Agroforestry Systems 37: 279–295, 1997.

 1997 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

An evaluation of agriculture, forestry and agroforestry

practices in a moderately alkali soil in northwestern India

G. SINGH, N. T. SINGH, J. C. DAGAR, H. SINGH and V. P. SHARMA

Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, 132 001, India

Key words: Acacia, cost–benefit ratio, Eucalyptus, pigeonpea–mustard rotation, Populus,

rice–wheat rotation

Abstract. Productivity, sustainability and economics of agriculture, forestry and agroforestry

land use practices were compared over a six year period in a split plot experiment on a
moderately alkali soil of the Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, India. Three
commercial trees of the area formed the main plot treatments and four crop sequences were the
sub-plots. The trees were: poplar (Populus deltoides), Acacia (Acacia nilotica) and Eucalyptus
(Eucalyptus tereticornis), and the crop sequences were (1) rice (Oryza sativa)-wheat (Triticum
aestivum) for four years followed by guinea grass (Panicum maximum)-oats (Avena sativa) for
two years; (2) rice-Berseem (Trifolium alexandrium) for four years followed by cowpea (Vigna
unquiculata)-Berseem for two years; (3) pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan)/sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)-
mustard (Brassica juncea) for three years followed by turmeric (Curcuma longa) for three years
and (4) no intercrops (only trees). Eucalyptus and poplar gained maximum height, girth and
woody biomass in six years when they were intercropped with rice crops in sequences 1 and 2.
Acacia attained maximum growth in the absence of intercrops. Protein content in guinea grass
was more under tree canopies than in the open. Soil amelioration during five years followed
the order: Acacia based system > poplar > Eucalyptus > sole crops. The benefit–cost ratio was
highest (2.88) in poplar based system and minimum (1.86) in Acacia based system. The study
indicated that growing trees and agricultural crops together is a better land use option in terms
of productivity, maintenance of soil conditions and economics.

Introduction

In India waste lands are estimated to cover an area of about 93.6 million ha,
about 3 million ha of which are alkali soils (Singh, 1992). These soils,
confined mainly to the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains, are characterised by high
pH throughout the profile, high exchangeable sodium, poor fertility, little infil-
tration, and a lack of natural vegetation cover; in many cases, they have hard
precipitated CaCO3 layers at about 1 m depth. A sizeable area of alkali land
in India is constituted by community lands.
Successful agro-techniques have been developed for raising salt-tolerant
tree plantations on alkali soils (Singh et al., 1993, 1994; Singh, 1995), and
considerable areas have recently been rehabilitated using these techniques in
the northwestern states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan and
Gujarat. However, farmers do not easily accept the idea of growing trees alone
owing to the long time lag involved in getting returns from trees compared
to crop cultivation. Little effort has been made in the past to grow commer-
cial trees along-side agricultural crops in a unified agroforestry system on
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moderately alkali lands. The present study was conducted in this context to
determine if a sustainable agroforestry system could be developed for the man-
agement of alkali soils.

Materials and methods

An experiment was planted in September/October 1989 at the Central Soil

Salinity Research Institute experimental farm. The farm represents alkali soils
of the subtropical, semi arid monsoonic regions. The mean annual rainfall is
about 700 mm, nearly 80% of which is received between July and September.
The pan evaporation exceeds precipitation throughout the year except during
the monsoon months. The maximum temperature often exceeds 40 °C (Figure
1). Geologically the area constitutes a part of Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains
and belongs to the pleistocene age. The soils are classified as Typic Salonatric
Calciorthicls with a sandy loam texture in surface and clay loam beneath it.
The initial properties of the experimental site are given in Table 1.
The experimental lay-out consisted of a split plot design with three repli-
cations, three commercial tree species in the major blocks and four cropping
treatments in the subplots. The tree species were Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus
tereticronis), Acacia (Acacia nilotica), and poplar (Populus deltoides). The
cropping treatments were: (a) rice (Oryza sativa)-wheat (Triticum aestivum)
for four years followed by guinea grass (Panicum maximum) and oats (Avena
sativa) in the fifth year; (b) rice-Berseem (Trifolium alexandrium) for four

Figure 1. Mean monthly weather parameters during the study period at Karnal, India.
Table 1. Changes in some properties of 30 cm soil in five years as affected by land use practices at Karnal, India.

Land use system Soil properties

Initial After five years

pH EC OC Available nutrients (Kg ha–1) pH EC OC Available nutrients (Kg ha–1)

dSm–1 (%) dSm–1 (%)
N P K N P K

Agriculture (sole crops) 9.26 0.56 0.22 ,65 14.3 238 8.81 0.45 0.29 075 13.6 208
Eucalyptus-based system 9.32 0.61 0.25 ,65 13.8 224 8.65 0.32 0.37 086 18.5 259
Acacia-based system 9.34 0.67 0.28 ,72 13.6 212 8.71 0.41 0.48 103 31.9 286
Poplar-based system 9.27 0.60 0.26 ,68 14.4 237 8.47 0.35 0.43 093 21.7 321
SE ± NS 0NS 0NS NS 0NS 009.8 0NS 0NS 0.03 006.5 02.3 015.1
281
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years followed by cowpea (Vigna unquiculata)-Berseem for two years; (c)

pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan)/sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)-mustard (Brassica
juncea) for three years followed by turmeric (Curcuma longa) and (d) sole
trees (without intercropping).
Saplings of Eucalyptus and Acacia were planted in September, 1989 and
that of poplar in February, 1990. The trees were planted in 20-cm wide and
100–120-cm deep holes dug out with tractor-mounted post-hole digger. These
augerholes were refilled with a mixture of original dug out soil plus 3 kg
gypsum and 8 kg farm manure in each augerhole. Planting distance was 4 m
between rows and 2 m between the plants. Plot size was 12 × 12 m accom-
modating 18 plants per plot. Inter-row space was amended with gypsum equiv-
alent to gypsum requirement of the soil before the first intercrop was planted
in the summer (kharif season) of 1990. All intercrops included in the exper-
iment were also planted in an adjacent field in sole stands (without trees).
Year-wise sequence of crops grown during the study period is given in
Table 2. An unweeded control (fallow for five years) was also kept. Usual
agronomic schedules (Table 3) were followed for raising different intercrops.
The tentative irrigation quantity and schedules for each rotation followed
throughout the study period are given in Table 4.
Yearly observations on survival, height and girth growth of trees were
recorded. The results reported in the paper pertain to five-year-old plantings.
Similarly, yearly yields of all crops were recorded. Nearly six years after
planting (in May–June 1995) an alternate row of trees was harvested to assess
biomass accumulation and to make more room for the intercrops and also to
reduce shade effects. After harvesting, the biomass was separated into bole,
branches and foliage biomass and air dried weight of each was recorded.
Soil samples were collected from two different places within each sub-
plot from 0–15 and 15–30 cm depths before the start and after five years.
Composite samples were prepared for each depth separately for each subplot.
The samples were air dried under shade, grounded to pass through a 2 mm
sieve and analysed for pH, EC, organic carbon, available N, P and K contents
following standard methods (Jackson, 1967).
Dried leaf litter samples were analysed for nitrogen (by Kjeltec II auto-

Table 2. Sequence of crops grown during the study period at Karnal, India.

Crop 1990–1991 1991–1992 1992–1993 1993–1994 1994–1995 1995–1996

rotations
S W S W S W S W S W S W

R–W/GG–O R W R W R W R W GG O GG –
R–B/CP–B R B R B R B R B CP B R –
P–M/T P M P M S M T T T

S = summer season; W = winter season; R–W = rice–wheat; GG–O = guinea grass–oats; R–B
= rice-Berseem; CP = cowpea; P–M = pigeonpea–mustard; T = turmeric; S = sorghum.
Table 3. Agronomic schedules followed for raising intercrops at Karnal, India.

Crop Growing season Seed rate, Fertilizers added, kg/ha Remarks

kg/ha
N P 2O 5 ZnSO4

Rice Summer 0040 150 0– 50 ZnSO4 was not applied in 1991

(June–October)
Wheat Winter 0120 120 050 0–
(November–April)
Berseem Winter 0025 015 050 0– P applied twice (first crop and
(October–May) again in 1994–1995)
Mustard Winter 0005 015 40 0–
(October–March)
Pigeonpea Summer 0015 015 40 0–
(May–November)
Sorghum Summer 0015 100 0– 0–
(June–September)
Turmeric (April–February) 2000 200 60 kg in 1993–1994 and 25
25 kg in 1994–1995
Oats Winter 0120 120 50 0–
(November–March)
Guinea grass Summer 0020 075 0– 0–
(May–September)
Cowpea Summer 0030 020 55 0–
(May–September)
283
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Table 4. Irrigation quantity and schedules followed for different treatments during the study
period at Karnal, India.

Treatment Total water Schedules followed

A. Sole trees 156 cm 6–8 irrigations/year for first 2 years

and 2–3 irrigation/year later on
B. Sole crops
(a) Rice–wheat/ 492 cm Rice 8–12
GG–oats Wheat 5–7
GG 5
Oats 4
(b) Rice–Berseem/ 636 cm Rice 8–12
cowpeas–Berseem Berseem 8–10
Cowpeas 3
(c) Pigeonpea–mustard or 258 cm Pigeonpea 3
sorghum/turmeric mustard 3
Sorghum 4
Turmeric 7–9
(c) Crops + trees Same as for Same as for sole crops
(agroforestry) sole crops

matic nitrogen analyser), phosphorus (vanadomolybdo phosphoric yellow

colour method), sodium and potassium (flame photometer) and sulphur (by
turbidity method; Massoumi and Cornfield, 1993). Mg, Ca, Mn, Fe and Zn
were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Protein content was
computed by multiplying the nitrogen content by 6.25. Chemical composi-
tion of the litter of three species is given in Table 5.

Results and discussion

Tree survival

Tree survival after five years was more for Acacia and Eucalyptus compared
to poplar trees (Table 6). However, there was no effect of different intercrops

Table 5. Mean chemical composition of tree leaf litter at Karnal, India.

Tree species Nutrients

N P K Ca Mg S Na Fe Zn Mn
————————— g/kg ————————— —— mg/kg ——

Eucalyptus 1.24 0.07 0.05 2.07 1.08 0.13 0.20 3248 40.5 201
Acacia 2.57 0.26 1.05 1.90 1.15 0.11 0.12 8578 80.5 292
Poplar 1.38 0.15 0.68 3.75 1.25 0.19 0.22 3892 34.0 366
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Table 6. Tree survival after five years as affected by intercrops at Karnal, India.

Tree species Treatments Mean

Pigeonpea– Rice–wheat/ Rice–Berseem/ Sole

mustard/ guinea grass– cowpeas– planting
turmeric oats Berseem
————————————— Survival % —————————————

Eucalyptus 090 91 94 98 93
Acacia 100 98 98 96 98
Poplar 096 87 91 57 83
Mean 096 92 94 84 91
SE ± for: trees (T) = 2.7; crops (C) = NS; T × C = 6.2

on tree survival. In general, less number of trees survived in the absence of

intercrops. Even in sole tree treatment, the survival of poplar was markedly
less (57%) compared to that of Eucalyptus or Acacia. The low survival in
the former was probably due to moisture stress especially during the months
of high evaporative demand (April–June). The total amount of water applied
to sole trees was about a quarter of that applied in intercropped treatments.
Most of the poplar plants died in the third year when irrigations were reduced
from 6–8 irrigations/year during first two years to 2–3 irrigations/year
afterwards. When irrigations were reduced from the third year onwards, the
poplar suffered most indicating its sensitivity to moisture stress in compar-
ison to that of Eucalyptus or Acacia trees. Earlier studies have also indicated
that adverse effects of high exchangeable sodium on plant growth are accen-
tuated under conditions of high evaporative demands and water stress condi-
tions (Acharya and Abrol, 1978).

Tree girth

The mean girth recorded at breast height (GBH) by five year old poplar and
Eucalyptus was significantly higher than that of Acacia trees (Table 7).
Further, poplar attained significantly greater girth than Eucalyptus. The GBH
of all the trees was significantly more with rice–wheat/guinea grass-oats
intercrop than with pigeonpea/sorghum–mustard–turmeric and/or rice–
Berseem/cowpea–Berseem crops. The girth increment of Eucalyptus was
less with pigeonpea/sorghum–mustard/turmeric rotation than with other two
rotations, perhaps because the young saplings were smothered by the fast
growing pigeonpea during the establishment stage. The antagonistic effect of
pigeonpea–mustard rotation on trees during the establishment stage was two
fold: competition for moisture and/or smothering effect of intercrops. For
example Eucalyptus was affected both by less water availability (six irriga-
tions/year) and also the smothering effect of pigeonpea and mustard which
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grew much taller than Eucalyptus saplings during establishment phase, where
Acacia growth was affected mainly because of smothering effect because six
irrigations/year to pigeonpea and mustard could meet the water needs of
Acacia trees also. In the case of poplar, it was mainly moisture competition
but not smothering effect, because poplar plants were much taller (2.5 m) at
planting than Eucalyptus and Acacia saplings. While the intercrops helped
Eucalyptus and poplar grow faster, Acacia was affected adversely. Acacia
grew best in the sole treatment and poorest along with intercrops of
rice–Berseem/cowpea–Berseem. It is probable that the application of more
water (100–130 cm/year) in the rice–Berseem/cowpea–Berseem sequence
affected Acacia adversely.

Biomass

Biomass yields of different trees as affected by intercrop treatments nearly six

years after planting (Table 6) show that, irrespective of intercrops the mean
biomass accumulated in bole, branches and foliage in six years was maximum
in Acacia and minimum in Eucalyptus. More biomass accumulation in Acacia
is probably due to its greater tolerance for soil alkalinity compared with
Eucalyptus and poplar. In the case of poplar and Eucalyptus, 70–80% biomass
was accumulated as bole biomass whereas in Acacia the bole biomass hardly
constituted 33% of the total tree biomass.
The total biomass in Eucalyptus markedly declined when grown either as
sole plantations or in association with pigeonpea/sorghum–mustard–turmeric
compared to its association with rice–wheat/guinea grass–oats and/or rice–
Berseem/cowpea–Berseem rotations. It is probable that the application of less
water in the sole plantation (about 156 cm) and with pigeonpea/sorghum–
mustard/turmeric intercrops (about 258 cm) compared to rice–wheat/guinea
grass–oats (about 492 cm) and rice–Berseem/cowpea–Berseem (636 cm)
sequences resulted in less Eucalyptus biomass. Acacia biomass, however, was
maximum (185 kg/tree) without intercrops and minimum (98 kg/tree) when
grown along with rice–Berseem/cowpea–Berseem rotations. It appears that
high moisture regime associated with these crops affected Acacia establish-
ment adversely. On the other hand, poplar gained maximum biomass in six
years when it was intercropped with rice–wheat/guinea grass–oats but
produced least biomass as sole plantation.

Performance of intercrops

During initial five years

The adverse effects of tree canopies on the intercrops started appearing two
years after transplanting and increased significantly up to the fourth year. Total
rice grain yield in four years was 67, 58 and 53% under Eucalyptus, Acacia
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and poplar, respectively, compared to its yield in the open without trees
(Table 7). Similarly, in comparison to open, Berseem yielded 62, 55 and 60%
green fodder when grown with Eucalyptus, Acacia and poplar trees, respec-
tively. Cowpea which replaced rice as the intercrop in the fifth year did not
perform well under Acacia and poplar trees. Its performance under Eucalyptus
was moderate where it yielded nearly 40% compared to its yield in the open.
In the second crop sequence rice–wheat was followed for four years and
later replaced with guinea grass–oats sequence in the fifth year. In this
sequence too, yields of rice and wheat were maximum under Eucalyptus trees
and minimum when grown under Acacia and poplar trees. Low yields under
Acacia canopies could mainly be due to shade effect. Low yield of rice with
poplar was also mainly due to shade effect. The wheat yield under poplar
was affected owing to moisture competition and accumulation of leaf litter

Table 7. Girth at breast height and total biomass of six year old trees as affected by intercrop
treatments at Karnal, India.

Treatments Biomass, kg/tree GBH

(cm)
Bole Branches Foliage Total

Eucalyptus
Pigeonpea–mustard/turmeric 049 25 12 086 37.8
Rice–wheat/guinea–oats 087 22 18 127 44.3
Rice–Berseem/cowpea–Berseem 091 25 20 136 41.9
Sole planting (only treees) 072 17 13 102 40.4
Mean 075 20 16 110 41.1
Acacia
Pigeonpea–mustard/turmeric 041 60 28 129 37.0
Rice–wheat/guinea–oats 041 58 28 127 39.6
Rice–Berseem/cowpea–Berseem 032 37 29 098 33.8
Sole planting (only trees) 066 82 37 185 41.0
Mean 045 59 30 134 37.8
Poplar
Pigeonpea–mustard/turmeric 083 32 10 125 54.3
Rice–wheat/guinea–oats 100 40 12 152 61.7
Rice–Berseem/cowpea–Berseem 086 28 12 126 57.6
Sole planting (only trees) 051 18 07 076 47.1
Mean 080 30 10 120 53.7

SE ± Bole Branches Foliage

A. Tree biomass Trees (T) 5.76 5.87 2.09
Crops (C) 4.52 2.99 0NS
T×C 7.80 5.47 3.66
B. GBH Trees (T) 1.54
Crops (C) 1.52
T×C 2.64
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on the surface which affected wheat germination adversely. Similarly inter-

crop affects on trees were also two fold: competition for light and moisture
depending upon the requirements of the component species for these factors.
For example, guinea grass being a more water demanding crop than sorghum
performed poorly with poplar than with Acacia. Guinea grass and poplar both
need more water for growth than Acacia plus guinea grass. Further, in liter-
ature, guinea grass is reported tolerant to shade (East and Felker, 1993). This
could be the reason why sorghum gave less yield under Acacia than guinea
grass. The wheat yield under tree canopies ranged from 51 to 56% of its yield
in the absence of trees. Guinea grass planted under the canopies of four-year-
old trees gave maximum yield under Eucalyptus canopy (60% of its yield in
the open) and minimum under poplar canopy (only 8% of its yield in the open).
On the other hand, oat yields were almost similar under the three tree canopies.
In the third cropping sequence, pigeonpea and mustard rotation was
followed for two years. Performance of pigeonpea was poor during the initial
two years; therefore, it was replaced with sorghum fodder in the third year.
In the fourth year and onwards single crop of turmeric (Curcuma longa)
replaced this rotation. Total mustard yield in three years was 2.3 Mg/ha under
Eucalyptus, 1.8 Mg/ha under Acacia, 2.0 Mg/ha under poplar and 4.0 Mg/ha
in the open fields. Green fodder yield of sorghum was maximum under poplar
canopies and minimum when planted under three years old Acacia canopies.
Total rhizome yield of turmeric was almost same under Eucalyptus canopy
and in the open. Its yield was, however, 27 and 38% of its yield in the open
when grown under Acacia and poplar trees. Low turmeric yield under Acacia

Table 8. Total grain, fodder and rhizome yields of intercrops in five years grown with and
without trees at Karnal, India.

Crop rotations Yield, Mg/ha

Eucalyptus Acacia Poplar Open

Rice–Berseem/cowpea–Berseem
Rice grain 014.4 012.5 011.8 021.6
Berseem fodder 239.7 212.7 234.6 389.1
Cowpea fodder 018.0 004.6 002.5 045.0
Rice–wheat/guinea grass–oats
Rice grain 013.4 011.8 010.3 021.0
Wheat grain 009.0 008.1 008.4 016.0
Guinea grass fodder 018.1 012.3 002.5 030.0
Oats fodder 023.8 024.0 025.6 042.0
Pigeonpea-mustard/turmeric
Pigeonpea grain 000.7 000.8 000.2 000.7
Mustard grain 002.3 001.8 002.0 004.0
Sorghum fodder 018.3 008.6 022.8 050.0
Turmeric rhizome 022.3 005.9 008.3 022.1
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and poplar trees may be due to more shade during summer months which is
otherwise an active growth period for turmeric in our situations. The vegeta-
tive growth of turmeric was satisfactory but it formed few or no rhizomes under
Acacia trees. Higher turmeric yield in partial shade as compared to open con-
ditions and complete shade was also obtained by Dhyani and Chauhan (1989).
From the performance of different crops it appears that in the initial two
to three years rice–wheat or rice–Berseem can be successfully intercropped
with Eucalyptus, poplar and Acacia. After three years, these crops may be
replaced with guinea grass and oats as fodder crops. Turmeric proved an excel-
lent intercrop for four to five-year-old Eucalyptus plantations. Arora and
Mohan (1986) also found turmeric to be the best intercrop for established
tree plantations.

Intercrop yields after removing alternate tree rows

An alternate row of trees was harvested after about six years for biomass
estimation and to reduce the shade effect of trees on the associated crops. A
marked improvement in intercrop yields occurred when these were planted
after removing an alternate row of trees (Table 9). For example, rice gave
almost similar yield under six years old Eucalyptus plantations and in the
open. Guinea grass also performed similarly with and without Acacia trees.
Improved intercrops performance after the harvest of an alternate row of trees
is probably due to improved light penetration to the intercrops. Thinning of
trees proved an important stand management technique for increasing
economic returns of agroforestry plantations.

Effect on soil properties

pH and EC

The average decrease in pH five years after planting was maximum in poplar-
based system and minimum when crops were grown without trees (Table 1).

Table 9. Grain, fodder and rhizome yields of intercrops planted with trees (after removing an
alternate tree rows) and in the open at Karnal, India.

Trees Rice Guinea grass Turmeric Mean

———————————— (Mg/ha) ————————————

Eucalyptus 4.2 14.2 15.5 11.3

Acacia 3.2 16.2 13.0 10.8
Poplar 3.7 09.4 09.4 07.5
Open 4.3 16.3 17.0 12.5
Mean 3.9 14.0 13.7 10.5
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Decrease in pH in Eucalyptus and Acacia-based systems was of similar

magnitude. Reductions in soil EC were greater when trees alone or trees plus
intercrops were planted together than crops grown without trees. The average
decrease in EC during the study period was 0.11, 0.29, 0.26 and 0.25 dS/m
in sole crops, Eucalyptus, Acacia and poplar-based systems, respectively.
Larger decreases in pH and EC in poplar-based systems probably occurred
due to higher leaf litter additions compared with Acacia and Eucalyptus based
systems.

Organic carbon

The organic carbon (OC) accretion in the soil was much higher when trees
were associated with agricultural crops. Maximum build up in the surface 30
cm soil occurred under Acacia based system followed closely by poplar and
Eucalyptus based systems. Our earlier investigations at the same site also
showed appreciable build up in OC status of alkali soils when planted to
trees (Gill, 1985; Singh and Gill, 1992; and Singh et al., 1994). A higher OC
status under Acacia and poplar trees results from higher annual litter yields
and a better quality of the added material. In sole crops block, the highest
OC was observed when no crops were grown during the study period
(unweeded fallow for five years). The higher build up in this treatment may
probably be due to less cultivation of the field as compared to cropped soil
block and also due to yearly underploughing of miscellaneous vegetation once
a year. In the case of all the tree based systems maximum OC build up was
observed where rice–Berseem/cowpea–Berseem rotation was followed.

Available nitrogen

The N accretion to the soil was maximum in Acacia-based system followed

closely by poplar-based system. Minimum build-up was observed when crops
were grown in the open without trees. Irrespective of the tree canopies, the
maximum increase in available N of 0–30 cm soil occurred where rice–
Berseem/cowpeas–Berseem sequence was followed. Even in sole crops,
highest N build up was noted in rice–Berseem/cowpea–Berseem and minimum
in rice–wheat/guinea grass–oats crop rotations. The higher build up of N in
a rotation having Berseem and cowpeas intercrops may be due to biological
N fixation through symbiosis.

Available phosphorus

The available P status of 0–30 cm soil improved in tree-based systems. The

increase was of the order of 18.3, 7.3 and 4.7 kg/ha of P in Acacia, poplar
and Eucalyptus-based systems. P build up under Acacia seemed to be high,
but the trend for the three tree species matches with the quantity and quality
of litter of each species. For example, litter fall in poplar and Acacia of three
 291

to five year age (5–7 Mg/ha/year) is almost of similar magnitude. The Acacia
litter that has more P (0.26%) than that of poplar (0.15%) returns more P to
the soil. Further, alkali soils contain appreciable amounts of P even in the
lower layers (10–20 kg/ha) (Chhabra et al., 1981) which might have been
mined by the tree roots and returned to the surface layers through leaf fall.
Conversely slight depletion of available P occurred when crops were grown
without trees, the highest depletion (5.1 kg/ha) being in rice–wheat/guinea
grass–oats rotation.

Available potassium

Available K status of the soil increased by 74 kg/ha in Acacia-based system,

84 kg/ha in poplar-based system and 35 kg/ha in Eucalyptus-based system in
five years. However, there was depletion of 30 kg/ha from the experimental
soil when crops were grown without trees. In sole crops block, maximum K
depletion was observed where rice–Berseem/cowpea–Berseem were grown.
Trees without inter-crops enriched the surface soil K, maximum accretion of
138 kg/ha being in Acacia and minimum of 115 kg/ha in Eucalyptus. A large
build up of K in Acacia and poplar based systems may be ascribed to the
higher yearly turn over of litter and better quality of litter of both the species
compared to Eucalyptus litter. The higher build up under sole tree canopies
was probably due to absence of removal by intercrops.

Soil water status

Moisture content in the profile was determined at 15 cm intervals upto a 120-

cm depth during June and August 1994, seven days after a 6-cm irrigation in
each treatment. The moisture content in the profile was much higher during
August (Figure 2a) as compared to June (Figure 2b). During both months, soil
moisture seven days after irrigation was conspicuously higher in the control
(without tree component) and in Acacia-based system compared to treatments
having Eucalyptus and poplar trees. The overall status was in the order:
Control > Acacia > poplar > Eucalyptus. This indicated that Eucalyptus and
poplar used more soil water than Acacia. Differences in moisture content of
the soil in trees alone and trees + intercrops treatments were neglegible.
Similarly, the differences with respect to associated intercrops were very small.
More intensive observations at short intervals may be needed to determine
soil water use in such tree crop-based farming systems.

Nitrogen and crude protein in guinea grass and cowpea fodders

Nitrogen and crude protein estimated at the harvest stage of both guinea grass
and cowpea showed that N and protein content in guinea grass was highest
when it was grown under Acacia and minimum in the control without trees
(Table 10). East and Felker (1993) in Texas also found higher average crude
292

(A)

(B)

Figure 2. (A) Moisture distribution in the profile seven days after irrigation in June, 1994 at
Karnal, India (a) sole trees (b) with turmeric (c) with guinea grass and (d) with cowpea.
(B) Moisture distribution in the profile seven days after irrigation in August, 1994 at Karnal,
India (a) sole trees (b) with turmeric (c) with guinea grass and (d) with cowpea.
 293

Table 10. Protein content of guinea grass and cowpea planted under tree canopies and in the
open at Karnal, India.

Treatment Protein content (%) of crops

Guinea grass Cowpeas Mean

Control 05.6 16.4 11.0

Eucalypus 07.1 14.9 11.0
Acacia 10.0 15.4 12.7
Poplar 08.0 13.0 10.5
Mean 07.7 14.9 0–
SE ± for: Trees (T) = 0.38, crops (C) = 0.25, T × C = 0.73

protein content in green panic when it was grown under mesquite than in the
open. Probably, low concentration in the control could be due to the dilution
effect as the total dry matter production in control was maximum. In case of
cowpea, the nitrogen percent and crude protein were highest in the control
and minimum when it was grown along with poplar. The crude protein in
cowpea was almost similar under Eucalyptus and Acacia canopies. Mean of
both crops further showed that both N % and crude protein were markedly
improved when these crops were grown under Acacia trees. Higher protein
content in fodder crops under Acacia may be the result of improved fertility
status of the soil in this treatment.

Financial evaluation of different systems

The financial analysis of different land uses was based on the benefit–cost
ratio (BCR), net present worth (NPW) and the payback period (PBP), at 18%
discount rate (Gittinger, 1982). Eighteen percent is the common rate of interest
charged by the financial institutions on the loans advanced to the farmers. The
streams of costs incurred and the direct benefits derived from each land use
system were worked out. For agroforestry (trees + crops), the costs included
are the initial expenditure for planting trees plus the cultivation costs such as
land preparation, seed, fertilizers, irrigation, hoeing, weeding and harvesting/
thrashing for raising intercrops. In agriculture (sole crops), the expenditure
incurred for raising the crops was the same as for raising intercrops in the
agroforestry practice. For calculation of direct benefits i.e. timber/firewood
from trees; prevailing market prices were taken while, in valuation of crop
output, farm harvest prices were adopted. The benefit–cost ratio was highest
(3.30) in case of poplar (rice–wheat) followed by poplar (rice–Berseem) and
the lowest (1.76) in Acacia with rice and Berseem sequence (Table 11). In
the case of trees alone poplar was the most profitable system followed by
Acacia and the lowest income was in Eucalyptus. The value of net present
294

Table 11. Benefit–cost ratio (BCR), net present worth (NPW) and payback period (PBP) of
various land uses at Karnal, India.

Land use Discount rate (18%)

BCR NPW PBP

(Rupees) (years)

Eucalyptus 1.99 13,618 6

Eucalyptus (rice–Berseem) 2.23 48,797 2 1/ 4
Eucalyptus (rice–wheat) 2.06 34,820 2
Acacia 2.02 22,569 6
Acacia (rice–Berseem) 1.76 31,033 2
Acacia (rice–wheat) 1.80 29,347 1 3/ 4
Poplar 2.38 15,807 5 1/ 2
Poplar (rice–Berseem) 2.95 80,668 2
Poplar (rice–wheat) 3.30 81,804 2 1/ 4
Rice–Berseem 2.39 53,724 –
Rice–wheat 2.79 49,007 –

1 US$ = Rupees 36 (April, 1997).

worth was also positive in all cases and varied from Rs. 13,618 to 81,804.
The payback period showed that the whole cost of system can be recovered
within two to three years in case of agroforestry and in six years in case of
trees alone. The payback period in case of agroforestry was less because the
inter-crop yields (rice and wheat) were quite high during first three years. The
payback period criterion also showed that agroforestry is more profitable than
forestry alone. At current market rates, a poplar based agroforestry system is
the most profitable and economically viable land use system. Since poplar in
general is sensitive to sodicity its cultivation alongwith crops should be prac-
ticed in soils having pH < 9.0.

Conclusion

1. This six year field trial clearly indicated that agroforestry is a better land
use option than forestry and agriculture in moderately alkali soils. It further
proved that growing trees along with crops should not be viewed only as
a better and economically viable food, fodder, timber and firewood pro-
duction system but also as a promising option to maintain better soil
condition.
2. Poplar and Eucalyptus based agroforestry proved more promising than an
Acacia based system owing to favorable effect of intercrops on trees and
better price for poplar and Eucalyptus wood in the market.
3. Rice–wheat/rice–Berseem intercrops can be successfully grown with
poplar, Eucalyptus and Acacia trees during the initial three years without
 295

much reduction in their yields. To augement better returns in latter years

these crops may be replaced with turmeric/guinea grass/oats depending
upon their compatibility with the tree species. Thinning of trees at about
six years stage proved an important stand management technique for
increasing economic returns from the intercrops. In addition to generating
revenue for the farmers, this stand management practice reduced compe-
tition for light and enhanced intercrop yields significantly.
4. The soil conditons were much improved in terms of the build up of soil
organic matter, N, P, and K when trees were associated with agricultural
crops. The improvement in soil condition with different trees was in the
order: Acacia based system > poplar > Eucalyptus > agriculture (sole
crops). Protein quality of guinea grass was significantly better when grown
with trees than without trees.

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