i

FIELD TRAINING REPORT

(BHUJ-KACHCHH, GUJARAT)

Report submitted to the School of Earth Sciences, Banasthali University in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the completion of

FIELD TRAINING

By

Ms. Rohini Singh

Under the guidance of

Mr. Amit Kumar Mishra

M.SC. GEOLOGY- II SEMESTER

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY

SCHOOL OF EARTH SCIENCES

BANASTHALI UNIVERSITY, RAJASTHAN – 304022

APRIL, 2017
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DEDICATED TO MY PARENTS
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CONTENT

Topics Page number

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv-v

INTRODUCTION 1

GENERAL GEOLOGY OF THE AREA 2-8

REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND STRUCTURES 9-14

DAY WISE DESCRIPTION OF THE FIELD 15- 66

DAY 1 16

DAY 2 17- 28

DAY 3 29- 39

DAY 4 40- 48

DAY 5 49- 56

DAY 6 57- 66

CONCLUSION 67

REFERENCES 68
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ACKNOWLEGMENT

Geological field is a sojourn where in contentment and dissatisfaction go hand in hand. Its
essence however lies in what one achieves in the end and is fulfilled by interdependence,
instead of dependence. Enlisting all those who lent their support for my endeavor is simple;
to gratify them is equally painstaking. Nonetheless, I shall make every effort.

It gives me immense pleasure to have had an opportunity of exploring the

Kachch area as under the guidance of greatest mentor of my all time Mr. Amit Kumar
Mishra, Assistant Professors, Department of Geology , Bhu Mandir, Banasthali Vidyapith.
Words certainly cannot do justice while I express my gratitude to the unparalled mentors.
There cordial behavior , humble attitude , friendly nature, cooperativeness and magnanimity
are some of the exquisite traits which I would like mention as encouraging tools during my
entire field work. I could by no means ever repay what I achieved under their able guidance
and what learnt from them, while working under them, the thorough execution of their work
instilled in me the all important confidence to carry out my work subjectively and
successfully. I pay obeisance to him and I owe all my achievements to them. I am greatful to
Dr. Ng. Mamata Devi and Mrs. Pradeepika Kaushik who accompanied our field.

I would also like to thanks Prof. M. G. Thakkar Sir and his research scholars,
Mr. Gaurav Chauhan and Mrs. Suruchi Chauhan, Dept. of Earth Science and Environmental
Science. K.S.K.V. Kachch University, Bhuj, Gujarat. For their assistance and local
arrangements necessary for the field and explanation of geology of the area at various spots,

I would also like to express my sincere appreciation towards Head of Dept,

School of Earth Science, Dr. Rashmi Sharma. Without support of her the field work was not
possible. I am also thankful to all my colleagues, for their friendly attitude and curious
nature which lead to know about the clarification and knowledge of the area geology of
Kutch.
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Last but not least I would like to offer my essential gratitude and obeisance to the
Omnipotent, the creator, with whose grace and kindness I stand today in achieving my
ambitions and desire.

Rohini Singh.
 1

INTRODUCTION

Kachchh is the second largest district of India with the area of 45,612 sq km, located
between 220 - 240 N latitude and 680 – 710 E longitudes. It is located at the western extremes of
India with the District headquarter at Bhuj, a small historical town situated almost in the middle
of the district and surrounded from two sides by the hill ranges. Kachchh owns the unique saline
and desolate land of no vegetation with the total area of 23,310 sq km known as Rann. The
district has ten Talukas which covers 23.27% area of whole state of Gujarat.According to
the 2011 census Kutch District has a population of 2,090,313. Kachchh is known for its
exceeding cattle population of the humans for simple reason that it has a vast grassland of Banni,
Coastal plains and alluvial tracts of rocky highland. Industrialization in the last decade has
adversely affected the coastal topography and marine dry land ecosystem of Kachchh.

The Kachchh sedimentary basin extending from the Great Rann of Kachchh in the North
to the Kathiawar (Saurashtra) peninsula in the South is typically a peri-continental embayed
basin occupying a rifted Graben. The basin is filled with over 3000 m thick Mesozoic sediments
which are exposed in highland areas. These sediments were laid down in two mega cycles – A
middle Jurassic Transgressive cycle and a Late Jurassic – Early Cretaceous regressive cycle. The
two-mega cycles include short faces of Transgressive-regressive Sub-cycles. The Basin was first
rifted in late Triassic and inundated in Bajocian or even earlier. The Mesozoic succession had
been sub-divided lithostratigraphically and Chronostratigraphically.

The entire Kachchh landscape formed under the two, major tectonic regimes in the
geological time. The Kachchh rift was initiated during the Late Triassic breakup of the
Gondwanaland by the reactivation of primordial faults in the Precambrian Delhi fold belt. The
rifting was aborted during Late Cretaceous pre-collision stage of the Indian plate. During post-
collision compressive regime of the Indian plate, the Kachchh rift basin became a shear zone
with strike-slip movements along sub-parallel rift faults.
 2

2. GENERAL GEOLOGY OF THE AREA

2.1 Physiographic Divisions of Kachchh

The Kachchh region is an excellent example of a tectonically controlled landscape whose

physiographic features are the manifestation of the earth movements along the tectonic

lineaments of the Pre-Mesozoic basin configuration that was produced by the primordial fault

pattern in the Precambrian basement (Biswas, 1971; 1974).

Figure - 2.1: Map showing major physiographic divisions of Kachchh. (After Biswas 1982)

Physical features of Kachchh are characterized by the contrasting occurrences of

extensive plains and highlands with rugged topography. Kachchh has been subjected to major

tectonic and seismic activity during Late Quaternary. Kachchh has been divided into five Zones

i.e. Mainland Kachchh, Wagad, Pachham, Khadir and Bela. Taking into consideration the factors
 3

of altitude, slope and ruggedness of relief, Kachchh can be divided into four main physiographic

units from north to south, viz,

1. The Ranns,

2. The low lying Banni Plain,

3. The Hilly Region and

4. The Southern Coastal Plains (Fig.2.1).

2.2 Geology & Stratigraphy of Kachchh basin

Kachchh basin is geotectonically divided into three sub-basins, while as per the

chronology and lithology there are three groups:

1) Hard rock like limestones, shales and sandstones of Mesozoic age,

2) Volcanism, limestones and standstones of Tertiary age and

3) Alluvium, coastal plains, river terraces, Aeolian pockets, Rann and Banni sediments etc. are

unconsolidated loose Quaternary formations.

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Figure 2.2: Geological map of Kachchh Basin (after Biswas and Deshpande, 1970)

A. Mesozoic Stratigraphy

The lithostratigraphic sequence of Mainland is divided into four formations named as the

Jhurio (Jhura), Jumara, Jhuran and Bhuj formations (Biswas, 1977, 1981). The major lithological

characteristics of these formations worked out mainly by Biswas (1974; 1977; 1982; 1987) are

briefly described below

Period Formation Lithology

L. Cretaceous Bhuj Formation Thick non-marine sandstone
of uniform character

U. Jurassic- L. Cretaceous Jhuran Formation Thick alternating bands of

sandstone and Shale
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U. Jurassic Jumara Formation Thick argillaceous deposits

with thin red ferruginous
bands

M. Jurassic Jhurio Formation Limestones and Shales with

bands of Golden oolites

Table 2.1: Mesozoic stratigarphy of Kachchh basin (after Biswas and Deshpande, 1970)

Litho-Unit Lithology Environment

Age
I. Kachchh Mainland
Cretaceous Bhuj Formation Upper Part: Coarse grained, felspathic Fluviatile to
(Neoeomian to (400-900 m+) sandstone deltaic
Santonian) Lower part: Brown and reddish felspathic
sandstone, ironstone
and kaolinitic shale
Argovian to Jhuran Formation Upper Member: Pink and yellow Infra-littoral
Neoeomian (375 - 850 m) sandstone with minor shale
Middle Member: Grey shale with thin
sandstone
Lower Member: Shale and sandstone with
calcareous bands
Callovian to Jumara Grey gypseous shale with thin oolitic marl Sub-littoral
Oxfordian Formation bands (Dhosa Oolite
(300 m)
Upper Bathonian Jhurio Formation Upper part: Bedded white limestone with Sub-littoral
to (325 m +) Golden Oolite in
Callovian the lower part.
Middle part: Golden Oolite limestone with
shale
Lower part: Thinly bedded limestone,
shale and Golden Oolite limestone
11. Pachchham Island:
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Callovian Goradongar Upper part: Sandstone with minor shale Sub-littoral

Formation Lower part: Sandstone conglomerate, shale
(150m+)
Bathonian Kaladongar Upper Part: Yellow-massive sandstone Littoral
Formation with calcareous beds
Lower part: Sandstone, shale and
conglomerate
III. Eastern Kachchh:
Argovian to Wagad Brown, current bedded felspathic sandstone
Albian Sandstone with ferruginous Sub-littoral
bands and shale
Bathonian to Khadir Shale and sandstone with Littoral to
Oxfordian Formation wedges of granite cobble conglomerate infralittoral

Table : 2.2 The revised Mesozoic stratigraphy of Kachchh as given by Biswas (1971)

B. Tertiary Stratigraphy

Tertiary stratigraphy of Kachchh begins with the Deccan volcanism being continued

from the late cretaceous and then the tertiary sediments in Kachchh were deposited on the eroded

surface of the Deccan Trap and the Mesozoic sedimentaries, and deposition started with a marine

transgression during Lower Eocene and ended in Pliocene.

Period Epoch Formation Lithology

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Tertiary Eocene-Pliocene Tertiary Sediments Sediments formed

from weathering of
Deccan traps and
Mesozoic sediments
during marine
transgression

U. Cretaceous- Senonian- Deccan Comprises of tholeiitic

Tertiary Paleocene basalts

Table 2.3: Mesozoic stratigarphy of Kachchh basin (after Biswas and Deshpande, 1970)

C. Quaternary Stratigraphy

The present description of Quaternary deposits of Kachchh comprises the following

titles: The Rann sediments, the coastal plain deposits and the inland Quaternary deposits that

includes colluvial fans, the alluvial fans, the fluvio-aeolian and valley fill miliolites.

QUATERNARY LITHOLOGY AGE

DEPOSITS

Scarp-derived Angular to sub-angular pebbles and cobbles Late Holocene

colluvium embedded in sandy to gravelly matrix

Alluvial deposits Fine sands, silts and clays; river alluvium Late Pleistocene to

Recent

Valley fill Miliolite Sandy sheet of miliolite with boulders and pebbles
 8

Aeolian Miliolites Well shorted fine grain sand with carbonate rich Middle Pleistocene

sediments

BoulderyColluvial Boulder shaped fragments of Shales and sandstones Lower Pleistocene

deposits

Table 2.4 Quaternary Stratigraphy of Kachchh basin (After Maurya, D.M. et al, 2008)
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TECTONICS AND STRUCTURES OF THE KUCHCHH BASIN

3.1 Tectonic settings of Kachchh Basin

Kachchhperi-cratonic rift basin in the western Indian sub-continent serves an ideal

paradigm of the intra-plate region in the world with characteristic tectonic geomorphology that

reflects its geotectonic features. The active intra-continental rift of Kachchh Seismic Zone (KSZ)

lies on the western parts of India in the Kachchh district of Gujarat trending E–W. Linear hill

ranges in Kachchh are positive topographic features that formed by block upliftment while the

Ranns and intra-montane depression are subsided blocks with negative topography. The

landscape of Kachchh also portrays exclusive morphotectonic features with three distinct hill

ranges and subsequent two linear depressions. These blocks tilt to south with gentle slope but

steeply dipping to north with receding scarps. They form horst and graben structures within each

block, while broadly it resembles as half graben structures, which morphologically reflected as

open embayment.

Figure – 3.1: Tectonic map of Kachchh (after Biswas and Khattri, 2002)
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Figure 3.2: N–S Cross section of Kachchh showing fault locations

The Kachchh Mainland Fault (KMF) characterized by right lateral strike-slip fault, being

the parallel fault along the rift axis, is overstepped by the South Wagad Fault (SWF) in the

eastern part of the basin creating a convergent transfer zone undergoing transtensional stress in

the strained eastern part of the basin. Most of the earthquake epicenters and 2001 aftershock

hypocenters are located in this wrench zone (Biswas, 2005). The Kachchh basin is bounded by

Nagar Parkar Fault (NPF) in the north and North Kathiwar Fault (NKF) in the south (Biswas,

2005; Merh, 1995). Other major faults in the region are the E–W trending Island belt fault (IBF),

Kachchh Mainland Fault (KMF) and Katrol Hill Fault (KHF).

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3.3 Regional Structures of Kachchh

Major Fault System

The E-W striking master faults are the primary faults, which controls the structure and

morphology of the basin. Uplifts themselves are extensively affected by secondary faults of

different generations, both normal and strike-slip ones and a few reverse faults. Some of the NE-

SW striking faults are extensive wrench faults and dislocate the primary faults.

Kachchh Mainland Fault (KMF)

KMF is the biggest and longest fault in the region and the principal zone of weakness. It

extends for 200 km along the northern edge of Kachchh Mainland Uplift (KMU). The fault has a

prominent geomorphologic expression. The lofty hills of the northern range appear to rise

abruptly from the Banni plain, which is the downthrown side.

South Wagad Fault (SWF)

The southern part of Wagad uplift is much faulted and appear to have been shattered and

broken into several blocks wedges bounded by faults. These faults have been collectively called

South Wagad Fault System. The southern edge of the Wagad uplift is tilted up along this system

of faults. The fault system consists of Adhoi, Kanthkot, Khanpur, Kharol, Dedarwa, Vekra and

Kanmer faults.

Though many faults are described by local names according to the associated folds, they

are broadly the parts of two semi concentric peripheral faults having sinuous strike. Of these

Adhoi and Khanpur faults, eastern part of Dedarwa fault and Kanmer faults are the marginal

faults that define the southern boundary of oval uplift separating it from the Lakadiya Plain.

Kanthkot, Kharol, Dedarwa, Jadawas and Vekra faults compose an inner line of peripheral

faulting. These two inner and outer lines of faulting converge and diverge to the south of
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Washtawa. In the eastern part, they are crossed and shifted by the Kidiyanagar fault. Two

important fault wedges (south side up) have resulted from this:

a) Adhoi wedge which comprises the Mae and Wamka Domes and Halare-Adhoi

anticline and

b) Chidrod wedge in which Shivalakha anticline and Chidrod dome are situated. To the

east of Kidiyanagar cross-fault, the two zones of faulting are represented by Vekra fault

and the marginal Kanmer fault, both striking east-west with associated chain of folding

on the up throw side.

Island Belt Fault (IBF)

IBF is not well exposed along the island chain of uplifts being concealed under Rann

sediments. The faulting is indicated by steeply dipping beds of the forelimbs of drape – folds and

the imposing escarpments facing north. At the foot of the northern scarp of Pachham

(Kaladongar hills), hard sandstone beds dipping 600-800 to the north into the Rann sediments

indicate the fault. High and erratic dips along the margin of the uplifts bordering Rann indicate

faults. The fault appears to have been dislocated by left lateral NE-SW strike-slip faults, which

separated Island Belt Uplift (IBU) into four discrete blocks [Pachham Uplift (PU), Khadir Uplift

(KU), Bela Uplift (BU), and Chorar Uplift (CU)]. These blocks were rotated anticlockwise and

shifted progressively westward as indicated by their axial orientation.

Katrol Hill Fault (KHF)

KHF and GDF are post-depositional later generation faults within the uplifts, KMU and

PU respectively. KHF strikes parallel to KMF. To the west it splays out into two faults, one

continues to the west in the same strike and the other strikes NW as Vigodi fault and its splay
 13

outs – Vigodi – Gugriana – Khirasra – Netra faults (VGKF). The later faults meet the KMF near

Lakhpat. The west-striking KHF is dislocated and shifted southward by NE-SW Jarjok fault. It

continues to the west affecting the Tertiary rocks. The western half of KHF dips 600 - 850

locally 450 to the south. The eastern half, east of Ler, dips 700-900 to the north. Thus the fault

has a reverse attitude in the western part with associated over folding of beds and a normal

attitude with drape folds in the eastern part.

Goradongar Fault (GDF)

GDF brings up the southern part of PU (Goradongar Hills). It is a sub-vertical fault with

changing dips as noted in other cases. The associated conjugate fault system and folds are typical

of a strike-slip fault. The marginal flexures and oblique folds related to subsidiary faults present

a complicated fault and fold pattern of the Goradongar uplift. The Gedi Fault (GF) between Bela

horst and Rapar half-graben is in the same alignment as the GDF across the Banni low covered

by recent sediments. GF is seen to extend into Gangta uplift. The E-W chain of faulted Karabir,

Gorabir and Gangta anticlines in the same alignment as discrete uplifts suggests westward

extension of GF. Evidently, it appears that GDF and GF are parts of the same fault. Together

they represent a major strike-slip fault parallel to the other master faults.

Transverse Faults

The eastern and western limits of the domes are marked by N-S transverse faults. The N-

S and NW-SE fractures are occupied by basic igneous dykes. Some of the transverse faults

significantly cut across the Kachchh Mainland Fault. The Kachchh Mainland Fault scarps show

close similarity to fault generated mountain fronts (Mayer, 1986). The steep scarp marking the

KMF is a prominent geomorphic feature of the area. All along the base of the fault scarp, several

dissected colluvial fans are encountered (Thakkar et al. 1999). The NNE-SSW, NE-SW, NW-SE
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and NNW-SSE trending faults exhibit younger fault scarp morphology. This is evident by little

or no colluvial deposits along these scarps and absence of gullies or projecting spurs. Moreover,

these faults are continuous and never found to cut across by other faults unlike the KHF, which is

divisible into several segments by transverse faults cutting across it. These transverse faults

running NNW-SSE, NW-SE, NE-SW and NNE-SSW displace the Kachchh Mainland Fault and

Jhura dome at places. The large transverse faults are the striking features of the area. The fault

planes are either vertical or steeply dipping. In general, the fault planes dip towards the domes.

The sense of movement is always dominantly lateral, both sinistral as well as dextral slips are

noted (Hardas, 1968). The lateral movement along these faults is very conspicuous in the field.

Effects of these faults are seen in the form of horizontal shifting of rocks and the E-W trending

faults i.e. Kachchh Mainland Fault. The N-S and NW-SE fractures are occupied by basic igneous

dykes. The number of transverse faults is greater to the south of Kachchh Mainland Fault than in

the north.
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DAY WISE DESCRIPTION OF THE FIELD

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DAY 1

Visit to Department of Earth and Environmental Science KSKV Kachchh University,

Bhuj-Kachchh-370001.

We visited the department in evening of 18 february, 2017. The visit began with the lecture of

the Head of the Department, Professor M. G. Thakkar, who gave a brief idea about the Kuchchh

basin. We visited the museum of the Deptartment and observed various rare samples of local

fossils found in the Kachchh region, of which dinosaur bones and eggs and petrified wood were

very fascinating to us. There were other samples of various sedimentary structures like

Stromatolites, Conglomerates of Wagad Sandstone etc. We also saw the good collection of

minerals and rocks in the museum.

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DAY 2

(18/02/2017)

Spot 1

GPS Reading : N23° 15’ 37’’ ; E69° 37’ 92’’

Location- Khari Gorge

A gorge is a narrow valley with steep, rocky walls located between hills or mountains. A number

of natural forces act to from gorges. The most common is erosion due to streams or rivers.

Streams carve through hard

layers of bedrock, breaking

down or eroding it.

Sediment from the worn

away rock is then carried

downstream. Over time, this

erosion will form the steep

walls of a gorge. The

flooding of streams or rivers increases the speed and intensity of this erosion, creating deeper and

wider gorges. The Khari river gorge rises from the Katrol Hill Range and flows northward along

a 10-15 m deep incised channel developed on a highly pitted and rocky landscape identified as

an Early Quaternary erosion surface formed over Late Cretaceous sandstones belonging to Bhuj

Formation. About 4km west of Bhuj- Kodaki road, the river exhibits a locally developed deep

gorge ( 400m long ) with bedrock terraces in the Cretaceous sandstones and a palaeo-channel
 18

filled with alluvial deposits. A

basic dyke runs along the N100

trend across the channel confining

a pond to the downstream side of

the gorge. At downstream we saw

palaeochannels. Being in arid

zone. Here is about 20 to 30cm of

rain in a year. At downstream side

we see wider valley and at

upstream there we saw a narrow valley. In ancient time there were good climate but in recent

time favorable climate are not there. Here potholes are also seen; it is cylindrical pit formed in

the rocky channel of a turbulent stream. It is formed and enlarged by the abrading action of

pebbles and cobbles that are carried by eddies or circular water currents that move against the

main current of a stream. Also burrows and small openings are seemed. There due to climate

there the beds were openly seemed like T1, T2, T3 etc. At T3 flute marks are present there.
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Spot- 2

Location- Road section Bhuj to Kodaki village

GPS Reading- N23° 14’ 26’’; E69° 34’ 34’’

Normal fault – A normal fault

occurs where two blocks of rock

are pulled apart, as by tension.

Here, geological fault in which

the hanging wall has moved

downward relative to the

footwall. Here the alternate beds

of black shale and sandstones are

present.

Horsts and Graben are developed in extensional regime where two normal fault are

formed with their fault plane dipping towards each other occur in pair with parallel strikes lines.

They are always formed together. Grabens are usually represented by low-lying areas such as

rifts and river valleys whereas Horsts represent the ridges between or in either side of these

valleys.

Dyke is a sheet of rock that formed in a fracture in a

pre-existing rock body. Dykes can be either magmatic or

sedimentary in origin. Magmatic dykes form when magma

intrudes into a crack then crystallizes as a sheet intrusion,

either cutting across layers of rock or through an un layered

mass of rock. We see here Dolerite dykes in shale and

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sandstone alternate beds. Spheroidal weathering can be peculiarly seen in dykes, they are form of

mechanical and chemical weathering in which concentric or spherical shells of decayed rock are

successively loosened and separated from block of rock by water penetrating the bounding points

or other fractures and attacking the block from all sides.

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Spot 3

Location: Rudra Mata River Section ( Under Bridge)

GPS reading : N23°21’ 469”; E69° 41’ 645”

Mainland of kutch-

Big cliff cutting sections are formed due to

neo tectonic activities. They are soft

sedimentary structures like piller and dish

structure, soft sedimentary structures formed

due to deformation in soft sediments. This

belongs to the Middle Jhuran age.

Neotectonics faults occurring in Quaternary

Period. In these beds, there is 30% to 40% water content and 50% to 60% sand content is
 22

present. In bed, small scale disturbances may be seen between them , they seem due to omissions

at surface, cyclic rotation. Iron concretions are also present there.

Burrows as a hole or holes an animal dug into loose sediments. Suspension feeders have vertical
 23

burrows and Depositional feeders have horizontal burrows. Example- Skolithos as found in

vertical and Diplocateron as erosional and depositional features.

 24

Spot 4

Location- Tropic of cancer- Bhuj

–Khawda Road

GPS Reading : N23 26’ 13.4’’;

E 70ᵒ22’728”

Tropic of cancer also

referred to as the Northern Tropic

is N23 26’ 13.4’’ north of the

Equator. It is the most northerly

circle of latitude on the Earth at

which the Sun can be directly

overhead because of 231/2° tilt of

the earth’s axis. This occurs on

the June solstice (summer), when

the Northern Hemisphere is tilted

toward the Sun to its maximum

extent. Most of the world’s

deserts are located along this

latitude in northern and southern hemisphere. In northern hemisphere this latitude is known as

Tropic of Cancer and in southern hemisphere the latitude line of same value is known as Tropic

of Capricorn. Here, it is located about 45 km graben from N-S, ( Banni Graben). The rocks

present in this area ranges in age from Middle Jurassic to Present.

 25

Other states from where tropic of cancer passes are:

Gujrat, Rajasthan, Madhaya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand , West Bengal, Tripura and
Mizoram

Spot 5

Location : Khawda –Paiya Road Section (1km before Paiya village; Paiya Dome )

GPS Reading- N23° 51’ 47’’ ;

E69° 46’ 210’’

Limestone is a sedimentary
rock, composed mainly of
skeletal fragments of marine
organisms such as coral, forams
and mollusks. Its major
materials are the minerals
calcite and aragonite, which are
different crystal forms of calcium carbonate. About 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestones.
The solubility of limestone in
water and weak acid solutions
leads to karst landscapes, in
which water erodes the
limestone over thousands to
millions of years. It’s hardness is
around 5.5 because of being
siliceous in nature. It is of
Middle Jurassic age- Bathogene
and Bathonian.

Patcham having two hill range-

1. Kaladungar
 26

2. Goradungar

Here also two faults are present-

1. Island Belt Fault

2. Goradungar Fault

Dip strike measurement along Paiya Dome-

Measurement 1-

Dip amount- 10°

Dip direction- 230°

Strike direction- 140°

Measurement 2-

Dip amount- 11°

Dip direction- 195°

Strike direction- 105°

Spot 6

Location : Bandi river Section (Simri Bandh)

Latitude: N23°21’46.9”

Longitude: E69°41’64.5”

At this spot we have seen three distinct lithological layers. The lower most layer is
letaritic bauxite layer of Palaeocene age. Laterite is a soil and rock type rich in iron and
aluminium, and is commonly considered to have formed in hot and wet tropical areas. Nearly
all laterites are of rusty-red coloration, because of high iron oxide content. They develop by
intensive and long-lasting weathering of the underlying parent rock.
 27

The beds above Paleocene laterites are Miocene in age. This layer can be further
distinguished into two beds of Upper and Lower Miocene age. The dominant rock type of Lower
Miocene age bed is Shale while upper Miocene beds are lithologically siliciclastic clay.
 28

The Miocene age rocks are directly unconformably overlain by Quaternary deposits
marked by an unconformity.

Root fossils
 29

DAY-3

(19-2-2017)

Spot-1

Location: Bhuj Tapkeshawary road 4 km SSE of Bhuj,Near Rata talab.

GPS Readings- (N 23°11’56” E 69°40’41”)

Time- 7:30am

The south of Bhuj is Katrol Hill Range. This hill range is dissected by numerous faults.
The Katrol Hill fault is represented by the EW trending reverse fault which is 65 km in length.
The occurrence of Upper Jurassic rocks on the hanging wall and Lower Cretaceous rocks on the
footwall and the displacement of younger Quaternary deposits along the fault possibly suggest
 30

reactivation and continued tectonic activity along the old KHF. The Northern block along this
fault is down-throw side whereas the southern block represents the upthrow side.

Lithology in the downthrown block is dominantly represented by Sandstone which

calcareous in nature and is also called Bhuj Sandstone. The sandstone is of deltaic origin,
sandstone is well sorted, fine to medium grain in size. It is of Cretaceous (Bhuj Formation) age.
It is the footwall of the fault as it is moving downward.
Upthrown block is lithologically represented alternate beds of shales and sandstone.
Shales are grayish black in color which is organic shale and contains the carbon in it. These
shales are Jurassic in age and belong to Jhumara Formation and also called as Jhumara Shale.

Strike of the sandstone bed- EW

Dip amount of Sandstone Bed:-56°

Dip direction of sandstone bed:-182 (i.e. southerly dipping)

Dip amount of shale bed:-55

Dip direction of shale bed:-216 SW

Strike of shale bed:- 306

Geomorphic Action of Katrol Fault - the sandstone is very highly permeable. And the katrol fault
plane is acting as a BARRIER of the groundwater.
 31

Spot -2

Location - Tapkeshwari temple hill.

GPS reading:- (N 23°10’53” E69°40’2”)

Time:- 8:45am.

Here we have seen the alternate layers of sandstone and shales in EW trending valley in which
the seasonal river flows. The shales belong to Upper Jhuran. The sandstone is ferruginous in
nature.

It’s a upper
Jhuran formation and
having the alternate
stratified layers of
sandstone and shale. And
the sandstone of this spot
is Ferrugenious
Sandstone.

The iron is
concentrated in the
cavities formed by
fracturing by leaching
action. (shown in the adjacent field
photograph)

On the top of this hill which is near to

the tapkeshwari temple caves are seen which
are formed by the wind erosion in the
sandstone rocks. Erosional features like
weathering ring is present in the cave and
depositional sedimentary structures like
crossed bedding structures, hummocky cross
stratification are well exposed in the cave due
to eolian erosion. (Close view of cave and
structures shwn in the photographs present in
next page)
32
 33

Cross stratification: When a depositional environment has sand in it and water or air moves the
sand grains around, those grains can build up into piles of sediment. When the sediment piles
reach a height where they are unstable - called the angle of repose - the grains will avalanche
down the side of the pile and make a thin depositional layer of the grains that moved. Over time,
multiple avalanching episodes will result in many thin parallel layers next to one another. These
are called cross bedded laminae, because they form at an angle to the horizontal nature of the
main bed.

Hummocky cross-stratification: Hummocky cross-stratification is a type of sedimentary

structure found in sandstones and silt. It is a form of cross-bedding usually formed by the action
of large storms, such as hurricanes. It takes the form of a series of "smile"-like shapes,
crosscutting each other. It is only formed at a depth of water below fair-weather wave base and
above storm-weather wave base. They are not related to "hummocks" except in shape.

This structure is formed under a combination of unidirectional and oscillatory flow that is
generated by relatively large storm waves in the ocean. Deposition involves fallout from
suspension and lateral tractive flow due to wave oscillation. As the large waves drape sand over
an irregular scoured surface, this strong storm-wave action erodes the seabed into low hummocks
and swales that lack any significant orientation.It is usually formed by redeposition below
normal fair weather wave base delivered offshore by flooding rivers and shoals by large wave.

During ancient times, hummocky cross-stratification was located in shallow marine

environments, on the shore face and shelf by waves. It can also form on land during especially
large storms when large amounts of water are pushed up onto the tidal flat. These landward
deposits feature smaller bed forms due to the attenuation of storm waves as they move onto the
land. While it is usually formed in marine settings by the action of storms, it may also be
deposited in fluvial strata; a fluvial origin is more likely if the unit solely comprises sand,

Herringbone cross-stratification: Herringbone cross-stratification is a type of sedimentary

structure formed in tidal areas, where the current periodically flows in the opposite direction.

Formation: During the conventional formation process of cross-stratification, sand

grains saltate up the upstream side of the dune, collecting at the peak until the angle of repose is
reached. At this point, the crest of granular material has grown too large and will be overcome by
the force of the depositing fluid, falling down the downstream side of the dune. Repeated
avalanches will eventually form the sedimentary structure known as cross-stratification, with the
structure dipping in the direction of the paleocurrent.

In tidal areas, which have bidirectional flow, structures are formed with alternating layers
of cross-beds dipping in opposite directions that reflect the alternating paleocurrent. These
sedimentary structures are not common because they require the current to be equal in both
directions, which rarely happens in nature. The time period represented by each cross-stratified
 34

layer is likely to be many years. The pattern of the structure is said to resemble the backbone
structure of a herring fish.

Contrary to above mentioned primary structure the horst and graben structure
(described in day one of report) which is secondary in nature on the basis of origin are also seen
on the opposite side of the valley wall.
 35

Spot: 3

Location: Bhuj-jhadura road 1km east of Tapkeshwari temple.

GPS reading: (N23°10’59” E69°41’27”)

This is a river cutting section which is 1 km before the Jhadura village. The river is
flowing on the hinge of anticline. Hinge zone of the anticline is a week zone. Upper layer of the
anticline in hinge zone represents the extensional regime (presence of normal fault; earlier spot)
and same time lower layer in the anticline hinge zone (i.e. core of anticline) represents the
compressional regime (presence of folds of various generation or other compressional structures
depending upon rheology of the layer).

At this section we saw plastically deformed shale layer of the Jurassic age. The clastic
sand dyke is seen in the shale bed
which has been intruded due to due to
seismic activities. The sand behaves
like liquid, due to tectonic activity it
comes up through cracks. Due to
increased pore pressure the strength
of rock decreases, because it reduces
the effective lithostatic pressure. It
formed when sand was violently
forced upward into overlying clay
before the sediment was cemented to form rock. In environments where sediment is
accumulating very quickly, water can get trapped and buried in a sand body; as more sediment is
deposited on top of the sand, the pressure causes the sand body to compress. When water erupts
upward to relieve the pressure, it carries sand with it which fills the fissure created by the
escaping water.

Other recognised structures present in this section are Chevron fold, overturned fold and
other folds of different generations.
 36

Cheveron Fold: These are

characterized by very long limbs and
very narrow hinges (sharp crest) and
most of the naturally developed
chevron folds have an interlimb angle
around 60°. These folds develop in
typical turbidite flysch sequences of
alternating competent and less
competent layers in which the thickness of competent layers does not vary across the complex.
They are formed when layers of identical mechanical properties sliding over each other with no
internal deformation.

Overturned Fold: A fold in which both the limbs dip in the

same direction is called an overfold or overturned fold. The
folds of this kind are generally produced either by gravity
gliding or in a layer on minor scale that is appreciably
inclined (but less than 45 degrees) to the principal shortening
direction. . A fold whose axial plane is horizontal is called a
recumbent fold. Such folds on major scale are common in
orogenic belts.

Together with these structures iron concretions were also

present in this section.

Spot: 4

Location: Bhuj Habay road 2Km before Zikadi village

GPS Readings : (N 23°10’53” E 69°40’22” )
 37

Here we are in southern flank of E-W oriented hill, north of Katrol hill. This is kachchh
mainland fault which is in northern hill range
(associated with domes & anticline ) we have
seen dextral slip fault, oblique slip fault which
were cutting each other with an angle of
around 50ᵒ. From Here The Northern Fringe
of Habo Dome was Started. Structurally this
area is represented in form of dome and
anticlines. Sandstone and shale represents the dominant lithology in this area. Over times shale
being fragile and hygroscopic in nature weathered now used to make forms for agricultural
practice. Multiple joints pattern are also seen in this area. The one parallel to ridge is older and
perpendicular to it is younger. The density of joints increases as we come closer to fault. Closely
spaced joints indicate intense deformation Depositional environment is deltaic. These rocks
belongs to Jhuran formation of Upper Jurassic age.

Spot: 5
Location: Boladi River Section
GPS reading: (N230 10’ 59”, E690 44’ 27”)

In this section we have seen Dhosa oolite which are formed in high sand system tract
(HST) when sea level was relatively higher. Dhosa oolite is marker bed between the Mid- Late
Jurassic Deposits & Jumara Formation. We saw Dhosa oolite which dipping in south with 4° to
5°. Dominant litholgy of this area is Shale, Conglomorate and Dhosaoolite bed. Various fossils
like Belemnite, Ammonite, Bivalves and Brachiopods are recognized. This area represents the
back limb of Habbo dome. When Oxfodian age about to end in kachchh , that time sea level was
its highest and then sea level started receding and we get deltaic deposit in Jhuran.

Below HST we have seen the low system tract (LST) deposits when sea level was dropped
relatively.

We have also seen the various set of joints and quatz vein in bed of river section.
 38

In the upstream direction of the river section the the limestone deposits are seen which are
Melolitic in nature which is obstacle dune deposit of Pleistocene age, these are deposited here by
Aeolian action.

Miliolites : Miliolite limestone popularly known as " Porbandar stone” is a finely Oolitic free
stone composed of remains of foraminifer, " Miliolite' around which calcite grains have been
found. It forms low hills and cliffs along the coast and also extends inland. These limestones
occur in some of the hills to a height over 1000 feet (305m) above m.s.l. indicates that the period
of depression was followed by one of upheaval. These are extensively used as building stones as
they can be easily cut by an axe when fresh, into any size or shape. The blocks cut are known as
"bella". Major part of Miliolites limestones are of high grade, and used extensively for the
cement manufacture, as well as in chemical industries.
 39

Spot 6

Location- One km North of Drang village (N 23°23’6” E69°44’27”)

6.1 Its located 1km north to the dhorang village.
Lihologically this area is represented by the
intercalations of sandstone and gypsious shal
of age –Calovian ( Middle Jurasic).
6.2 A fossiliferous bed which is dipping towards
the north and they are called as marker bed
(dhosa oolite of Middle Jhuran) are seen
here. and the bedding planes are of sandstone in which the shale are present of middle
Jurassic age.
6.3 On further moving, we found greyish to
yellowish calcareous shale. There we foun
intercalations of limestone and shale. Two
types of limestones are present in this area
viz. micritic and fossiliferous limestone.
6.4 Moving ahed we hound the ridge sandstone.
The calcerious sandstone being competent is not as eroded as the intercalated shales. The
shales have been eroded and only sandstone is left as ridges. Numerous orhhogonal joint
sets are also seen in the sandstone. These are present in the southeren flank of anticline as
we have crossed the axis of anticline i.e. from southern flank to northern flank. The ridge
sansdtone are hard, compact, bedded,poorely sorted and brown to greenish grey in colour
and coarse grained.
6.5 Core of Jhurio Formation
(oldest formation) Habo
dome Laccolith: Laccolith
body was seen which is
gabbro by lithology.
Characteristic of the
surrounding rock is black
limestone and shale. They
 40

black color is probably due to baking effect or heating effect. Columnar joints are
typically seen in the igneous body. The joints are cooling joints. The typical weathering
pattern in the dolerite rocks here are spheroidal weathering. Spheriodal weathering in
these rocks takes place due the large diuranal temperature variation; expainsion in day
time when temperature is relatively higher and contraction in nght time when temperature
id relatively lower. Dike, then became sill due to the overlying burden or due to the
pressure of the overlying rocks.
 41

DAY 4

(20/02/2017)

Spot 1 - Than Jhagir

GPS reading: (N 23ᵒ27’350”, E69ᵒ21’675”)

This section is present along Kachch mainland fault.Here intercalation of shale and
sandstones beds are present. Thickness of sandstone beds ranges between 2cm to 15cm, shales
are laminated. Here we have seen the contact between the Jhumara and Jhuran formation.

Strike- 295°- 125°.

Dip direction – 205°

Dip amount – 3°
 42

Spot 2

Location : Volcanic Plug

GPS Reading : N23ᵒ27’337”, E65ᵒ21’089”

Along Kuchchh Mainland Fault (KMF) Here Jhuran sandstones underlies the basalts rocks of

Reunion hot spot activities which occurs approximately 65.5 Ma, before collision of Indian and
Eurasian plate.
The end of Jhuran was marked by
vigorous Decan volcanic activity (Cretaceous –
Palaeozene boundary). During Maastrichtian
time the northward moving Indian plate was
passing over the Reunion Hotspot. This time
span in geological represents a mass
 43

extinction event which wiped out the dinosaur from the earth.
There is some evidence to link the Deccan Traps eruption to the asteroid impact which
created the Chicxulub crater in the Mexican state of Yucatán. The combination of the asteroid
impact and the resulting eruption may have been responsible for the mass extinctions that
occurred at the time that separates the Cretaceous and Paleogene periods, known as the K–Pg
boundary.
A volcanic plug, also called a volcanic
neck or lava neck, is a volcanic landform
created when lava hardens within a vent on an
active volcano. When forming, a plug can
cause an extreme build-up of pressure if
volatile-charged magma is trapped beneath it,
and this can sometimes lead to an explosive
eruption. If a plug is preserved, erosion may
remove the surrounding rock while the
erosion-resistant plug remains, producing a
distinctive landform.
Here we have seen the Columnar Basalts.
Columnar joints are structure that forms in
rocks (most commonly in basalt) that consists
of columns (mostly commonly hexagonal in
shape also pentagonal) that are separated by
joints or fractures in the rock that formed
when the rock contracted, most often during
cooling.
We have also found the vesicular and amagdoloidal basalts in this section.
 44

Spot - 4

Location : Hazipir Road

GPS Reading- (N 23°36’8.87”, E 69°9’8.03”)

In this section we have seen

dolerite dykes which has been
intruded into east west
trending shale beds have been
metamorphosed along the
contact zone of dolerite dyke
and chilled margins and
contact aureole are produced.

We can clearly see the

spheroidal weathering in the
dolerite rocks. Spheroidal
weathering is a type of
mechanical weathering which
occurs due to diurnal
temperature changes, during
day time the temperature of
the rocks increases due to
which the volume of rocks
increases , during night time
the volume of rocks decreases
due to decrease in temperature which leads to continuous expansion and contraction in the
dolerite rocks. This continuous expansion and contraction lead to onion peel / spheroidal
weathering.
 45

Spot - 5

Location : Northern Plank of

Jhumara Dome

GPS Reading: N23°41’3.93” ;

69°4’0.48”.

Lithology of area in stratigraphic

order:

Spongy Limestone (Bathonian)

Packstone (Bathonian)
Nodular Limestone (Bezocian)
Coral Bed (Bezocian)
Yellow Limestone (Bezocian)
Basement

Jhumara dome sediments

were deposited during sea level
fluctuations and were interrupted
by storms in shallow marine
environment. The sandstones
rocks are present here are
generally medium grained
moderately sorted, sub angular to
sub rounded and low sphericity. Here pack stones, Jhumara coral limestones, sponge lime stones
, ridge stones are present.
 46

Spot – 6

Location : Umia Formation

GPS Reading – N23°40’3.35” ;

E69°58’6.07”.

Here we have seen mud cracks which

formed due to dessication water
nearby Trigonia beds. In these beds
Trigonia sp. fossils preserved in gently
dipping sandstones rocks of
Cretaceous age. They considered as
member of Bhuj.The Bhuj Formation
are divided into 3 members –

Lower- Guneri member

Middle- Ukra member

Upper member

Together with trigonia, bivalves,

gastropods, ammonoids and belemnite
are also recognised in this section.
 47

Spot – 7

Location : Guneri Member

GPS Reading - N23°46’3.17” ; E68°52’7.53”.

Guneri member (part of Kuchchh mainland) comprises cyclically repeated intercalated

sequence of burrowed ferruginous gritty sandstones, grey and black, carbonaceous shale and
siltstone with coal partings. The ironstones and shales show rhythmic alternations. The
ferruginous sandstones and shale contain tracks and trails of various invertebrates. Dinosaurian
footprints are recorded from ferruginous sanstones near Phakera. The Ukra Member occurs as a
lensoid marine intervention between the Guneri Member and the Upper Member of the Bhuj
formation in the Ukra area and comprises a sequence of about 30 m thick hard, lateritic
ferruginous sandstones, conglomerate , green glauconitic clay , shale, siltstone green friable
sandstones and bands of fossiliferous limestone ( GSI, 2001). The Upper Member comprises a
sequence of coarse, gritty, variegated sandstones, siltstones, fossiliferous shale and clay with
ferruginous and ocherous bands. Most part of Bhuj sandstones includes sanstones of the Upper
Member overlain by intercalations of trap pebbles conglomerate and sandstones forming part of
volcano sedimentary sequence. The rocks of Bhuj Formation are overlain by Deccan lava flows.

Dominant lithology of the area is ferruginous sandstone. Leaching of iron is prominent in

this section (Limonites). These deltaic deposits of Cretaceous Age (Sentonian Stage). The KMF
fault divides Kuchchh Mainland from Bunny Plain.

Spot – 8 (A)

Location: Kachh Mainland Fault (East-West Trending Fault)

GPS Reading – N23°47’2.80’’; E68°52’6.6”.

Here, we see Kachch mainland fault due. Here flower like structures be also seen in the Kutch
Mainland Fault. Fault Zone makes like radiating flower structures. This is East- West trending
fault which separates the Mesozoic and tertiary rocks. The fault plane dip is toward south.
 48

Location: 8 (B)

Location : Kachchh Mainland Fault

GPS Reading – Latitude:- N23°47’3.12’’; Longitude:-

E68°52’4.4’’.

Elevation- 62.3 Ft

Time:-

DIP AMOUNT- 70 TOWARDS SOUTH

DIP DIRECTION- 180

STRIKE – 270-90

Spot - 9

Location : Highly Weathered Basalt Sill at Guneri Village

GPS reading:-Latitude:-N23°47’2.75”; Longitude:- E68°52’0.62”

Here we see the basalt sill intrusion in sandstone bed. We have also seen the baked sandstone
due the frictional sliding of fault block movement along plane of KMF. Sills are concordant
feature.
 49

Spot 10

Location: Lakhpat fort

GPS reading:

Lakhpat fort : Historically it has been very

important trading post connecting Gujarat to Sindh.
The waters of Sindhu river used to flow into
Lakhpat and further onto Desalpar Gunthli. Within
historic times Lakhpat has had only one very short
period of prosperity. Rice used to be cultivated and
Lakhpat used to give an annual revenue of 800,000
Koris just from rice. It is also said that Lakhpat
used to generate an income of 100,000 Koris everyday from maritime activities. Fateh Muhammad, about
the close of the eighteenth century (1801), enlarged and rebuilt its wall, and here for a time great part of
the trade of Sindh centred. Though he thought it one of the chief supports of his power, Lakhpat declared
against Fateh Muhammad when he opposed the Rao of Cutch State in 1804. A few years later (1809), the
commandant of the fort, Mohim Miyan, drove out the agents of Hansraj and governed the town on his
own accounts. In 1818 Lakhpat had 15,000 people and yielded a yearly revenue of £6000 (₹ 60,000).

After the earthquake of 1819 a natural dam known as the Allahbund was formed, Indus
river changed its course of flow and started flowing into the Arabian sea further north. Thus Lakhpat lost
its importance as a port. By 1820, the population reduced to 6000 inhabitants, consisting chiefly of
mercantile speculators from other countries and families of Hindus driven from Sindh. The walls were in
good repair, but the houses were ruined and did not fill one-third of the area. In 1851 all trade had left the
town, and it has since remained poverty-stricken and half deserted. The population reduced to 2500 by
1880.

Today it is sparsely populated ghost town, a city of ruins of buildings and a magnificent
fort surrounding them. The population was 463 in 87 households 2001 which increased to 566 in
108 households in 2011.
 50

DAY- 5

(21-2-2017)

Spot -1

Location : Manafara Bacchau- Rapar Road (4km from Khario village towards Rapar)

GPS reading : N23°27’8.83”; E70°22’7.28”.

Here we can sea the expression of blind fault in geomorphology of the area. The fault named as
Mafara Fault. This zone is
epicenter of 2001
earthquake. The area is
towards Wagad highlands.

The Nonmarine tertiary

deposit are present in
Wagad. The Wagad is
seismically very active and
the formation is just
equivalent to Bhuj.

Spot - 2

Location : Kanthkot Formation

GPS reading : N23°29’4.75”;

E70°29’7.54”.

This formation is consisting of

sandstone and shale. The sandstone
rocks are intruded by the basaltic
dyke. The sandstone is Wagad
 51

sandstone equivalent to Dhosa oolite in age. The age of this formation is Middle to Late Jurassic.

Here in rver bed section we have found the rich preservation of fossils viz. Ammonite,
belemnite, bivalve and petrified wood. Coal is also preserved in this section.

Petrified wood: Petrified wood is a fossil. It forms when plant material is buried by sediment
and protected from decay due to oxygen and organisms. Then, groundwater rich in dissolved
solids flows through the sediment, replacing the original plant material with silica, calcite, pyrite,
 52

or another inorganic material such as opal. The result is a fossil of the original woody material
that often exhibits preserved details of the bark, wood, and cellular structures.

Ammonite - Ammonoids are an extinct group of marine mollusc animals in the

subclass Ammonoidea of the class Cephalopoda. These molluscs are more closely related to
living coleoids (i.e., octopuses, squid, and cuttlefish) than they are to shelled nautiloids such as
the living Nautilus species. The earliest ammonites appear during the Devonian, and the last
species died out during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. These are index fossils.

Belemnoids : Belemnoids are an extinct group of marine cephalopod, very similar in

many ways to the modern squid and closely related to the modern cuttlefish. Belemnoids were
numerous during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, and their fossils are abundant
in Mesozoic marine rocks, often accompanying their cousins the ammonites. The belemnoids
become extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period along with the ammonites. The belemnoids
origin lies within the bactritoid nautiloids, which date from the Devonian period; well-formed
belemnoid guards can be found in rocks dating from the Mississippian (or Early Carboniferous)
onward through the Cretaceous.

Bivalves : Bivalvia, in previous centuries referred to as the Lamellibranchiata and Pelecypoda,

is a class of marine and freshwater molluscs that have laterally compressed bodies enclosed by a
shell consisting of two hinged parts. Bivalves as a group have no head and they lack some usual
molluscan organs like the radula and the odontophore.

Spot – 3

Location: Rann of Kachchh

GPS reading: N 20ᵒ29’475” ; E 70ᵒ29’754”

The Rann of Kachchh is unique saline and desolate land of no vegetation with the total
area of 23,310 sq km known as Rann.The Great Rann of Kachchh a seasonal salt marsh located
in the Thar desert and is located in Kachchh and the Sindh Province of Pakisthan.It is about
 53

7505.22 sq.km in size & is reputed to be one of the largest salt desert in the world. Here we saw
salt encrustation and land full of salt spread over wide area kilometres across the Rann.

Spot - 4

Location : Dholavira (Harappan Civilization).

GPS reading : N23°53’12.1”; E70°12’9.72”.

Dholavira is one of the two largest

Harappan sites in India, and 5th largest in the
subcontinent. Like Lothsl, it passed through all
the stages of the Haarrapan culture from circa
 54

2900 BC to 1500 BC , while most others saw only the early or late stages.

The record retrieved in excavation suggest the decline of the civilization in the 5th of 7th
stages, after which there were signs of a temporary desertion of the site. Settlers returned later in
the late Harrapan stage, with a change in their pottery, influenced by cultures found at sites in
Sindh, South Rajasthan and other parts of Gujarat, but they did not bring the return of the
civilization . their houses, for example, were built in an entirely new form that was circular
(bhungas), and the materials signs were strikingly deurbanized and simplified.

Perhaps the last stage of the powerful civilization had become aware of its future, and
was preparing itself for a gradual end.

The archaeological records reveal that the region was first inhabited by the people of
Harappan civilization during 3000-1500 BC. Nearly 60 Harappan culture sites have been
discovered in the district, of which, 40 belong to early and the rest to the late phases. Dholavira,
which remained occupied for nearly 1500 years in seven distinct stages, is one of the most
developed settlements of the Indus people in India. There was a great hiatus in the history of the
 55

region between 1400 BC and 500 AD. It is documented that much later, a series of migrations

took place from Sindh to Kachchh, and in this process, Sama Rajputs, later known as Jadejas,
came to this land and ruled here till the time of India’s independence. The tribes inhabiting the
modern Kachchh belong to Sandh, Banni, Rabari (Desi, Dhebaria and Vagadiya), Banjara,
Magwar, Samma, Jat, Mutwa and Ahir communities, who are mostly engaged in the professions
of agriculture, animal husbandry, handloom, construction work, etc.

Spot- 5

Location: Core drilling (Rann of kachchh ) near Dholavira

GPS reading : N 23ᵒ53’121” ; E 70ᵒ12’972

Topographic features of the area includes Kaladongar hill, Pachham Island , Khadir Island. This
area is around 30 km from the India Pakistan border. The present the geomorphology of the area
is as a result of interaction of climatic factors as well as tectonic forces.
 56

We can see the fault scarp produced by a major fault which is IBF (Island Belt Fault which is

concealed under Rann sediments ) on the north side of the location. This fault is also a big
transverse fault and this fault cut the IBF in discetting form and also this transverse fault go
towards Mainland of Kachchh. This location of Rann of kutchh is in between the Khadir Dome
and the Banjara Bed.

Spot – 6

Location : Fossil Wood Park Dhaulvia

GPS reading : N 23°53’121” ; E 70°12’972”

The fossilized tree of Jurassic age was recently discovered at Dholavira. The fossil tree is
at least 176 million years old and appears to be of Jurassic age. Dr. K C Tewari , principal
investigator at the geology department of the M S university , Vadodara, who studied samples of
the fossil.
 57

Geologists said that these trees remains similar to the tree

fossils associated with the Lathi formation ( Jurassic) of
Rajasthan Jaisalmer area . In that fossil park the fossil tree is
petrified wood which is associated with the Khadir formation. It
is comprised the sandstone- shale-limestone sequences which is
belonging to the Jurassic age (Aalenian- Bathonian) i.e. 187-
176 million years old.

The fossil logs are at least 8-10 m long and about one and
half meters in diameter. They need the protection and
preservation.
 58

DAY – 6

(22-2-2017)

Spot - 1

Location: Matanumud Ashapura Mata Mandir (Bhujai Road) Kutchh Basin.

GPS reading: N23°32’3.05”; E70°12’9.72’.

Here we have seen the Tertiary deposit of the Kutchh basin within the Cretaceous Age valley. In
this section the volcanic products like, pyroclastic deposits, Volcanic bomb and volcanic ash is
seen. These pyroclastic deposits are weathered product of Decan Traps. Deposits of sulfur rich
clay is also seen here.
 59

Early flow (step like structure) of the Deccan trap reached the Kachchh basin, in Kachchh total
28 flow structure of Deccan trap were mapped , these flows are of alkaline basalt in which
xenolith are also found. These xenolith indicate deep mantle origin.

Pyroclastic rocks : Pyroclastic rocks are the products of volcanic explosions; that is, they are
fragmental pieces of rock, whether they be minerals, crystals or glass, ejected from the vent.

>4 mm > 0.32 mm‎‎:lapilli, pumice, scoria, etc

> 32 mm‎‎:blocks, bombs

<4 mm > 0,25 mm‎‎:ash

<0.025 mm‎‎:fine ash, dust

 60

Volcanic Bomb : Fragments of lava that are ejected while molten or partially molten from
a volcano, some developing aerodynamic shapes while flying through the air, and landing with a
size over 64 millimeters in diameter.

Volcanic ash : Small particles, less than two millimeters, of igneous rock that form when a
spray of liquid magma is blown from a volcanic vent by escaping gas. These cool quickly,
usually into tiny glassy particles similar to pumice, which are lifted out of the vent by escaping
gas and carried away from the volcano by wind. These particles can be carried in the atmosphere
for hundreds to thousands of miles and present a hazard to aircraft. The smallest and most mobile
particles are known as "volcanic dust."

Spot - 2

Location: Naliya Narayan sarovar road, 2 km North of Nareda village.

GPS reading : (N23°34’720’ E68°38’623’)

 61

This bed rock river section is located at 2 km north of Nareda village near Nalia
village Narayan Sarowar. In this section weathered basalt of Deccan volcanic activity is seen.
Basalt present here is amygdaloidal in nature. This section represents the boundary of Mesozoic
and Tertiary. The volcanic rocks of Cretaceous age and Cenozoic rocks are in contact (known as
Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary). Significance of K/T boundary 5th mass extinction event
of the earth’s history, one of the largest extinction events. This event wiped out the almost
76% existing species of that time including dinosaurs and ammonites. Basalt is continuously
weathering to laterite. Volcanic ash deposit is also present over K/T boundary section. This
volcanic ash is the product of Deccan volcanism which was slowly settled over the contemporary
earth’s surface. This beds are generally spatially wide so these acts as one of the best marker
horizon.

Spot - 3

Location: Naliya Narayan Sarovar Road (4 km from J.P. Cement Mine)

GPS reading : N23ᵒ31’ 453” ; E68ᵒ41’135”

In this outcrop the Palaeocene,

Upper as well as Lower Eocene rocks are
present. The gypsiferous shales belongs to
Lower Eocene where as the age of the
overlying limestone rocks is Upper Eocene.
Limestone rocks are valuable raw material
for the cement industry. Fossils recovered
from this section are nummulites, shark
tooth, conodonts and corals.
 62

A nummulite is a large lenticular fossil, characterized by its numerous coils, subdivided

by septa into chambers. They are the shells of the fossil and present-day marine protozoan

Nummulites, a type of foraminifera. Nummulites commonly vary in diameter from 1.3 cm (0.5
inches) to 5 cm (2 inches) and are common in Eocene to Miocene marine rocks. They are
valuable as index fossils.
 63

Spot – 4

Location : Rakhri River Section (Fulra Limestone Bed )

GPS readingN23ᵒ29’272” ; E68ᵒ41’757”

In this section nummulitic limestone bed is present. This section is rich in nummulite fosils.
Fulra limestone is rich in CaCO3. The clasts as well as cementing material in these limestone
rocks are calcium carbonate. These rocks may also act as good source rock for petroleum. Earlier
this limestone was being used in cement industries, which lead to loss of these geological
archives of Upper Eocene age. On the combined effort of geologists and government the mining
of limestone from this reason is now stopped. The overlying beds on Fulra limestone are
bioturbated sandstone bed (Oligocene). Depositional sedimentary environment during the
deposition of these rocks was estuarine (delta region where river meets to the ocean). This zone
represents the shallow marine environment. Forums were found in the photic zone.
 64

Spot - 5

Location : Open cast mine J.P. Cement Industry

GPS reading: N23°28’836”; E68°41’582”

Open-pit, open-cast or open cut mining is a surface mining technique of extracting rock
or minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or borrow.

This form of mining differs from extractive methods that require tunneling into the earth,
such as long wall mining. Open-pit mines are used when deposits of commercially useful
minerals or rocks are found
near the surface; that is, where
the overburden (surface
material covering the valuable
deposit) is relatively thin or the
material of interest is
structurally unsuitable for
tunneling (as would be the case
for sand, cinder, and gravel).
For minerals that occur deep below the surface—where the overburden is thick or the mineral
occurs as veins in hard rock—underground mining methods are used to extract the valued
material.

Open-pit mines are typically enlarged until either the mineral resource is exhausted, or an
increasing ratio of overburden to ore makes further mining uneconomic. When this occurs, the
exhausted mines are sometimes converted to landfills for disposal of solid wastes. However,
some form of water control is usually required to keep the mine pit from becoming a lake, if the
mine is situated in a climate of considerable precipitation or if any layers of the pit forming the
mine border productive aquifers.

Here overburden material is thin layer of Oligcene sandstone rocks and rock of interest is
numullitic limestone rock of Upper Eocene age which is almost 100 % calcium carbonate
(Economically beneficial for cement industry).
 65

Spot 6

Location : 8km from Naliya Village from Narayan Sarowar

GPS reading : N23°19’9.41”; E68°48’3.12”

It is 8km from Naliya village towards Narayan Sarovar . In that particular location there are two
formation. First is the lower Miocene and the second formation is upper Miocene. In the lower
Miocene the fossiliferrous limestone are present and in the upper Miocene the shells of mollusks
are present.
 66

Spot - 7

Location : Nalia River Section ( 2 km North Of Narayan Village)

GPS reading: N23°16’277” ; E68°49’510”

This section is represented by alternating beds of calcareous sandstone and shale. The syn-
sedimentary deformation structure is present in this outcrop (fold which resembles to a
recumbent fold) , which indicates neo-tectonic disturbances in the area. Age of these rocks are
Pliocene.
 67

Spot - 8

Location : Mandavi Beach

This was last location of our geological field trip to Kuchchh . we collected the sample of
beach sand for grain size analysis. Mandvi is a port city located at 22.81°N 69.36°E where the
Rukhmavati river meets the Gulf of Kuchchh . It is about 56km south of the regional capital Bhuj
and approximately 446 km from the major Gujarati megacity of Ahmadabad. Here we saw the
present day log of ripples.
 68

Conclusion

This field was indeed very enlightening field as per learning of geology is concern.
Learning geology from books and field go hand in hand, merely from book could not give the
real sense of geology. This field provided the overall sense of structures & tectonics of Kuchchh
area as well as depositional sedimentary environment. Here is the brief of the structures and
fossils seen in the field:

Mechanical Structures – These structures are formed by various processes when the
sediments were being deposited. They are also known as primary structures. Structures seen –
Lamination, current bedding, cross bedding, graded bedding, ripple marks, sole marks, clastic
intrusions.

Chemical Structures – These structures are formed by various chemical processes and are
also known as secondary structures as they are formed after the deposition of the sediments.
Structures seen – concretionary structures (Iron Nodules, Shale Nodules), oolitic structures
(Dhosa Oolite), pisolitic structures.

Biological/ Organic Structures – these structures are imposed by various organisms,

which include footprints of animals, self impression of plants, makings of insect tracks and trails,
fossilized wood, moulds and casts. These rocks are fossiliferrous as it contains some organic
structures and organisms in it. Structures seen: Stromatolitic Limestone, Silicified Wood,
Burrows, Bioturbated Beds.
 69

References

1. Agarwal, S. K., Kutch Mesozoic: A study of the Jurassic of Kutch with special reference to
Jhura dome. J. Paleontol. Soc. India, 1957, 119–130.
2. Biswas, S. K. and Deshpande, S. V., Geological and tectonic maps of Kutch. ONGC Bull.,
1970, 7, 115–116.
3. Biswas, S. K. and Khattri, K. N., A geological study of earthquakes in Kutch, Gujarat, India.
J. Geol. Soc. India, 2002, 60, 131–142.
4. Biswas, S. K., Geology of Kutch, KDM Institute of Petroleum Exploration, Dehradun, 1993,
p. 450.
5. Biswas, S. K., Mesozoic rock-stratigraphy of Kutch, Gujarat. Q. J. Geol. Min. Metall. Soc.
India, 1977, 49, 1–52.
6. Biswas, S. K., Regional tectonic framework, structure and evolution of the western margin
basins of India. Tectonophysics, 1987, 135, 307–327.
7. Biswas, S. K., Rift basins in western margin of India and their hydrocarbon prospects with
special reference to Kutch basin. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., 1982, 66, 1467–1513
8. Biswas S. K ., Vol.37,1992, pp.1-29 Tertiary stratigraphy of Kachchh .J. Palaeontological
Society of India.
9. Biswas S. K ., 25 May,2005. A review of structure and tectonics of Kachchh basin, western
India, with special reference to earthquakes.J.Current Science.
10. Boggs, S. (2006) Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy (4th edition). Pearson
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ
11. Jackson, J. A. and White, N. J., Normal faulting in the upper continental crust: observations
from regions of active extension. J. Struct. Geol., 1989, 11, 15–36
12. Karmalkar, N. R. and Sarma, P. K., Plume affected upper mantle beneath Kutch: Evidence
from spinel lherzolite xenoliths and host alkali basalt. Deep Continental Studies in India,
2003, 13, 2–3.
 70

13. Kayal, J. R., Reena De, Sagina Ram, Sriram, B. V. and Gaonkar, S. G., Aftershocks of 26th
January Bhuj Earthquake in Western India and its seismotectonic implication. J. Geol. Soc.
India, 2002, 59, 395–418.
14. Krishnan, M.S., (1968). Geology of India and Burma, CBS Pulishers, New Delhi.
15. Kulkarni, V.N., Geology Of Gujarat Engineering Research Institute, P.W.D. Gujarat State
16. Maurya, D. M., Bhandari, S., Thakkar, M. G. and Chamyal, L. S., Late Quaternary fluvial
sequences of southern Mainland Kachchh, western India. Curr. Sci., 2003, 84, 1056–1064
17. Merh, S.S., (1995). Geology of Gujarat, Geological Society of India,Bangalore.
18. Nichols, G., (2009)Sedimentology and Stratigraphy (2nd edition). Wiley-Blackwell. John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication, UK.
19. Prasad, S., Ammonite biozonation of the Middle-Late Jurassic sediments with special
reference to Keera and Jara dome, Kachchh district, Gujarat. J. Geol. Soc. India, 1998, 52,
25–40.
20. Singh I. B.. August 1989. Dhosaoolite-A transgressive condensation horizon of Oxfordian
age in Kachchh, western India . Volume 34, issue2, J. Geol. Soc. India.
21. Sohoni, P. S., Structural studies on central Kachchh Mainland with special reference to
Quaternary tectonism, Unpublished Ph D thesis, M. S. University of Baroda, 2001.
22. Thakkar, M. G., Maurya, D. M., Rachna Raj and Chamyal, L. S., Morphotectonic analysis of
Khari drainage basin in Mainland Kachchh: Evidence for neotectonic activity along
transverse faults. Bull. Indian Geol. Assoc., 2001, 34, 205–220.
23. Thakkar, M. G., Maurya, D. M., Rachna Raj and Chamyal, L. S., Quaternary tectonic history
and terrain evolution of the area around Bhuj, Mainland Kachchh, western India. J. Geol.
Soc. India, 1999, 53, 601–610.
24. Tucker, M.E., (2001). Sedimentary Petrology – an introduction to the
origin of sedimentary rocks, Blackwell Publishing Company, UK.
25. www.portal.gsi.gov.in, accessed on 12th February 2017.
 68

References

1. Agarwal, S. K., Kutch Mesozoic: A study of the Jurassic of Kutch with special reference to
Jhura dome. J. Paleontol. Soc. India, 1957, 119–130.
2. Biswas, S. K. and Deshpande, S. V., Geological and tectonic maps of Kutch. ONGC Bull.,
1970, 7, 115–116.
3. Biswas, S. K. and Khattri, K. N., A geological study of earthquakes in Kutch, Gujarat, India.
J. Geol. Soc. India, 2002, 60, 131–142.
4. Biswas, S. K., Geology of Kutch, KDM Institute of Petroleum Exploration, Dehradun, 1993,
p. 450.
5. Biswas, S. K., Mesozoic rock-stratigraphy of Kutch, Gujarat. Q. J. Geol. Min. Metall. Soc.
India, 1977, 49, 1–52.
6. Biswas, S. K., Regional tectonic framework, structure and evolution of the western margin
basins of India. Tectonophysics, 1987, 135, 307–327.
7. Biswas, S. K., Rift basins in western margin of India and their hydrocarbon prospects with
special reference to Kutch basin. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., 1982, 66, 1467–1513
8. Biswas S. K ., Vol.37,1992, pp.1-29 Tertiary stratigraphy of Kachchh .J. Palaeontological
Society of India.
9. Biswas S. K ., 25 May,2005. A review of structure and tectonics of Kachchh basin, western
India, with special reference to earthquakes.J.Current Science.
10. Boggs, S. (2006) Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy (4th edition). Pearson
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ
11. Jackson, J. A. and White, N. J., Normal faulting in the upper continental crust: observations
from regions of active extension. J. Struct. Geol., 1989, 11, 15–36
12. Karmalkar, N. R. and Sarma, P. K., Plume affected upper mantle beneath Kutch: Evidence
from spinel lherzolite xenoliths and host alkali basalt. Deep Continental Studies in India,
2003, 13, 2–3.
13. Kayal, J. R., Reena De, Sagina Ram, Sriram, B. V. and Gaonkar, S. G., Aftershocks of 26th
January Bhuj Earthquake in Western India and its seismotectonic implication. J. Geol. Soc.
India, 2002, 59, 395–418.
14. Krishnan, M.S., (1968). Geology of India and Burma, CBS Pulishers, New Delhi.
15. Kulkarni, V.N., Geology Of Gujarat Engineering Research Institute, P.W.D. Gujarat State
 69

16. Maurya, D. M., Bhandari, S., Thakkar, M. G. and Chamyal, L. S., Late Quaternary fluvial
sequences of southern Mainland Kachchh, western India. Curr. Sci., 2003, 84, 1056–1064
17. Merh, S.S., (1995). Geology of Gujarat, Geological Society of India,Bangalore.
18. Nichols, G., (2009)Sedimentology and Stratigraphy (2nd edition). Wiley-Blackwell. John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication, UK.
19. Prasad, S., Ammonite biozonation of the Middle-Late Jurassic sediments with special
reference to Keera and Jara dome, Kachchh district, Gujarat. J. Geol. Soc. India, 1998, 52,
25–40.
20. Singh I. B.. August 1989. Dhosaoolite-A transgressive condensation horizon of Oxfordian
age in Kachchh, western India . Volume 34, issue2, J. Geol. Soc. India.
21. Sohoni, P. S., Structural studies on central Kachchh Mainland with special reference to
Quaternary tectonism, Unpublished Ph D thesis, M. S. University of Baroda, 2001.
22. Thakkar, M. G., Maurya, D. M., Rachna Raj and Chamyal, L. S., Morphotectonic analysis of
Khari drainage basin in Mainland Kachchh: Evidence for neotectonic activity along
transverse faults. Bull. Indian Geol. Assoc., 2001, 34, 205–220.
23. Thakkar, M. G., Maurya, D. M., Rachna Raj and Chamyal, L. S., Quaternary tectonic history
and terrain evolution of the area around Bhuj, Mainland Kachchh, western India. J. Geol.
Soc. India, 1999, 53, 601–610.
24. Tucker, M.E., (2001). Sedimentary Petrology – an introduction to the
origin of sedimentary rocks, Blackwell Publishing Company, UK.
25. www.portal.gsi.gov.in, accessed on 12th February 2017.