The Journal of Correctional Education 55(4) * December 2004

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi:

18th Century Swiss Educator
and Correctional Reformer

Fredalene B. Bowers, Thorn Gehring

Abstract
This is the second in a series of articlesonfamous correctionaleducators. Thefirst
article introducedMary Carpenter: 19th CenturyEnglish CorrectionalEducationHero.
(Editor'sNote: See the September 2003 Issuefor thefirst article) This articlefocuses on
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, 18th century Swiss educator. It begins with a summary of
Pestalozzi's earlylife and the experiences that influenced his ideals. The second section
identifes Pestalozzi'scontributionsin practicalorindustrial education, in literature, in
correctionalreform and as a humanistic educator. Thefinal section summarizes major
components of Pestalozzi's -method' of education, and offers a syntheticconclusion.
The authors hope this articlecan increasereaders knowledge of the history of
correctionaleducation and the primaryleaders in thefield.

Introduction
The following inscription can be found on a monument over Johann Heinrich
Pestalozzi's grave:

Here lies
Heinrich Pestalozzi,
Born in Zurich on 12th January 1746,
Died in Brugg on 17th February 1827.
Saviour of the Poor in the Neuhof,
Preacher of the People in 'Leonard and Gertrude,'
In Stans Father to Orphans,
In Burgdorf and Munchenbuchsee
Founder of the new Elementary School,
In Yverdon Educator of Mankind.

306
 The Journal of Correctional Education 55(4) * December 2004
Bowers, Gehring Pestalozzi: Educator a Correctional Reformer

Man, Christian, Citizen.

All for Others, Nothing for Himself.
Blessed be his Name. (Silber, 1960, p. 270-271)

The fact that the monument and inscription did not appear until 1846,
nineteen years after Pestalozzi's death (the one hundredth anniversary of his
birth), seems fitting for a man who was largely unappreciated, misunderstood
and often ridiculed during his lifetime. It was only in his later years, and even
more after his death, that educators, social reformers, philosophers, religious
leaders, government officials, and correctional educators began to understand
and appreciate the work and ideals of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. His concern
for 'the people' was evident in his belief in every man's right to an education,
in society's role in providing that education, and in the importance of the home
environment. His concern for legislation and the fair and humane treatment of
criminals may have been influenced by his own experiences with jails. During
the thirty years he spent in Neuhof, Pestalozzi lived in poverty. His lack of
interest in his personal appearance, his limited means, ragged clothing,
depressed mood and absentmindedness (or intense focus on his own thoughts)
often resulted in being mistaken for a vagabond and thrown into jail overnight.

Summary: the Main Themes of Johann Pestalozzi's Life

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi's early life played a significant role in his later
development and interests. The death of his father, at age thirty-three, left
Pestalozzi's mother with three young children and limited financial resources.
However, with the help of a faithful servant, Barbara Schmid, the two women
devoted their lives to raising the children. The roots of Pestalozzi's belief in the
'original goodness of man and of his dedication to the poor' resulted from the
unfailing love and attention given by his mother and this servant (Silber, 1960,
p. 4). Throughout his career and writings, the influence of these women was
evident.

...a human child needs sustained help and care, and these are given him
from the hour of his birth by his mother with complete unselfishness. It is
this moral attitude that turns her female animal instinct into a human
mother's love. Pestalozzi calls this loving care her fidelity. (Silber, 1960, p.
232).

307 -
 The Journal of Correctional Education 55(4) * December 2004
Pestalozzi: Educator a Correctional Reformer Bowers, Gehring

Pestalozzi also recognized the importance of a close relationship between

the home and education in the school to help ensure the child's success. His
writings continually emphasized the importance of the mother in a child's life
and the impact the mother-child relationship had on the child's development.
Although Pestalozzi was known as an imaginative and unselfish child,
these attributes were overshadowed by his lack of social skills and practical
abilities. The intense love and devotion by his mother and faithful servant
resulted in a sheltered environment and limited opportunity to interact with
other children or develop practical skills. Young Pestalozzi's awkward behavior
and eccentricities in social situations further ostracized him among his young
peers. These early social difficulties impacted Pestalozzi's philosophy of
education and resulted in his emphasis on practical training and socialization of
the child.
Later, as a young man at the university, he acquired a social activist
reputation and developed friendships with other young men interested in
raising the country's moral standards. (Quick, 1916, p.291). These friendships,
mainly with members of the Helvetic Society (a group of bright young men with
political and moral aspirations), later proved important contacts for his
educational reform ideas.
As a mature man, Pestalozzi felt his duties strongly, especially those
associated with citizenship (Quick, 1916, pp. 294-295). In 1798, under the new
Helvetian (Swiss) Republic, he served as a political mediator between the
country folk and the city government. He fought for the abolition of social
privileges, equality of all citizens, freedom of trade and tax reform. He was also
profoundly influenced by Rousseau's Emile, the French Revolution, and
humanitarianism.

Pestalozzi, the Industrial Educator

Originally prepared for the ministry, then for law, Pestalozzi eventually became
a farmer. He had "the double purpose of improving a waste tract of land
through new methods of cultivation and of living a life in accord with the
prevalent naturalistic ideals" (Monroe, 1912, p. 309). His farmhouse was called
"Neuhof" and it was funded by extensive loans (Quick, 1916, pp. 295-296).
Students were first enrolled at Neuhof in 1774. Pestalozzi wrote "Our position
entailed much suffering on my wife...nothing could shake us in our resolve to
devote our time, strength and remaining fortune to the simplification of the
instruction and domestic education of the people." (Quick, 1916, p. 297).
However, many of the children were not as unselfish or as devoted to the cause

308
 The Journal of Correctional Education 55(4) * December 2004
Bowers, Gehring Pestalozzi: Educator a Correctional Reformer

as Pestalozzi and his wife. "Very often the little beggars whom he had gathered
up waited only till they had received from him new clothing, and then ran
away and resumed their vagabond life" (Compayre, 1907, p. 421).
Pestalozzi's work in education has been summarized as an emphasis on
the point of view of the developing mind of the child. He believed that man's
improvement must come from two sources: education to strengthen man's
powers and legislation to improve conditions. Pestalozzi also emphasized that
education for a particular occupation 'must always be subordinate to the
universal aim of a general education' (Silber, 1960, p. 35).
From 1775-1780 Pestalozzi conducted, at Neuhof, what was probably the
first 'industrial school for the poor.' The children were engaged in raising
special farm products, in spinning and weaving of cotton and in other
occupations....they also spent some time in reading and in committing passages
to memory and especially in arithmetical exercises....But the combined functions
of manager, farmer, manufacturer, merchant, schoolmaster, were beyond the
ability of the reformer... (Monroe, 1912, p.309).
Pestalozzi was devastated when his experiment at Neuhof failed. 'My life
is devoted to the education of the poor; this is what I seek and nothing else'
(Silber, 1960, p.25). However, Neuhof was not a complete failure. Pestalozzi
gained much practical experience in administration and teaching, especially
with difficult children. He also learned 'that a successful education depended
on providing a child with security and on giving him genuine affection. These
were two principles to which Pestalozzi clung throughout his life.' (Heafford,
1967, p. 11).

Pestalozzi, the Writer

With the demise of Neuhof, Pestalozzi needed a means to make a living, thus,
he began his career as a writer.

During the next eighteen years, 1780-1798, Pestalozzi, as a participant in

the revolutionary movement, devoted himself chiefly to literary
activity....Social and political reforms were to be brought about by
education--not the current education, but a new process of development
that would result in the moral and intellectual reform of the people...The
most popular of all Pestalozzi's writings, the one that exerted the most
influence, was his Leonard and Gertrude, the first volume of which was
published in 1781. Written as a novel, it popularized the idea that he
initiated in practical reform. The purpose of the book was to depict the
 Th. In..rnl nf rnrrprinnal Fdiication 55(4) * December 2004

Pestalozzi: Educator a Correctional Reformer Bowers, Gehring

simple village life of the people and the great changes caused therein by
the insight and devotion of a single ignorant woman, Gertrude. By her
industry and patience and skill in educating her children she saves her
husband, Leonard, from idleness and drink. Neighbors, children and
neighboring families are finally brought within the influence of the new
ideas; and by the simple methods of this peasant woman this new purpose
in education effects the reform of the entire village. This was his mission
in life: to work out in detail the methods of this education that was to
effect the regeneration of society by securing for every child that moral
and intellectual development which was his natural right and inheritance.
(Monroe, 1912, pp. 309-310).

From 1787 to 1797 Pestalozzi's writings ceased. He had become famous,

and was frequently in the company of men such as the poet Goethe and the
philosopher Fichte. He was declared a "Citizen of the French Republic," despite
his Swiss nationality, "together with Bentham, Tom Payne, Wilberforce,
Clarkson, Washington, Madison, Klopstock, Kozciusk, etc." (Quick, 1916, p. 310).
Fichte urged him to complete his works and philosophy of education, and in
1797 Pestalozzi's books appeared in quick succession: Inquiry into the Course
of Nature in the Development of the Human Race, then a book on the ABCs,
and another of fables. (Quick, 1916, pp. 311-312).

Pestalozzi the Correctional Reformer

Pestalozzi's career as a writer provided the opportunity to advocate for humane
treatment within the criminal justice system. Prior to writing Legislation and
Infanticide in 1780 (published in 1783), Pestalozzi scoured the records of many
criminal cases. His research extended over several years and helped weave
together his philosophy on practical education, human nature and moral
development. Pestalozzi

examined the connections between circumstances and crime, crime and

punishment, punishment and education, education and national tradition,
national tradition and morals. He felt compassion for the offenders not only
because they lacked the material necessities of life; his belief in the original
goodness of man was shocked at the perversion it had suffered in them.
Convinced that it could not be completely extinguished even in the basest of
them, he felt it necessary to restore the criminal to true humanity both by
softening the obduracy which lay in him and by changing the circumstances

310
 The Joumal of Correctional Education 55(4) * December 2004
Bowers, Gehring Pestalozzi: Educator 8 Correctional Reformer

which had prevented him from being good. The responsibility for social
reform was laid upon the legislator. (Silber, 1960, p. 53).

His views.regarding corrections were very progressive for his time.

Pestalozzi believed

that prisoners are human beings, endowed with the same capacities,
emotions, prejudices, habits, and attachments as everybody else...The main
concern of the legislator must be directed towards the criminal's moral
restoration and his civil rehabilitation after his release. For this purpose the
building and the management of the prison must be arranged in a more
humane manner; the prisoner must get adequate air, be allowed to work,
be permitted to rest, and be rewarded for good behavior. Ways must be
found to reach his heart in order to stir him and so to prepare the way for
his reform. Pestalozzi is convinced 'that no punishment or revenge can
reform a man if they are not accompanied by kindness and love.' (Silber,
1960, P. 51).

In his writings on legislation and society, Pestalozzi reiterated his education

ideals. 'Education for good citizenship ...must proceed along two lines: it must
educate the people morally, and it must train their practical abilities for their
particular occupations to make them useful members of the community.' (Silber,
1960, p. 63).

Pestalozzi, the Humanistic Educator

In 1798, at more than 50 years old, Pestalozzi realized that he needed to show
his ideas in action, in addition to writing about them (Monroe, 1912, p. 310). It
was during this time that the French overran Switzerland and established a
Directory of five persons to run the country. Pestalozzi began writing material
to support the new government. Several directors favored his approach to
education, and Pestalozzi's school was funded. (Quick, 1916, pp. 314-315). He
launched a new career as schoolmaster, and his influence expanded steadily.
(Monroe, 1912, p. 310).
However, many of the Catholic Swiss cantons resisted the French, and the
revolutionary soldiers were fierce in their retaliatory massacres (Quick, 1916, p.
315). Pestalozzi took charge of education in a district of Switzerland that had a
large number of recently orphaned children. At Stanz, on the shores of Lake
Lucerne, he worked out the core of his program, combining learning activities
 The Journal of Correctional Education 55(4) * December2004
Pestalozzi: Educator &Correctional Reformer Bowers, Gehring

with work to establish a milieu in which students were "immediately interested."

(Monroe, 1912, pp.310-311). Perhaps because of his age, he was now fifty-two
years old, or his reaction to the revolution, Pestalozzi worked enthusiastically.
He wanted to prove that he had not wasted his life away in search of
impracticable ideas. To the students

he seemed no philanthropist, but only a servant of the devil, an agent of

the wicked government which had sent its ferocious soldiers and
slaughtered the parents...a Protestant who came to complete the work by
destroying their souls. Pestalozzi, who was making heroic efforts on their
behalf, seems to have wondered at the animosity shown him by the
people of Stanz...And yet in spite of enormous difficulties of every kind
Pestalozzi triumphed. (Quick, 1916, p. 316).

His five month experiment at Stanz proved one of the most memorable
events in the history of education. Pestalozzi was now completely satisfied that
he saw his way to giving children a right education, and 'thus raising the
beggar out of the dung-hill'; and seeing the right course he was urged by his
love of the people into taking it. (Quick, 1916, p. 333).
The institution Pestalozzi established at Stanz was an orphan asylum
(Compayre, 1907, p. 423). He wrote

Children instructed children; they themselves tried the experiment; all I did
was to suggest it. Here again I obeyed necessity. Not having a single
assistant, I had the idea of putting one of the most advanced pupils
between two others who were less advanced. (Pestalozzi, in Compayre,
1907, p. 424).

Pestalozzi called his approach at Stanz 'the result of a simple psychological

idea which I conceived intuitively.' (Silber, 1960, p. 116).

He was more concerned with the developing of their inner powers than
with obtaining spectacular results in learning regarded as 'mere words'; so
he attempted 'to make training in attentiveness, in carefulness, and of a
reliable memory precede that of the artificial powers of reasoning and of
judgment'... His method was not to follow any established doctrine but to
make use of the existing circumstances; not to put fixed notions into the

312
 The Journal of Correctional Education 55(4) - December 2004
Bowers, Gehring Pestalozzi: Educator 8 Correctional Reformer

heads of the children but to awaken their latent faculties....This 'simple

psychological idea' led to a revolutionary attitude in the field of education;
it turned the traditional method of teaching upside down. The pre-
Pestalozzian way started from the object; Pestalozzi started from the child--
he humanized education. (Silber, 1960,116).

In 1799, the very French soldiers whose behavior had brought him to Stanz
"drove him away again." They needed the school buildings for a military
hospital. (Quick, 1916, p. 317). Pestalozzi moved and began teaching at
Burgdorf where he developed the principle of the object lesson for mental
development. "Here Pestalozzi first announced his great aim, 'I wish to
psychologize education"' (Monroe, 1912, p. 312; Quick, 1916, p. 336). It was
here that he was able to implement and refine many of his innovative
educational ideas: the use of movable letters to teach spelling and reading,
visual and tactual aids to teach arithmetic, use of slates and slate pencils to
facilitate corrections, encouraging oral group answers, implementing physical
(gymnastic) exercises and activities, and constant interaction between teacher
and student. Word of the success spread and Burgdorf became the site of
many visits. 'Thousands came...there was hardy a day when the castle was not
full of strangers....Pestalozzi's method had been heard of from Petersburg to
Naples'. (Silber, 1960, p.132). "Pestalozzi was thinking not so much of the
children of Burgdorf as of the children of Europe. For Burgdorf...could not
contain him" (Quick, 1916, p. 336).

Focusing on his new challenge to the existing education Establishment, he

wrote How Gertrude Teaches her Children in 1801. Great public attention
was directed to his work, which was assisted by the government, and was
widely discussed through pamphlet and magazine controversy (Monroe,
1912, p. 312).

But the program was impacted by the withdrawal of funds and

disagreement among the Institute's directors, and eventually abandoned.
Around 1802

Pestalozzi made a journey to Paris, as a member of the consulta called by

Bonaparte to decide the fate of Switzerland. He hoped to take advantage
of his stay in France to disseminate his pedagogical ideas. But Bonaparte
refused to see him, saying that he had something else to do besides

313
 The inimal of Corrpctional Education 55(4) * December 2004

Pestalozzi: Educator a Correctional Reformer Bowers, Gehring

discussing the questions of a,b,c. Monge, the founder of the Polytechnic

School was more cordial, and kindly listened to the explanations of the
Swiss pedagogue. But he concluded by saying, 'It is too much for us!'
More disdainful still, Talleyrand said, 'It is too much for the people!"
(Compayre, 1907, pp. 434-435; emphasis in original).

The Swiss government took over the castle of Burgdorf in 1803, which he
had converted to a school. In exchange, they gave Pestalozzi the convent of
Munchen-Buchsee.
Then in 1805 he moved his operation to Yverdun (Compayre, 1907, p.
434), in a French-speaking district of Switzerland at the foot of Lake Neufchatel,
where Pestalozzi thought he would make more headway. He was correct.
Yverdun became a world-famous institute with Pestalozzi taking the role as the
director and renowned author. Yverdun was a place where educators,
philosophers and government leaders from two continents visited and shared
ideas. The Yverdun experiment continued for 20 years focusing on secondary
education and teacher preparation programs.
This was the origin of teacher education as we know it-and the root of
what would become the teacher licensure movement. It led eventually to the
modern systems of teacher certification or credentials, which are now accepted
as part of the education scene.
Monroe offered this summary of his life "what Rousseau had demanded in
a theoretic way for one individual, Emile, Pestalozzi demanded for every child,
no matter how poor and humble his surroundings or how limited his capacities"
(Monroe, 1912, p. 313). Pestalozzi defined education as "the natural,
progressive, harmonious development of all the powers and faculties of the
human being" (Monroe, 1912, p. 315). He sought to establish schools that were
"transformed homes, approximating the same relationships, duplicating the
same spirit, seeking the same ends...' (Monroe, 1912, p. 317).
The generic term 'family substitute institution' is used today to describe
such residential facility programs. One of the most famous in this category was
Wehrli, a Swiss family substitute institution established by Phillip Emanuel in
1810, and superintended by Johann Jakob Wehrli, a 20 year old school teacher.
Because of the close association between Wehrli and the themes of his own
educational approach, Pestalozzi was said to have been very interested in the
Wehrli institution, and astonished that Emanuel and Wehrli had been able to

314
 The Journal of Correctional Education 55(4) * December 2004
Bowers, Gehring Pestalozzi: Educator a Correctional Reformer

realize Pestalozzi's own ideas, even though he had never been a student of his
(Eriksson, 1976, p. 108). In sum, Pestalozzi was considered the origin of the
family substitute model.
Pestalozzi's instruction focused on immediately tangible objects, rather
than words, and on the sense impression of the student. This was known as
the object lesson.
'Mental' arithmetic, the syllabic and phonetic methods in language work,
and the study of geography and of nature in direct contact with natural
environment were some of the innovations in method. In general, the
arrangement of all modern textbooks is a direct... outgrowth of Pestalozzi's
efforts at analyzing the subject into its simplest elements and proceeding
then, by a gradual increase in the complexity of the material, to build up a
connected and symmetrical understanding of the subject. The old method
of beginning with a mastery of rules and principles as in arithmetic, of the
rules of abstract form in language, or of most general relations, as in
geography, history and the natural sciences, has been gradually
superseded. (Monroe, 1912, pp. 317-318).

Major Components of Pestalozzi's 'Method"

Morf, one of Pestalozzi's most capable disciples, summarized the instructional
method of "Father Pestalozzi." The components included:

1. Emphasis on observation or sense perception ("intuition").

2. Language always being rooted in observation of an object.
3. Judgment or criticism being inappropriate when students are learning.
4. Teaching "should begin with the simplest elements and proceed
gradually according to the development of the child...in
psychologically connected order."
5. Enough time should be directed to the lesson to allow mastery.
6. Teaching is not an exercise in dogmatism, but in development.
7. Teachers must respect students.
8. "The chief end of elementary teaching is not to impart knowledge and
talent to the learner, but to develop and increase the powers of his
intelligence."
9. Knowledge and power are related; skill results from learning
information.

315
 The Journal of Corredional Education 55(4) * December 2004
Pestalozzi: Educator a Correctional Reformer Bowers, Gehring

10. Love should regulate the relation between teacher and student,
"especially as to discipline."
11. The higher aims of education should regulate instruction. (Monroe,
1912, p. 318).

Pestalozzi was a correctional educator who impacted the larger, more

general fields of elementary education and secondary education, as well as
teacher preparation. "The great superiority of Pestalozzi over Rousseau is that
he worked for the people" (Compayre, 1907, p. 442).

Conclusion
Pestalozzi was a famous correctional educator who dared to live a principled
life, even in environments structured to foster exactly the opposite. Many
others demonstrated similar courage, but were not famous. Little was written
about them, so there is no record to discuss in a secondary source like the
current article.
The stakes are high for inmates and educators in this field. Inmates are
certainly not the only ones who can become "institutionalized." Even some of
the field's most famous giants, like Pestalozzi, met impediments that
temporarily knocked the wind from their sails.
Our intention is that the next article in this series on historic correctional
educators will present the work of Anton Makarenko. There are great
commonalities between Pestalozzi in Switzerland and Makarenko (1973) in the
Ukraine and Russia. Both provided preventive and institutional education for
children who suffered from wars wrought by adults. Pestalozzi's work followed
the devastation of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars;
Makarenko's followed World War I,the Bolshevik Revolution, and the Russian
Civil War. Pestalozzi's models served as a beacon for Froebel, the man who
invented the kindergarten. Froebel was prepared by Pestalozzi for work in
education, at his teacher's institute (Compayre, 1907, p. 449). Similarly,
Makarenko's models served as the exemplar for Soviet local education.
Because much of Pestalozzi's work was very advanced, many comparisons
can be made between him and other great contributors to the field of
correctional education/prison reform. For example, like John Howard (England,
1780s-'90s-see Bellows, 1948) and Elizabeth Fry (England, 1809-'30s-see
Corder, 1855), Pestalozzi steadfastly advocated humane treatment of prisoners.
Like Alexander Maconochie (South Pacific, 1840-'44-see Barry, 1958), he
emphasized the essential goodness of humanity. Like Mary Carpenter (England

316
 The Journal of Correctional Education 55(4) * December 2004
Bowers, Gehring Pestalozzi: Educator a Correctional Reformer

1850s-'70s-see Carpenter, 1974/1881), Pestalozzi helped initiate the innovative

concepts of industrial schools for the dangerous classes, and the monitorial
method of staffing peer tutors. Like Zebulon Brockway (U.S., 1860s-1912-see
Brockway, 1969/1912), he applied gymnastic exercises and other physical
activities to help sharpen students' mental abilities. Like William George (NY,
1895-1930s-see George, 1911), Pestalozzi encouraged confined students to
focus on the dispositions and skills required for good citizenship. Like
Brockway and Maria Montessori (Italy, early 20th cen.-see Ornstein and Levine,
2003), he used learning equipment that could be manipulated in the classroom,
such as movable letters. Like Thomas Mott Osborne (NY, 1913-'26-see
Tannenbaum, 1933), Pestalozzi focused on the evils that often accrue from
traditional social institutions. Like Kenyon Scudder (CA, 1941-'56-see Scudder,
1968/1952), he emphasized the elegant truth that prisoners are people.
Additional parallels with other contributors could be considered. The point
is that Pestalozzi's work was so far ahead of its time that it actually contained
the seeds of innovations that would take centuries to work out by the sustained
efforts of subsequent reformers. In this way Pestalozzi's contributions were fuel
that has fed modern correctional education and prison reform.
Pestalozzi's work transcends all the traditional categories that we are
accustomed to apply. He was a correctional educator, a vocational educator,
an educational administrator and counselor, etc. Perhaps most important,
however, Pestalozzi is recognized as the first innovator whose work ultimately
resulted in teacher education and teacher licensure. He was the origin of those
activities, and he was a correctional educator.
From this perspective, we can make the case that correctional education
was an important historical root from which all modern teacher education and
teacher qualifications eventually emerged. Pestalozzi's life was a central link
demonstrating that-in contrast with a common view as a minor or unimportant
branch of education-correctional education is at the very core of the struggle
to improve and consolidate education generally. Our struggle, like Pestalozzi's,
is to improve the world by improving the lives of our students and ourselves.
The next page presents yet another attempt to make the scope of his
contributions coherent.

317
 The Journal of Correctional Education 55(4) * December 2004
Pestalozzi: Educator a Correctional Reformer Bowers, Gehring

Chronological Suimmary of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi's Life and Work

1746 Born inZurich, Switzerland, son of a surgeon and grandson of a rural pastor.
1769 Married Anna Schulthess, a well-to-do Zurich lady.
1774 Their home, Neuhof, house for the poor, became a school and home for
approximately 50 people including children and servants.
1780-90 Wrote many fables with political and moral emphases, all identifying the harm
done to man's spiritual nature by his animal nature.
1781 Wrote Leonard and Gertude, a novel about the original goodness of human nature
and emphasizing the role of mothers and their importance ineducation.
1783 Wrote Legislation and Infanticide, the highly emotional Mannheim Prize winning
essay advocating a humane treatment of criminals through legislation.
1793 Became an honorary citizen of France.
1797 His book My Inquiries into the Course of Nature inthe Development of Mankind
was published, emphasizing self-determination over circumstances and the
importance of free will.
1798 Pestalozzi's orphan asylum at Stanz became a successful experiment in peer
education infive short months.
1799 His Burgdorf school opened with the closing of Stanz.
1801 How Gertrude Teaches her Children, written during his time at Burgdorf, explained
new educational ideas and ways of teaching.
1802 Journeyed to Paris, as a member of the Consulta, to meet with Napoleon and his
administrators.
1803 The Swiss Government took over Burgdorf; in exchange 'gave him Muchen-
Buchsee as a school site.
1805 Yverdun on Lake Neufchatel, the start of 20 years of the important secondary
education program and teacher preparation site.
1826 Pestalozzi's Swangsong published, a summary of his life endeavors.
1827 Pestalozzi died in Brug, Switzerland, at the age of 81.

References
Anderson, L.F. (1931). Pestalozzi. New York: AMS Press, Inc.
Barry, J. (1958). AlexanderMaconochie of Norfolk Island: A study of a pioneerin penal reform.
Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Bellows, H.W. (1948). John Howard: His life, character, and service. Illinois State
Penitentiary.
Brockway,Z. (1912/1969). Fiftyyearsofprisonservice:.Anautobiography.Montclair, NJ:
Patterson Smith.
Carpenter, J.E. (1974/1881). The le and work of Mary Carpenter. Montclair, NJ: Patterson
Smith.
Compayre, G. (1907). The history of pedagogy. London, England: Swan Sonnenschein
a Co.
Corder, S. (1855). Lfe of Elizabeth Fry: Compiledfrom her journaL Philadelphia, PA: Henry
Longsteth.
318
 The Journal of Correctional Education 55(4) * December 2004
Bowers, Gehring Pestalozzi: Educator a Correctional Reformer

De Guimps, R. (1892). Pestalozzi his ife and work. New York: D. Appleton and Company.
Eriksson, T. (1976). The reformers: An historicalsurveyof pioneer experiments in the treatment
of criminals. New York: Elsevier.
George,W. (1911). TheJuniorRepublic: Itshistoryandideals.NewYork: D.Appleton.
Hayward, R.H. (1904). TheeducationalideasofPestalozziandProbel.Westport, Connecticut:
Greenwood Press Publishers.
Heafford, M.R. (1967). Pestalozzi:His thought and its relevance today. London: Methuen 8
Co LTD.
Makarenko, A. (1973). The road to life: An epoch in education. New York: Oriole. (Three
books.)
Monroe, RM. (1912). A brief course on the historyof education. New York: MacMillan.
Ornstein and Levine. (2003). Foundationsof education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Pestalozzi, J.H. (1898). How Gertrude teaches her children. (L.E. Holland F.C. Turner, Trans.)
Syracuse, New York: C.W. Bardeen (Original work published 1801).
Quick, R.H. (1916). Essays on educational reformers. New York: D. Appleton.
Scudder, K. (1968A1952). Prisonersarepeople. New York: Greenwood Press.
Silber, Kate. (1960). Pestalozzi: The man andhis work. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Tannenbaum, F. (1933). Osbome of Sing Sing. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina
Press.

BiographicalSketches
FREDALENE B. BOWERS is an Associate Professor at Indiana University of Pennsylvania,
Indiana, PA. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh in Higher
Education/Child and Adolescent Development. She has worked extensively with at-risk
children and families and holds counseling and principal certification. She worked with
the PA Department of Corrections to develop the Managing Young Adult Offenders
Training Course for State Correctional Institution, Pine Grove, Indiana, Pennsylvania and is
an approved trainer for the PA Department of Corrections and the PA Department of
Education's Student Assistance Program.

THOM GEHRING has been a correctional educator since 1972, in NJ, VA, NY, CA, and in
other systems as a consultant. He served as a teacher, counselor, researcher,
administrator, and professor. Originally prepared as a secondary history teacher, Thom
earned his M.Ed. in Adult Education, and his Ph.D. in Urban/Correctional Education, from
Virginia Commonwealth University (dissertation on correctional school districts). He directs
the Center for the Study of Correctional Education at California State University, San
Bernardino.

319
COPYRIGHT INFORMATION

TITLE: Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi: 18th Century Swiss Educator

and Correctional Reformer
SOURCE: J Correct Educ 55 no4 D 2004
WN: 0434607259004

The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it

is reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article in
violation of the copyright is prohibited.

Copyright 1982-2005 The H.W. Wilson Company. All rights reserved.