blastocoele
environment by trophoblast
Days 7–10:
• Will later form embryo Implantation in Trophoblast
uterine wall
Blastocyst

Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation

 DAY 6 FUNCTIONAL ZONE UTERINE
OF ENDOMETRIUM CAVITY

Uterine
glands
Blastocyst

• Implantation
• Occurs seven days after DAY 7
Trophoblast
fertilization
• Blastocyst adheres to
uterine lining
• Trophoblast cells divide
Blastocoele
rapidly, creating several Inner cell
mass
layers

stages in Implantation
 DAY 8

Cellular
Syncytial trophoblast
trophoblast

• Implantation
• Cellular trophoblast
DAY 9
• Cells closest to interior of
blastocyst
Developing
• Syncytial trophoblast villi
Amniotic
cavity
• Outer layer Lacuna

• Erodes path through

uterine epithelium by
secreting hyaluronidase
Stages in Implantation
 Day 12: Gastrulation
Yolk sac

• Primitive Streak Amnion

• Migrating cells leave surface and move Ectoderm

between two layers

Mesoderm
• Creates three distinct embryonic layers, Primitive
or germ layers streak
Endoderm
Blastodisc
1. Ectoderm: consists of the superficial
Embryonic disc
cells that did not migrate into interior
of inner cell mass
2. Endoderm: consists of cells that face
blastocoele.
The Inner Cell Mass and Gastrulation
3. Mesoderm: consists of poorly
organized layer of migrating cells
between ectoderm and endoderm
 Ectodermal Contributions
• Integumentary system:
• Epidermis, hair follicles and hairs, nails, and glands
communicating with the skin (sweat glands, mammary glands,
and sebaceous glands)
• Skeletal system:
• Pharyngeal cartilages and their derivatives in adults (portion of
sphenoid, the auditory ossicles, the styloid processes of the
temporal bones, the cornu and superior rim of the hyoid bone)
• Nervous system:
• All neural tissue, including brain and spinal cord
• Endocrine system:
• Pituitary gland and adrenal medullae
• Respiratory system:
• Mucous epithelium of nasal passageways
• Digestive system:
• Mucous epithelium of mouth and anus, salivary glands
 Mesodermal Contributions
• Integumentary system:
• Dermis and hypodermis
• Skeletal system:
• All components except some pharyngeal derivatives
• Muscular system:
• All components
• Endocrine system:
• Adrenal cortex, endocrine tissues of heart, kidneys, and gonads
• Cardiovascular system: Miscellaneous:
• All components The lining of the body cavities (pleural, pericardial,
• Lymphatic system: and peritoneal) and the connective tissues that
support all organ systems
• All components
• Urinary system:
• The kidneys, including the nephrons and the initial portions of the collecting system
• Reproductive system:
• The gonads and the adjacent portions of the duct systems
 Endodermal Contributions
• Endocrine system:
• Thymus, thyroid gland, and pancreas
• Respiratory system:
• Respiratory epithelium (except nasal passageways) and associated
mucous glands
• Digestive system: Mucous epithelium (except mouth and anus),
exocrine glands (except salivary glands), liver, and pancreas
• Urinary system:
• Urinary bladder and distal portions of the duct system
• Reproductive system:
• Distal portions of the duct system, stem cells that produce gametes
 Hormones
• Human Chorionic Gonadotropin • Human Placental Lactogen (hPL)
(hCG) • Human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS)
• Appears in maternal bloodstream • Prepares mammary glands for milk production
soon after implantation • Synergistic with growth hormone at other
• Provides reliable indication of tissues
pregnancy • Ensures adequate glucose and protein is available
• Pregnancy ends if absent for the fetus

Relaxin
Placental Prolactin • A peptide hormone secreted by placenta and corpus
Helps convert mammary glands to luteum during pregnancy
active status • Increases flexibility of pubic symphysis, permitting pelvis
to expand during delivery
• Causes dilation of cervix
• Suppresses release of oxytocin by hypothalamus and
delays labor contractions
 Future head
of embryo
• Embryogenesis Thickened
neural plate
• Body of embryo begins to (will form brain)
separate from embryonic disc
Axis of future
• Body of embryo and internal spinal cord
organs start to form
Somites
• Folding, differential growth of
embryonic disc produces bulge Neural folds
that projects into amniotic cavity
Cut wall of
• Projections are head fold and amniotic cavity
tail fold
Future tail
• Organogenesis of embryo
Week 2. An SEM of the superior surface of a monkey
• Process of organ formation embryo at 2 weeks of development. A human embryo
at this stage would look essentially the same.
Weeks of Development
Weeks of Development

Medulla
oblongata
Ear
Pharyngeal
Forebrain arches
Eye

Heart
Somites

Body
stalk
Arm bud

Tail
Leg bud

Week 4. Fiberoptic view of human

development at week 4.
The First 12 Weeks of Development

Amnion

Umbilical
cord

Week 12. Fiberoptic view of human

development at week 12.
PUBERTY & MENOPAUSE
PUBERTY
Puberty is defined as the stage of physical maturation in which an
individual becomes physiologically capable of sexual reproduction.

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ENDOCRINE REGULATION OF
REPRODUCTION
Hypothalamus releases GnRH into hypothalamo-
hypophyseal portal vessels.

Anterior pituitary secretes:

 LH (luteinizing hormone).
FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone).

Primary effects of LH and FSH on gonads:

Stimulation of spermatogenesis and
oogenesis.
Stimulation of gonadal hormone secretion.
Maintenance of gonadal structure.
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ENDOCRINE REGULATION OF
REPRODUCTION

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MENOPAUSE
Characteristic of Menopause:

• Cessation of menstrual cycle

• Loss of ovarian function

• Infertility

• Drop in ovarian steroids (estrogen and progesterone)

• Rise in gonadotropin hormones

• Decrease in ovarian inhibin production

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MENOPAUSE
What Causes Menopause:
• Midlife hypothalamic changes may trigger onset of menopause.

• limited supply of ovarian follicles present at birth. Once this

reservoir is depleted ovarian cycle and menstrual cycle ceases
• Follicular reserve provides an exhaustible source of oocytes that is
established around the time of birth.

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MENOPAUSE

Hormone Replacement Therapy in Menopause:

• Estrogen is taken on a daily basis while progesterone is taken less

regularly.

• Helps alleviate symptoms such as hot flashes, vaginal dryness and

mood swings.

• Slows the progress of osteoporosis; decreased rate of fractures.

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ANDROPAUSE
• Male reproductive aging.

• Very gradual compared to menopause.

• Gradual decrease in sperm production and in testosterone

production.

• May occur after 45 to 50 years.

• Results from degenerative changes in small testicular blood vessels.

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Thank you