MP A15

Manufacturing Processes
These processes can be broadly classified into

four categories:
1. Casting Processes
2. Forming Processes
3. Fabrication Processes
4. Material Removal Processes
IIT Goa/ Mech/ RPG 1

Casting Processes
• One of the oldest known manufacturing processes

• Universally used for manufacture of a wide variety of products
• Only processes where liquid metal is used
• Requires preparation of a cavity usually in a refractory
material to resemble closely the final object to be made
• Molten metal is poured into this refractory mould cavity and
is allowed to solidify
• The object after solidification is removed from the mould

• The principal process is sand casting where sand is used as the
refractory material
• The process is equally suitable for the production of a very
small batch as well as on a very large scale
• Some other casting processes:

1. Shell Mould Casting
2. Precision Investment Casting
3. Plaster Mould Casting
4. Permanent-mould Casting
5. Die Casting
6. Centrifugal Casting

Forming Processes
• The metal is heated to a temperature, which is slightly below

the solidus temperature and then a large force is applied such
that the material flows and takes the desired shape
• The desired shape is controlled by means of a set of tools
called dies, which may be completely closed or partially
closed during manufacture
• Normally used for large-scale production rates
• Solid state manufacturing processes involving minimum
amount of material wastage and faster production

• Generally economical
• Improves mechanical properties (in many cases)
• Some metal forming processes:

1. Rolling
2. Drop Forging
3. Press Forging
4. Upset Forging
5. Extrusion
6. Wiredrawing
7. Sheet Metal Operations

Fabrication Processes
• Secondary manufacturing processes where the starting raw

materials are processed by casting or forming processes
• Involves joining pieces either permanently or temporarily so
that they would perform the necessary function
• The joining of two materials is achieved by either application
of heat and/ or pressure
• Example: Many of the steel structural constructions are first
rolled and then joined together by a fabrication process

• Some fabrication processes:
1. Gas Welding
2. Electric Arc Welding
3. Electric Resistance Welding
4. Thermit Welding
5. Cold Welding
6. Brazing
7. Soldering

Material Removal Processes
• Also known as machining processes

• Secondary manufacturing processes where the additional
unwanted material is removed in the form of chips from the
blank material by a harder tool so as to obtain the final
desired shape
• Expensive manufacturing process because more energy is
consumed and a lot of waste material is generated in the
process
• Still widely used because it delivers very good dimensional
accuracy and good surface finish
• Generates accurate contours

• The various material removal processes:
1. Turning
2. Drilling
3. Shaping and Planing
4. Milling
5. Grinding
6. Broaching
7. Sawing

Engineering Properties and their
Measurements
• Strength
• Hardness
• Ductility
• Toughness

Strength
• Strength: is the resistance offered by a material on application
of external force
• Stress:
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• Depending on the type of load applied:
1. Tensile stress
2. Compressive stress
3. Shear stress
• Strain: by application of load, the material is elastically

deformed (called Strain)
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• Deformation:
1. Elastic deformation: is that part of the deformed material which
when the applied load is removed, would spring back to its normal
shape.
2. Plastic deformation: is permanently set in a material and cannot
be regained
• Tensile Strength: measured by a tensile test carried out on a

UTM
• Stress- Strain Diagram
• Yield Strength: is the stress at elastic limit
• Ultimate Strength: is the maximum stress reached in a
material before the fracture

Hardness
• Hardness: is the resistance offered by a material to
indentation
• Moh's scale (1 - 10) of hardness is based on ten standard
minerals:
• It can generally be measured by the indentation made by a harder
material
• Diamond = 10
• The indentation made depends upon the applied load, the sharpness
of the indentor and the time for which the applied load is
maintained
• Common tests:
1. Brinell hardness test (BHN)
2. Rockwell test (R)
3. Vickers hardness test (VHS)

Ductility
• Ductility: is the measure of the amount of plastic deformation
a material can undergo under tensile forces without fracture
• Normally measured as the ratio of elongation of the material
at fracture during the tensile test to the original length
(expressed in %)
• Final value of elongation obtained during the tensile test
immediately after the fracture is taken as the ductility
• Also termed as the ability of a material to be drawn into wires
since only ductile materials can be drawn into continuous
wires without breaking in-between

• Brittleness is the property opposite to that of ductility
• Tests:
1. Tensile test
2. Bend test
3. Cupping test

Toughness
• Toughness: is the property which signifies the amount of energy
absorbed by a material at the time of fracture under impact loading
• It is the capacity to take impact load
• It can be considered as the total area under the stress-strain curve
• It is an indication of the amount of work done on the material
without causing fracture
• Toughness is a parameter consisting of both strength and ductility
• Toughness of a material is measured by means of impact tests
• Common tests:
1. Charpy impact test
2. Izod impact test

Broad Classification of Engineering Materials
Source: Manufacturing Technology – Foundry, Forming and Welding; P. N. Rao; TMH

Heat Treatment of Metals
• The process of affecting properties of metals by controlled
heating and cooling
Heat treatment of ferrous metals
• Hardening
Heat treatment of non- • Tempering
ü Austempering
ferrous alloys
ü Martempering
• Precipitation hardening • Annealing
• Age hardening • Normalising
• Case hardening
ü Case carburising
ü Cyaniding
ü Nitriding
ü Flame hardening
IIT Goa/ Mech/ RPG ü Induction hardening 18
Metal Casting Processes
• Oldest manufacturing process
• First step in manufacturing of most products
• Sequential Steps:
1. Liquefying of metallic material by properly heating it in a
suitable furnace
2. Pouring of hot molten metal into a previously made colder mold
cavity
3. Extraction of the solidified cast from the mold cavity
4. Cleaning and machining of solidified cast to shape for final use

• Successful casting operation needs, knowledge of:
1. Preparation of moulds and patterns (used to make the mould)
2. Melting and pouring of liquefied metal
3. Solidification and further cooling to room temperature
4. Defects and inspection
• Metal casting is still preferred to other conventional and

advanced processing routes for producing a large volume of
regular parts because:
1. It is economical with very little wastage.
2. The extra metal produced during each casting can be re-melted and re-
used
3. It can produce parts with complex geometrical features such as internal
cavities, hollow sections with minimal wastage of raw material and fair
dimensional accuracy
4. Casting can be used to make very small to extremely large and complex
parts
5. Practically, it is possible to cast metallic materials with very low to
reasonably high melting temperatures. Further, the mechanical properties
of a cast is usually isotropic
Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages:
1. Any intricate shapes, internal or external can be made
2. Any material, ferrous or non-ferrous can be casted
3. Required tools are simple and inexpensive
4. Cooled uniformly from all sides resulting in homogeneous castings
5. Few metals can only be processed by casting (and not by any other
processes)
6. Possible to place amount of material where exactly required giving scope
for designer to reduce weight
7. Castings of any size and weight (up to 200 tonnes) can be made
• Limitations:
1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish may not be adequate (carried out
by normal sand casting)
2. Sand casting is labour intensive process
3. Often difficult to remove defects arising out of moisture (present in sand
casting)
4. Need to go for special casting processes such as die casting for some
products
Applications
• Cylinder blocks
• Liners
• Machine tool beds
• Pistons
• Piston rings
• Mill rolls
• Wheels
• Housings
• Water supply pipes
• Bells

Pattern and Mould
• Pattern:
• Replica of the part to be cast
• Used to prepare the mould cavity
• Made up of wood or metal
• Mould:
• An assembly of two or more metal blocks, or bonded refractory
particles (usually sand) consisting of primary cavity
• Mould cavity holds the liquid material
• Mould cavity is reverse/ negative shape of the required part
• Secondary cavities for pouring and channeling the liquid material into
the primary cavity
• Acts as a reservoir, if required

Classification
• Two broad categories:
1. Expendable mold
• Used only once and is broken up to free the solidified cast
• Prepared by consolidating a refractory material, mainly sand, around a
pattern that defines the shape of the cavity
• Pattern also includes gates, runners, sprue, and risers, which are required
to fill the mold cavity
2. Permanent mold
• Life is expected to be several numbers of castings
• Easy extraction of the solidified cast without destroying the mold is
possible
• Involve the use of a high melting temperature material as the mold
(commonly referred as Die)
• Used in gravity die casting, slush casting, hot-chamber die casting,
cold-chamber die casting processes
Both expendable and permanent mold casting processes, together referred to Shape Casting
• Pattern:
1. Permanent
2. Expendable
• Expendable mold casting processes:

1. Expendable-Pattern Expendable-Mold
ü Investment casting process
ü Lost foam casting process
2. Permanent-Pattern-Expendable-Mold
ü Sand casting process
ü Shell mold casting process
ü Plaster mold and ceramic mold casting
ü Slurry mold casting process

• Simple primary shapes such as ingots, billets or slabs of
metallic materials --- by casting process
• Later-on processing --- rolling, extrusion, drawing and forging
• Shaped mold cavity not required
• Molten metal poured between two water-cooled metallic dies
• The cast withdrawn gradually as solidification progresses
• Cooled further with water-sprays
• Process:
1. Fully continuous -- Continuous casting process
ü For ferrous materials
2. Semi-continuous -- Semi-continuous or Direct-chill casting process
ü For non-ferrous materials

Cross-Section of a Sand Mould

Casting Terms - I
• Flask:
• One which holds sand mould intact
• Made up of wood or metal
• Drag: Lower moulding flask
• Cope: Upper moulding flask
• Cheek: Intermediate moulding flask (3-piece moulding)
• Pattern:
• Replica of final object
• Mould cavity is made with help of pattern
• Parting Line:
• Dividing line between two moulding flasks
• Dividing line between two halves of pattern (split pattern case)
Casting Terms - II
• Bottom Board:
• Made up of wood
• Used at start of mould making
• Pattern is initially kept on board, sand is sprinkled on it and then
ramming is done in the drag
• Facing Sand:
• Small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on inner surface
of moulding cavity
• Gives better surface finish to castings
• Moulding Sand:
• Freshly prepared refractory material used for making the mould
cavity
• Mixture of silica, clay and moisture (in proper proportion)
• Surrounds pattern while making the mould
Casting Terms - III
• Backing Sand:
• Made up of used and burnt sand
• Most of refractory material found in the mould
• Core:
• For making hollow cavities in castings
• Made up of baking sand with some binder
• Pouring Basin:
• Small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould
• Molten metal is poured into the pouring basin

Casting Terms - IV
• Sprue:
• Pipe shaped neck of the funnel
• Passage through which molten metal from pouring basin reaches
mould cavity
• Controls the flow of metal into the mould
• Sprue well is reservoir at the bottom of the sprue
• Sprue well dissipates the kinetic energy of the falling stream of
molten metal
• Runner:
• Passageway in the parting plane through which molten metal flow
is regulated so as to reach the mould cavity
• Horizontal channeled cavity
• Gate:
• Actual entry point through which molten metal enters mould cavity
Casting Terms - V
• Chaplet:
• Used to support cores inside mould cavity
• Chill:
• Metallic objects kept inside the mould
• Increases the cooling rate of castings to provide uniform or desired
cooling rate
• Riser:
• Reservoir of molten metal provided in the castings
• Hot metal flows back into the mould cavity when metal volume
reduces due to solidification
• Helps avoid defects in casting

Casting Terms - V
• Skim Bob:
• Enlargement along the runner
• Traps heavier and lighter impurities (like dross, eroded sand etc.)
• Choke:
• Smallest cross-sectional area of the runner
• Controls rate of molten flow along the runner
• Vents:
• Narrow holes
• Connects mould cavity to atmosphere
• For escape of entrapped gases in the molten metal

Sand Casting Process
• Typical foundry sand for making mould:

• Mixture of fresh and recycled sand
• Contains: around 90% Silica (SiO2); 3% Water; and 7% Clay
• Grain size and grain shape of sand particles --- decides surface quality
of casting and major mold parameters (such as strength and
permeability)

• Steps in cope-and-drag sand mould making:
1. Obtain the engineering drawing of the part to be cast

2. Select the parting line, which will decide the shape of the
cope and drag halves of the pattern
3. Make the internal cavities i.e. the cores
4. Prepare the top (cope) and the bottom (drag) halves of the
mold by using the appropriate patterns
5. Arrange both halves to complete the mould
6. Feed molten metal to the mold cavity
7. Remove the cast after solidification of the molten metal

Work-flow in Typical Sand Casting Foundry
Melting of
Pouring of
metal in
Cupola metal
Core making Casting Cooling and

Moulding shake-out cleaning
Returned Finishing
Sand sand
preparation
Shipping

Patterns
• Pattern:
• used to form the mold cavity
• replica of the object made by casting process, with following
modifications:
1. Addition of pattern allowances
2. Provision of core prints
3. Elimination of fine details which can not be obtained casting
(hence requiring further processing)

Pattern Materials
• Selection:
• size of casting
• number of castings to be made from pattern
• dimensional accuracy
• Expected life of the pattern
• Usual pattern materials: wood, metal, plastics

• Wood:
• easy availability
• low weight
• relatively cheap
• easily shaped
• absorption of moisture results in distortion and dimensional changes
(demerit)
• Suitable for large castings
• pine, mahogany, teak, walnut, deodar
• veneer type plywood, particle boards (high strength; but only flat type
patterns possible)
• Tend to wear with repeated useMech/ RPG
IIT Goa/ 41
• Metals:
• large scale production
• durable
• smooth surface finish
• closer dimensional tolerances
• cast iron, steel, brass bronze, lead alloys
• aluminium, white metal (light, easy to work, corrosion resistant)
• white metal (very small shrinkage)
• Plastics:
• low weight
• easy formability
• smooth surface
• durable
• no absorption of moisture
• dimensionally stable
• easy cleaning
• cold setting epoxy resin with suitable fillers
• no shrinkage possible (withIITsome combination)
Goa/ Mech/ RPG 42
• Polyurethane foam:
• PU foam
• a type of plastic
• belongs to family of polymers or plastics
• solid or flexible or rigid
• very light
• any shape can be formed
• low ash content
• Pattern can be burnt inside the mould (without withdrawing)

Characteristics of Metallic Pattern Materials
Pattern Metal Advantages Disadvantages
Good machinability Low strength
High corrosion resistance High cost
Aluminium Alloys
Low density
Good surface finish
Good machinability Corrosion prone
Grey Cast Iron
High strength High density
Low cost
Good surface finish Corrosion prone
Steel High strength High density
Good surface finish High cost
Brass & Bronze High strength High density
High corrosion resistance
Good machinability High cost
Lead Alloys
High density
Low strength
Pattern Materials based on Expected Life
Number of castings produced Pattern material

before pattern equipment
repair
Pattern Core
2000 2000 Hard wood
Small castings 6000 6000 Aluminium, plastic
(under 600 mm)
100000 100000 Cast iron
Medium castings 1000 750 Hard wood
( 600 – 1800 mm)
3000 3000 Aluminium, plastic
Large castings 200 150 Soft wood
(above 1800 mm) 300 500 Hard wood metal reinforced

Pattern Types
• Solid/ single piece pattern:
• simplest type
• involves no joint, partition or loose pieces
• duplicates the part to be cast, and modified only by the shrinkage and
machining allowances
• used when the shape (job) is simple
• small scale production
• prototype development
• Inexpensive
• usually entirely in drag
• difficult if no flat surface for job

• Spilt/ two piece pattern:
• Consist of two halves
• One-half of the patterns rests in drag and the other half in cope
• Parting line (split surface) separates the two parts
• used when moderate quantities of a casting is required
• two halves of pattern area aligned using dowel pin which is fitted to
cope half of pattern

• Match plate pattern:
• patterns are made by permanently fastening the cope and drag
segments of a split pattern to the opposite sides of a single wood or
metal match plate
• the necessary gates and runners are also incorporated on the match
plate
• after moulding, match plate is removed to get a complete mould
• for small castings, high dimensional accuracy, large production
Source: Manufacturing Technology –IIT

Foundry, Forming
Goa/ Mech/ RPG and Welding; P. N. Rao; TMH 48
• Loose piece pattern:
• used for relative larger sized cast with complex geometry
• used when one-piece or split pattern cannot be removed from
molding sand
• obstructing part of contour is held as loose piece by a wire
• after main pattern is removed, loose pieces are removed through gap
generated by main pattern
• high skill requirement
• expensive

• Cope and drag pattern:
• used when large quantities of a cast are the requirement or the
casting is large/ heavy
• cope and drag segments are attached on separate match plates
• allows independent molding of cope and drag segments of a mold

• Sweep pattern:
• normally made of wood
• used to generate surfaces of revolution in large castings
• the term sweep refers to the section that rotates about an edge to
yield the circular section
• bell-shaped or cylindrical shaped parts
• reduces cost of 3-D pattern

• Skeleton pattern:
• consists of a simple wooden frame outlining the shape of the
casting
• Sand packed around skeleton
• for large casting of simple shape

• Gated pattern:
• gating and runner are integral with the pattern
• no hand-cutting of runners and gates is required
• increases productivity of moulder

• Follow board pattern:
• structurally weak portions of casting is supported by a follow board
• follow board closely fits the counter of weak pattern
• supports during ramming of the drag

Pattern Allowances
• pattern is always made somewhat larger than the final cast

• excess in dimension --- pattern allowances
• Shrinkage:
• metals shrink when cooled
1. Liquid shrinkage:
• reduction in volume when metals changes from liquid to solid state at solidus
temperature
• provision of risers
2. Solid shrinkage:
• Reduction in volume when metals loses temperature in solid state
• Shrinkage allowance

• Shrinkage allowance:
• takes care of the contractions of a casting during cooling
1. contraction of the liquid from the pouring temperature to the freezing
temperature
2. contraction associated with the change of phase from liquid to solid
3. contraction of the solid from the freezing temperature to the room
temperature ---- shrinkage allowance
• Factors affecting shrinkage allowance:

1. actual composition of cast
2. mould materials used
3. mould design
4. complexity of pattern
5. component size
6. linear coefficient of thermal expansion of the material being cast
• added to linear dimensions

Shrinkage Allowances for Various Metals
IIT Goa/
Source: Manufacturing Technology Mech/ RPG
– Foundry, Forming and Welding; P. N. Rao; TMH 57
• Draft:
• provision of taper on the pattern surface parallel to the direction of
withdrawal of the pattern from the mold cavity
• facilitates easy withdrawal of the pattern from the mold
• prevents damage to mould cavity while withdrawing the pattern
• Draft allowance – different for hand moulding and machine moulding
• average value of draft --- between 1/2 to 2 degree

Suggested Draft Values for Patterns

• Machining/ finish allowance:
• poor accuracy and finish of sand caste surface/ product
• cleaning also scratches the surface
• machining operations for good surface finish, dimensional accuracy
etc.
• excess in the dimensions (allowances) to be provided to pattern to
take care of the machining
• 2 -20 mm
• Factors affecting machining allowance:

1. metal cast
2. type of moulding
3. class of accuracy required on cast surface
4. complexity of surface details

Machining Allowances for Patterns for
Sand Castings

• Shake allowance:
• pattern is stroked all around vertical faces So that mold cavity is
slightly enlarged
• facilitates easy removal of pattern
• original pattern dimensions should be of reduced size
• no exact way to quantify
• Distortion allowance:
• just solidified metal is prone to distortion
• especially weaker section
• extra material provided for reducing the distortion

Core Prints
• provision made to support core inside mould cavity

Pattern Colour Code
Colour Purpose/ location/ position
Red or Orange on surfaces not to be finished and left as cast
Yellow on surfaces to be machined
Black on core prints for unmachined openings
Yellow stripes on black on core prints for machined openings
Green on seats of and for loose pieces and loose core prints
Diagonal black stripes on to strengthen the weak patterns or to shorten a casting

Moulding Materials
• Moulding Sand
• System/ Backing Sand
• Rebonded Sand
• Facing Sand
• Parting Sand
• Core Sand

Moulding Material Properties
1. Refractoriness
2. Green Strength
3. Dry Strength
4. Hot Strength
5. Permeability
6. Collapsibility
7. Reusability
8. Thermal Conductivity

Moulding Sand Composition
1. Silica Grains/ SiO2 (major portion)

2. Clay (as binder)
3. Moisture (to activate the clay and plasticity)
4. Additives (for specific properties)

Silica Sand
• Silica grains – up to as high as 96%

• Shape of grains affect moulding sand properties
• Main source – river sand
• Impurities (like other oxides such as alumina, sodium oxide,
magnesium oxide etc.) must be at minimum level
• Impurities affect fusion point of sands
• Fusion point
1. Cast Iron – 1450 ℃
2. Steels -- 1550 ℃

Zircon Sand
• Zirconium Silicate
• Expensive
• Quilon beach in Kerala
• Fusion point -- 2400 ℃
• Low coefficient of thermal expansion
• High thermal conductivity
• High chilling power
• High density
• Requires very less binder
• Used for precision castings (better surface finish)

Chromite Sand
• Crushed from chrome ore

• Requires very less binder
• Used for heavy castings (with better surface finish)

Olivine Sand
• Contains minerals – fosterite & fayalite

• Versatile/ same mixture can be used for range of steels

Clay
• Binding agent
• Provides strength
• Low cost
• Wider utility
• Clay types:
1. Fire clay/ Kaolinite – Melting point about 1760 ℃
2. Bentonite -- Melting point about 1280 ℃ ; Can absorb
more water, hence increased bonding power

Water
• Used 2 to 8%
• Helps in bonding, provides necessary strength and plasticity

Other Additives
• Cereal binder – up to 2% increases strength

• Pitch (obtained as by-product in coke making) -- up to 3%
improves hot strength
• Saw dust -- up to 2% improves collapsibility and increases
permeability
• Sea coal
• Asphalt
• Fuel oil
• Graphite
• Molasses – resistance to drying out & better bench life
• Iron oxide – improves hot strength & better surface finish
Testing Sand Properties
• Sample preparation
• Moisture content
• Clay content
• Sand grain size
• Permeability
• Specimen preparation
• Strength
• Green compression strength
• Green shear strength
• Dry strength
• Mould hardness
Other Sands
• Facing Sand
• Used next to pattern – cleaner, smoother casting surface
• Sea coal/ coal dust mixed with sand – improves mouldability & surface
finish
• Mould Wash
• Application (spraying, swabbing, painting) of carbonaceous material
(sea coal, finely powdered graphite etc.) after pattern removal
• Prevents metal penetration into sand grains & ensures good casting
finish
• Avoids mould-metal interaction and prevents sand fusion

• Backing Sand
• Reconditioned foundry sand (burnt facing sand, moulding sand, clay
etc.)
• Used for ramming the bulk of the moulding flask
• Parting Sand
• Non-sticky material – washed silica grains
• Sprinkled on pattern and to parting halves before they are prepared
• Prevents adherences of moulding sand
• Helps easy withdrawal of pattern
• Easier separation of cope & drag at parting surface

Fluidity
• Casting material’s ability to fill mould cavity
• Fluidity tests – Spiral fluidity test
• Depends on casting material and on mould
• Casting material properties:
• Viscosity of the melt
• Heat content of the melt
• Surface tension
• Freezing range
• Specific weight of liquid metal
• Mould properties:
• Thermal characteristics
• Permeability
• Mould cavity surface
Moulds Properties Requirement
• Strength to withstand temperature & weight of molten metal
• Resistance to erosive action of flowing hot metal
• Generation of minimum amount of gases
• Good venting capacity for escape of generated gases
Sand Mould Types

• Green sand moulds
• Dry sand moulds
• Skin dried moulds

Green Sand Moulds
• Prepared freshly from silica grains, clay & moisture

• Commonly used
• Rapid production
• Less floor space requirement
• No storage
• Least expensive
• Lesser tendency for hot tearing of castings
• Mould erosion is common

Dry Sand Moulds
• Green sand mould – completely dried in oven between

150 ℃ - 350 ℃ for 8 – 48 hours
• Higher strength
• Lesser damage likely during handling
• Medium to large castings
• Better dimensional accuracy and surface finish
• Susceptible to hot tearing of castings
• More expensive

Skin Dried Moulds
• Instead of full mould drying, only skin (up to depth of 15 – 25

mm) of mould cavity is dried
• Drying – using torch/ dry in atmosphere
• Comparatively less expensive

Moulding Machines
• Hand moulding – small batch production/ large size castings

• Machine moulding – large batches of same type of casting
• Methods for ramming the sand:
1. Jolting
2. Squeezing
3. Sand slinging

Jolt Moulding
• Sand filled in the mould from overhead hopper

• Raised to certain height
• Allowed to fall freely on solid bed plate
• Sand gets compacted into the mould due to impact forces
• Lifting & dropping repeated till mould gets hardened
• Suitable for horizontal surfaces
• Highest force at bottom compared to top layer
• Sand well packed at bottom compared to top layer

Squeeze Ramming
• Uniform pressure applied on squeezing plate fitted into the

flask
• Either plate moves down or moulding flask moves up
• Sand near the plate hardens most and progressively less
hardness away
• Types of squeeze heads:
1. Conventional squeeze
2. Profile squeeze head
3. Diaphragm squeeze

Source: Manufacturing Engineering and Technology; S. Kalpakjian and S. Schmid; Prentice Hall
Sand Slinging
• Sand thrown/sprayed into entire area of flask rapidly with

great force by moving nozzle
• Highly uniform sand ramming
• Uniform high mould hardness
• High initial cost of equipment

Cores
• Materials used for making cavities and hollow projections
which can not be produced by pattern
• Complicated contour, cavity, intricate shapes etc.
• Usually, made up of sand
• Surrounded by molten metal
• Subjected to severe thermal and mechanical conditions
• Core sand requires higher strength than the moulding sand

Desired Core Characteristics
• Strong enough to retain the shape (green strength)

• Able to resist metal pressure (adequate dry strength)
• Higher refractoriness
• Higher permeability
• Good collapsibility
• Ability to crumble (friability )
• Smoothness for good surface finish
• Low gas emission

Core Sands
• Sand:
• Silica sand without clay content
• Coarse silica – in steel foundries due to its higher refractoriness
• Finer sands – in cast iron and non-ferrous alloys
• Binders:
• Requirement of special binders – linsed oil, core oil, resins, dextrin,
molasses
• Core oil – mixture of linseed, soy, fish, petroleum oils, coal tar
• Strength of organic binders – polymerisation and cross linking
• Core sand mixture:
• Core oil (1%), water (2.5 – 6%)
• Cores backed after preparation
• Additives:
• Provides specific properties
Carbon Dioxide Moulding
• Sodium silicate as binder for core and mould preparation
• Quick process
• Mould prepared with mixture of sodium silicate & sand
• Treatment of carbon dioxide for 2-3 minutes
• Dry compressive strength > 1.4 Mpa
• Carbon dioxide hydrolyses sodium silicate to form amorphous silica
to form a good bond
• Formation of hydrated sodium carbonate by gelling reaction
increases the viscosity of binder till it becomes solid
• High strength of bond -- no need of any reinforcement
• Simple equipment; core baking equipment not required
• Better dimensional accuracy
• No shelf life for sand mixture; must be used immediately

Types of Cores
• Green sand cores:

• Obtained by pattern
• Economical way of preparing core
• Deep holes – limitation
• Large draft for easy removal of pattern -- limitation

• Dry sand cores:
• Special core sands in separate core box, baked & then placed in
mould before pouring

Foundry, Forming
Core Prints
• Added projection on the pattern on which the sand core rests

during pouring into the mould
• Provided for securing and correct positioning of core in mould
cavity
• The core print must be of adequate size and shape so as to
support the weight of the core during the pouring/ casting
operation

• Major force acting on core : Buoyancy
! = # % − '
! : buoyant force (N)
# : volume of core in the mould cavity (cm) )
% : weight density of the liquid metal (N/cm) )
' : weight density of the core material (eg. 1.65 ×1045 N/cm) )

! = 0.25 π )*+ − ) + -. − /0

• Empirical suggestion: core print should be able to support a
load of 3.5 N/cm( of surface area
) ≤ 350 ,
A: core print area
• Russian practice: pressure acting on core print to be lesser

than 50 – 75% of the moulding strength compressive strength
./
)≥ 0
1 : total volume of core including prints (cm2 )
3: compression strength of the moulding sand (N/cm( )

• Empirical proportions for core print dimensions:

• Russian literature: suggested guidelines
1. Core print dimensions
2. Core print draft angles

Suggested Core Print Dimensions

Draft Angles for Core Prints

Chaplets
• Metallic supports that supports the cores
• Kept inside mould cavity
• Composition same as pouring metal (usually)
• Melts & fuses with the parent metal
• Chance of forming weak joint and blow holes in casting

Foundry, Forming
Types of Chaplets

Foundry, Forming
Forces Acting on Mould Flask
1. Buoyancy force acting on core ---> transmission from core to
cope ---> tend to lift cope away from drag
2. Metallostatic force inside mould cavity: molten metal exerts
in all directions of mould cavity
!" = $% ' (
!" ∶ metallostatic force in upward direction
' : weight density of molten metal
$% : projected area
( : head of the metal

Foundry, Forming

MP A15

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Manufacturing Processes

These processes can be broadly classified into

IIT Goa/ Mech/ RPG 1

• One of the oldest known manufacturing processes

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• Some other casting processes:

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• The metal is heated to a temperature, which is slightly below

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• Some metal forming processes:

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• Secondary manufacturing processes where the starting raw

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• Also known as machining processes

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• Strain: by application of load, the material is elastically

• Tensile Strength: measured by a tensile test carried out on a

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Source: Manufacturing Technology – Foundry, Forming and Welding; P. N. Rao; TMH

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4. Cleaning and machining of solidified cast to shape for final use

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• Metal casting is still preferred to other conventional and

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• Expendable mold casting processes:

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Source: Manufacturing Technology – Foundry, Forming and Welding; P. N. Rao; TMH

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• Typical foundry sand for making mould:

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1. Obtain the engineering drawing of the part to be cast

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Core making Casting Cooling and

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• Usual pattern materials: wood, metal, plastics

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Number of castings produced Pattern material

Source: Manufacturing Technology – Foundry, Forming and Welding; P. N. Rao; TMH

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Source: Manufacturing Technology – Foundry, Forming and Welding; P. N. Rao; TMH

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Source: Manufacturing Technology –IIT

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Source: Manufacturing Technology – Foundry, Forming and Welding; P. N. Rao; TMH

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• pattern is always made somewhat larger than the final cast