George Backus - Continuum Mechanics

Continuum Mechanics
George Backus
Insitute for Geophysics and Planetary Physics
University of California, San Diego
S
Samizdat
Press
Continuum Mechanics
George Backus
S
Samizdat Press Golden White River Junction
Published by the Samizdat Press
Center for Wave Phenomena

Department of Geophysics
Colorado School of Mines
Golden, Colorado 80401
and
New England Research
76 Olcott Drive
White River Junction, Vermont 05001
c Samizdat Press, 1997
Samizdat Press publications are available via FTP

from landau.mines.edu or 138.67.12.78.
Or via the WWW from http://landau.mines.edu/~ samizdat
Permission is given to freely copy these documents.
Contents
Dictionary D-1
Five Prerequisite Proofs PP-3
I Tensors over Euclidean Vector Spaces 1

1 Multilinear Mappings 3
1.1 Denition of multilinear mappings : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3
1.2 Examples of multilinear mappings : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4
1.3 Elementary properties of multilinear mappings : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 6
1.4 Permuting a multilinear mapping : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 7
2 Denition of Tensors over Euclidean Vector Spaces 11

3 Alternating Tensors, Determinants, Orientation, and n-dimensional Right-
handedness 13
3.1 Structure of nV : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13
3.2 Determinants of linear operators : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 17
3.3 Orientation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 21
4 Tensor Products 25
4.1 Denition of a tensor product : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 25
4.2 Properties of tensor products : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 25
i
ii CONTENTS
4.3 Polyads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 28
5 Polyad Bases and Tensor Components 31

5.1 Polyad bases : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ::::::: : : : : : 31
5.2 Components of a tensor relative to a basis sequence: Denition : : : : : : 33
5.3 Changing bases : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ::::::: : : : : : 35
5.4 Properties of component arrays : : : : : : : : : : : ::::::: : : : : : 36
5.5 Symmetries of component arrays : : : : : : : : : : ::::::: : : : : : 37
5.6 Examples of component arrays : : : : : : : : : : : : ::::::: : : : : : 38
6 The Lifting Theorem 41

7 Generalized Dot Products 47
7.1 Motivation and denition : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 47
7.2 Components of P hqiR : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 50
7.3 Properties of the generalized dot product : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 51
7.4 Applications of the generalized dot product : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 57
8 How to Rotate Tensors (and why) 67

8.1 Tensor products of linear mappings : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 67
8.2 Applying rotations and reections to tensors : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 71
8.3 Physical applications : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 73
8.4 Invariance groups : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 76
8.5 Isotropic and skew isotropic tensors : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 80
9 Dierential Calculus of Tensors 89

9.1 Limits in Euclidean vector spaces : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 89
9.2 Gradients: Denition and simple properties : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 95
9.3 Components of gradients : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 102
9.4 Gradients of dot products : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 105
9.5 Curvilinear coordinates : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 108
CONTENTS iii
9.6 Multiple gradients and Taylor's formula : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 113

9.7 Dierential identities : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 115
10 Integral Calculus of Tensors 119

10.1 Denition of the Integral : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 119
10.1.1 Mass distributions or measures : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 119
10.1.2 Integrals : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 120
10.2 Integrals in terms of components : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 123
11 Integral Identities 127

11.1 Linear mapping of integrals : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 127
11.2 Line integral of a gradient : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 128
11.3 Gauss's theorem : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 130
11.4 Stokes's theorem : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 131
11.5 Vanishing integral theorem : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 132
11.6 Time derivative of an integral over a moving volume : : : : : : : : : : : : 134
11.7 Change of variables of integration : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 135
II Elementary Continuum Mechanics 139

12 Eulerian and Lagrangian Descriptions of a Continuum 141
12.1 Discrete systems : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 141
12.2 Continua : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 142
12.3 Physical quantities : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 144
12.4 Derivatives of physical quantities : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 147
12.5 Rigid body motion : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 151
12.6 Relating continuum models to real materials : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 159
13 Conservation Laws in a Continuum 163

13.1 Mass conservation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 164
13.1.1 Lagrangian form : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 164
iv CONTENTS
13.1.2 Eulerian form of mass conservation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 165

13.2 Conservation of momentum : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 168
13.2.1 Eulerian form : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 168
13.2.2 Shear stress, pressure and the stress deviator : : : : : : : : : : : : 182
13.3 Lagrangian form of conservation of momentum : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 187
13.4 Conservation of angular momentum : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 195
13.4.1 Eulerian version : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 195
$ $
13.4.2 Consequences of S T =S : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 200
13.5 Lagrangian Form of Angular Momentum Conservation : : : : : : : : : : : 209
13.6 Conservation of Energy : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 210
13.6.1 Eulerian form : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 210
13.6.2 Lagrangian form of energy conservation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 214
13.7 Stu : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 215
13.7.1 Boundary conditions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 222
13.7.2 Mass conservation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 224
13.7.3 Momentum conservation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 227
13.7.4 Energy conservation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 231
14 Strain and Deformation 235

14.1 Finite deformation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 235
14.2 Innitesimal displacements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 240
15 Constitutive Relations 249

15.1 Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 249
15.2 Elastic materials : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 252
15.3 Small disturbances of an HTES : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 256
15.4 Small disturbances in a perfectly elastic earth : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 265
15.5 Viscous uids : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 272
III Exercises 279

DICTIONARY D-1
Logic
) \implies" (e.g. A ) B where A and B are sentences.)
, \implies and is implied by" (e.g. A , B where A and B are sentences.)
i \if and only if" | same as ,
:= \is dened as"
8 \for every"
9 \there exists at least one"
91 \there exists exactly one"
3 \such that"
Sets (same as \Classes")

(a1 : : : a6 ) is an (ordered) sequence of objects. (a1 : : : an) is also called an ordered
n-tuple. Order is important, and (a1 a2 a3) 6= (a2 a1 a3). However, duplication,
e.g. a1 = a2 , is permitted.
fa1 : : : a6 g is a set of objects. Order is irrelevant, and fa1 a2 a3g = fa2 a1 a3g =
fa3 a1 a2g, etc. Duplication is not permitted. All a are dierent.
(a1 : : : 6 a4 : : : a6) := (a1 a2 a3 a5 a6).
fa1 : : : 6 a4 : : : a6 g := fa1 a2 a3 a5 a6g.
is the empty set, the set with no objects in it.
R := set of all real numbers.
R+ := set of all non-negative real numbers.
R+ := set of all positive real numbers.
D-2 DICTIONARY
C := set of all complex numbers.
f1 : : : ng := set of integers from 1 to n inclusive.
fx : p(x)g is the set of all objects x for which the statement p(x) is true. For example,
fx : x = 2y for some integer yg is the set of even integers. It is the same as
f2x : x is an integerg.
2 \is a member of." Thus, \a 2 A" is read \the object a is a member of the set A. The
phrase \a 2 A" can also stand for \the object a which is a member of A"
62 \is not a member of"

\is a subset of." A
B means that A and B are sets and every member of A is a
member of B .
\is a proper subset of." A B means that A

B and A 6= B (i.e., B has at least one
member not in A).
A \ B := the set of all objects in both A and B . (Read \A meet B .")
A B := the set of all objects in A or B or both. (Read \A join B .")
AnB := the set of all objects in A and not B . (Read \A minus B .")
Cartesian A B := the set of all ordered pairs of (a b) with a 2 A and b 2 B .

products
8
>
> A1 : : : An := the set of all ordered n-tuples (a1 : : : an) with a1 2 A1, az 2 A2 : : : an 2
>
>
< An.
>
>
>
>
: nA := the set of all ordered n tuples (a1 : : : an) with a1 a2 : : : an all members of A.
Same as A : : : A (n times).
DICTIONARY D-3
Functions
Function is an ordered pair (Df f ). Df is a set, called the \domain" of the function,
and f is a rule which assigns to each d 2 Df an object f (d). This object is called
the \value" of f at d. The function (Df f ) is usually abbreviated simply as f . In
the expression f (d), d is the \argument" of f .
Range of function is a set Rf consisting of all objects which are values of f . Two
equivalent denitions of Rf are
Rf := fx : 9d 2 Df 3 x = f (d)g
or
Rf := ff (d) : d 2 Df g :
f = g for functions means Df = Dg and for each d 2 D, f (d) = g(d).

f (W ) for a function f and a set W is dened as ff (w) : w 2 W g. If W \ Df =6 0 then
f (W ) =6 0.
d j! f (d) is a shorthand way of describing a function. For example, if Df = R and
f (x) = x2 for all x 2 R, we can describe f by saying simply x j! x2 under f . In
particular, 2 j! 4 under f .
f jW is the \restriction" of f to W . It is dened whenever W is a subset of Df . It is the

function (W g) such that for each w 2 W , g(w) = f (w). Its domain is W .
\Extension." If g is a restriction of f , then f is an extension of g to Df .

f ( v0), f (u0 ). Suppose U and V are sets and f is a function whose domain is U V .
Suppose u0 2 U and v0 2 V . Dene two functions g and h as follows:
Dg = U and 8u 2 U g(u) = f (u v0)

Dh = V and 8v 2 V h(v) = f (u0 v):
D-4 DICTIONARY
Df
d
f
-1
f
Rf
-1
r = f(d ), d = f (r )
Figure D-1:
Then g is often written f ( v0), and h is often written f (u0 ). The dot shows where
to put the argument of the function.
P is dened when A
Df and when f (A) consists of objects which can be
a2A f (a)
added (e.g., real numbers or vectors). The symbol stands for the sum of all the
values f (A) for a 2 A. The number of terms in the sum is the number of objects in
A, so A must be nite unless some kind of convergence is assumed.
IU , the identity function on the set U , has domain U and eect u j ! u. That is,
IU (u) = u, 8u 2 U .
\Invertible." A function f is invertible if f (d) = f (d0) ) d = d0, 8d d0 2 Df . That is,
if r 2 Rf , there is exactly one d 2 Df such that r = f (d). In other words, for each
r 2 Rf , the equation f (d) = r has exactly one solution d 2 Df .
\Inverse," f ;1. If f is invertible, its inverse f ;1 is dened to be the function whose
domain is Rf and such that for each r 2 Rf , f ;1(r) is that unique d 2 Df such that
DICTIONARY D-5
f (d) = r. That is, d = f ;1(r) is the unique solution of r = f (d). Note Df ;1 = Rf ,

Rf ;1 = Df . See Fig. D-1.
For example, if the domain is R+ , both the functions x j! x2 and x j! x3 are
invertible, and their inverses are x j! x1=2 and xj! x1=3 . However, if the domain
is R, the function x j! x2 is not invertible.
Note that if f is invertible, so is f ;1, and (f ;1);1 = f .
Mappings
A Mapping is an ordered triple (U V f ) in which U and V are sets, f is a function,
Df = U , and Rf
V . We say that \the function f maps U into V ." The mapping
is often abbreviated simply as f if the context makes clear what U and V are.
f : U ! V is the usual way of writing the mapping (U V f ) if one wants to note explicitly
what U and V are. The symbol \f : U ! V " is read \the mapping f of U into V ."
It can also stand for the sentence \f is a function which maps U into V ." In this
latter usage it is equivalent to \f (U )
V ."
F (U ! V ) := the set of all functions mapping U into V .
Injective. If f is invertible, f : U ! V is an \injective" mapping or an \injection."
Surjective. If Rf = V , f : U ! V is a \surjective" mapping or a \surjection."
Bijection. If f : U ! V is both injective and surjective, it is \bijective," or a \bijection."
Note: If f : U ! V is a bijection, so is f ;1 : V ! U .
Composition g f : Suppose f : U ! V and g : V ! W . Then g f : U ! W is
the mapping dened by requiring for each u 2 U that (g f )(u) = gf (u)]. The
function g f is called the \composition" of g with f . Note that the order in which
the functions are applied or evaluated runs backward, from right to left.
D-6 DICTIONARY
Note: If f : U ! V and g : V ! W and h : W ! X then

h (g f ) = (h g) f: (D-1)
Note: If f : U ! V and g : V ! W are bijections, so is g f : U ! W , and

(g f );1 = f ;1 g;1:
Note: If f : U ! V is a bijection, f ;1 f = IU and f f ;1 = IV .
Note: Suppose f : U ! V and g : V ! U . Then
i) if g f = IU , then f is an injection
ii) if f g = IV , then f is an surjection
iii) if g f = IU , and f g = IV then f is a bijection and g = f ;1 .
Note: If f : U ! V then f IU = IV f = f .
Permutations
A permutation is a bijection : 1 : : : n ! f1 : : : ng. It is an \n-permutation" or a
\permutation of degree n."
Sn := the set of all n-permutations. It has n! members. The product of two per-
mutations and is dened to be their composition, . If e = If1:::ng then
e = e = and ;1 = ;1 = e for all 2 Sn. These facts, and the above notes
on pg. iv, make Sn a group under the multiplication dened by = . It is
called the symmetric group of degree n. Its identity is e.
(i j ) transposition or interchange. If i 6= j and 1 i j n (i.e. fi j g
f1 : : : ng) then
(i j ) stands for the permutation 2 Sn such that (i) = j , (j ) = i, and (k) = k
if k 62 fi j g. This permutation is called the \transposition" or \interchange" of i
and j . Note that (ij ) (ij ) = e, the identity permutation.
Theorem 1 (See, e.g., Birkho and MacLane, A Survey of Modern Algebra.) If

2 Sn, is the product of n ; 1 or fewer transpositions. There are many ways to
DICTIONARY D-7
write as a product of transpositions, but all have the same parity (i.e., all involve
an even number of transpositions or all involve an odd number of transpositions.)
even, odd. If 2 Sn, is even or odd according as it can be written as the product of
an even or an odd number of transpositions.
sgn := +1 if is even, := ;1 if is odd.
Note: sgn (1 2 ) = (sgn 1 )(sgn 2 ), and sgn e = 1. sgn is read \signum of ."
Note: sgn = sgn ;1 because ;1 = e, and 1 = sgn e = sgn ;1 =
(sgn )(sgn ;1 ). But sgn = 1.
Arrays
An array of order q is a function f whose domain is
Df = f1 : : : n1g : : : f1 : : : nq g:
The array is said to have dimension n1 n2 : : : nq .
fi1 :::iq If i1 2 f1 : : : n1 g i2 2 f1 : : : n2g : : : iq 2 f1 : : : xq g, then f (i1 : : : iq ) is
often written fi1 i2:::iq or f i1:::iq or fi1 i2 i3 i4:::iq etc. There are 2q ways to write it.
The object f (i1 : : : iq ) is called the entry in the array at location (i1 : : : iq ) or
address (i1 : : : iq ). The integers i1 : : : iq are the \indices", and each can be either
a subscript or a superscript. What counts is their right-left order. We will never
use symbols like fklij .
(n) is the n-dimensional Kronecker delta. It is an n n array with ij(n) = 0 if i 6= j ,
ij(n) = 1 if i = j . Usually the (n) is omitted, and it is written simply ij , or ij , or
i j , or i j .
z n factors
}| {
" ( n) is the n-dimensional alternating symbol. It is an n n : : : n array, with nn
entries, all 0 or +1 or ;1. It is dened as follows:
D-8 DICTIONARY
) = 0 if any of i : : : i are equal i.e., if fi : : : i g 6= f1 : : : ng.

"(i1n:::i n 1 n 1 n
If fi1 : : : ing = f1 : : : ng, then there is a unique 2 Sn 3 i1 = (1) : : : in =

(n). In that case, "(i1n:::i ) = "(n)
n (1):::(n) = sgn .
Usually the "(n) is written without the n as "i1:::in , or "i1 i2 :::in , or "i1 :::in , etc.
Example: "11 = 0, "12 = 1, "21 = ;1, "22 = 0: (n = 2)
Example (n = 3):
"123 = "231 = "312 = 1
"213 = "132 = "321 = ;1
all other "ijk = 0. Thus, "111 = 0, "112 = 0, etc.

Einstein index conventions. i) If an index appears once, without parentheses, in
each term of an equation, the equation is true for all possible values of the
index. Thus, \ij = ji" says that \ij = ji" for all i j 2 f1 : : : ng. This is
a true statement. \"ijk = "ijk " says that \"ijk = "jik for i j k"f1 2 3 g. This
is a false statement. The correct statement is "ijk = ;"jik .
ii) If an index appears twice in any expression but a sum or dierence, a sum over
all possible values of that index is understood. Thus, if Aij is an n n array,
Aii stands for Pni=1 Aii. If ui and vj are rst order arrays of dimension n, uivi
stands for Pni=1 uivi , and ui=vi stands for Pni=1 ui=vi, but ui + vi and ui ; vi
stand for the i'th entries in two arrays, not for Pi(ui + vi) or Pi(ui ; vi ).
iii) If an index appears three or more times in an expression other than a sum or
dierence, a mistake has been made. Thus, if Aijkl is an n n n n array,
Aiiii is never written alone. The sum is written out as Pni=1 Aiiii.
iv) Parentheses \protect" an index from the conventions. Thus, A(ii) refers to a
particular element in the array, the one at location (ii). And v(i) = w(i) means
equality only for the particular value of i under discussion, not for all possible
values of i. The element Aiiii in an n n n n array is written A(iiii) to
DICTIONARY D-9
make clear that no sum is intended. Strictly speaking, the denition of the
Kronecker delta, using these conventions, reads (ij) = 0 if i 6= j , and (ii) = 1
for all i.
An array A of order r is symmetric (antisymmetric) in its p'th and q'th indices
if they have the same dimension, np = nq , and
Ai1 : : : ip;1ipip+1 : : : iq;1 iq iq+1 : : : ir

= Ai1 : : : ip;1 iq ip+1 : : : iq;1ipiq+1 : : : ir :
(The + is for symmetric A, the ; is for antisymmetric A). The array is totally
symmetric (antisymmetric) if it is symmetric (antisymmetric) in every pair of
indices.
Some properties of ij and "i1:::in are listed below.
1. ij = ji
2. ii(n) = n
3. ij Ajk1:::kp = Aik1:::kp for any array A of suitable dimension. ij Ak1 jk2:::kp =
Ak1ik2 :::kp , etc. In particular, ij jk = ik .
4. "i1:::in is totally antisymmetric.
z n factors
}| {
5. If Ai1 :::in is an n n : : : n array which is totally antisymmetric, there
is a constant such that
Ai1 :::in = "i1:::in :

6. "i1:::in "j1:::jn = P2Sn (sgn) i1j(1) : : : i1 j(n) (The Polar Identity). The
two special cases of interest to us are
n = 2: "ij "kl = ik jl ; il jk which implies "ij "kj = jk and "ij "ij = 2
n = 3:
"ijk "lmn = il jmkn + im jnkl + injl km
;im jlkn ; il jnkm ; injmkl
D-10 DICTIONARY
which implies "ijk "lmk = il jm ;im jl and "ijk "ljk = 2il and "ijk "ijk =
6.
Some applications of "i1 :::ln are these. If Aij is a real or complex n n
array whose determinant is det A, then
7.
Ai1j1 Ai2j2 : : : Ain jn "j1:::jn = (det A) "i1:::in :
In real three-space, suppose x^1 x^2 x^3 is a right-handed triple of mutually
perpendicular unit vectors (that is, x^1 (^x2 x^3 ) = 1 ). Suppose ~u = uixî
and ~v = vj x^j . Then
~u ~v = uivi
~u ~v = xî"ijk uj vk or
(~u ~v)i := xî (~u ~v) = "ijk uj vk :
If ~r = rixî is the position vector in real three-space, R3 , and w~ : R3 ! R3
is a vector eld, with
w~ (~r ) = wi(~r )^xi then
r~ w~ = divergence of w~ = @w@ri
i
r~ w~ = curl of w~ = xî "ijk @w k

@rj :
A very important general property of arrays is the following:
Remark 1 Suppose Aijk :::kp is antisymmetric in i and j , while Sijl :::lq is symmetric in
1 1
i and j . Then
Aijk1:::kP Sijl1:::lq = 0:
Proof:
The subscripts k and l are irrelevant, so we omit them. We have Aij Sij =
;AjiSji because Aij = ;Aji and Sij = Sji. Now replace the summation index
DICTIONARY D-11
j by i and the index i by j . Then
AjiSji = Aij Sij :
Putting these two results together gives Aij Sij = ;Aij Sij , so Aij Sij = 0.
Vector Space Facts

Fields: A eld is a set F of objects which can be added, subtracted, multiplied and
divided according to the ordinary rules of arithmetic. Examples are R, C , the set
p
of rational numbers, and the set of numbers a + b 2, where a and b are rational.
We will use only the elds R and C , and usually F = R.
Denition of vector spaces: A vector space is an ordered quadruple (V , F , ad, sc)
with these properties:
i) V is a non-empty set. Its members are called vectors.
ii) F is a eld. Its members are called scalars.
iii) ad : V V ! V . This function is called vector addition.
iv) sc : F V ! V . This function is called multiplication by scalars.
The remaining properties make more sense if we introduce a new notation. For any
~u~v 2 V and c 2 F we dene
~u + ~v : = ad(~u~v)
c~v = ~vc := sc(c~v)
The additional properties which make (V F ad sc) a vector space are properties of
ad and sc as follows (letters with ! are vectors, those without ! are scalars):
v) ~u + ~v = ~v + ~u
vi) ~u + (~v + w~ ) = (~u + ~v) + w~
D-12 DICTIONARY
vii) (a + b)~u = a~u + b~u

viii) a(~u + ~v) = a~u + a~v
ix) a(b~u) = (ab)~u
x) 0~u = 0~v for any ~u~v 2 V
xi) 1~u = ~u
The vector 0~u is called the zero vector, written ~0. The vectors (;1)~v and ~u + (;1)~v
are written ;~v and ~u ; ~v respectively.
Example 1: F is a eld. V is the set of all ordered n-tuples of members of F , so a
typical vector is
~u = (u1 : : : un) with u1 : : : un 2 F:
The addition and multiplication functions are
~u + ~v := ad(~u~v) := (u1 + v1 : : : un + vn)
c~v := sc(c~v) := (cv1 : : : cvn)
The zero vector is ~0 = (0 : : : 0). The space V is usually written F n.
Example 2: F = R. V is the set of all ordered n tuples of members of R+ , so a typical
vector is
~u = (u1 : : : un) with u1 : : : un 2 R+ :
The addition and multiplication functions are
~u + ~v := ad(~u~v) := (u1v1 : : : unvn)
c~v := sc(c~v) := (v1c : : : vnc ):
The zero vector is ~0 = (1 1 : : : 1).

Example 3: Let (V F ad sc) be any vector space and let S be any non-empty set.
Dene a new vector space (VS F adS scS ) as follows:
VS = F (S ! V ) the set of all functionsf : S ! V :
DICTIONARY D-13
To dene adS and scS we note that if f and g are functions in VS and c 2 F then
adS (f g) and scS (c f ) are supposed to be functions in VS , i.e., adS (f g) : S ! V
and scS (c f ) : S ! V . To dene these functions, we must say what values they
assign to each s 2 S . The denitions we adopt are these:
adS (f g)] (s) = f (s) + g(s) (D-2)
scS (c f )] (s) = cf (s): (D-3)
Following the convention for vector spaces, we write adS (f g) as f + g and scS (c f )
as cf . Thus, f + g and cf are functions whose domains are S and whose ranges are
subsets of V . The denitions (1) and (2) read thus: for any s 2 S
(f + g)(s) = f (s) + g(s) (D-4)
(cf )(s) = cf (s): (D-5)
These are not \obvious facts." They are denitions of the vector-valued functions
f + g and cf .
In VS , the zero vector is the function which assigns to each s 2 S the zero vector in
V.
Example 4: F = real numbers = R. V = set of all continuous real-valued functions
on the closed unit interval 0 x 1. ad and sc are dened as in Example 3,
page D-12. (This is a vector space, because if f and g are continuous functions so
is f + g and so is cf for any real c.)
Example 5: F = R. V = set of all continuous positive real valued functions on
0 x 1. ad and sc as dened in Examples 3 and 4. This is not a vector space.
There are scalars c 2 F and vectors f 2 V such that cf 6 2V . For example, if f 2 V
then (;1)f 6 2V . In other words, the function sc in this case is not a mapping from
F V to V .
Notation: Usually the vector space (V F ad sc) will be called simply the vector space
V . We will almost never use the notations ad(~u~v) or sc(c~v), but will use ~u + ~v
D-14 DICTIONARY
and c~v and ~vc. V will be called a vector space over F , or a real or complex vector
space if F = R or C .
Because of vector space rules v) and vi), there is no ambiguity about Pni=1 ~ui when
~u1 : : : ~un 2 V . For example, if n = 4, all of ~u1 +u2 +(~u3 + u4)], (~u2 +~u4)+(~u3 +~u1),
~u1 + ~u2) + u~3] + u~4 ~u4 + (~u2 + ~u1)] + ~u3, etc., are the same.
When ~u1 : : : ~un 2 V and a1 : : : an 2 F , we do not even need the P. We can use
the index conventions to write Pni=1 ai~ui as ai~ui.
Facts about ~0. If a 2 F , then a~0 = ~0 because a~0 = a(0~0) = (a0)~0 = 0~0 = ~0. Also, if
a 2 F , ~v 2 V , and a 6= 0 , ~v 6= ~0, then a~v 6= ~0. For suppose a~v = ~0 and a 6= 0.
Then a;1 2 F , and ~v = 1~v = (a;1a)~v = a;1 (a~v) = a;1~0 = ~0. Finally, ~0 + ~u = ~u
because ~0 + ~u = 0~u + 1~u = (0 + 1)~u = 1~u = ~u.
Linear mappings: Suppose V and W are both vector spaces over the same eld F , and
L 2 F (V ! W ). We call L a \linear mapping" if for any ~u, ~v 2 V and c 2 F it is
true that
L(~u + ~v) = L(~u) + L(~v)

L(c~u) = cL(~u):
L(V ! W ) is the set of all linear mappings from V to W . 1

It is a vector space over F if it's ad and sc are dened as in example 3, page D-12.
If L 2 L(V ! W ) is a bijection, then L;1 2 L(W ! V ). And then L is called an
\isomorphism" and V and W are said to be isomorphic. Intuitively speaking, two
isomorphic vector spaces are really the same space. Each member of V corresponds
to exactly one member of W , and vice versa, and ad and sc can be applied in either
V or W with the same result. For example, if F = R, then the two spaces in
examples 1 and 2 on page D-12 are isomorphic. If V is the space in Example 2,
1 Note that if L 2 L(V ! W ) and M 2 L(U ! V ), then L M 2 L(U ! W ).
DICTIONARY D-15
then the isomorphism L : Rn ! V is given by
L(u1 : : : un) = (eu1 : : : eun )

and
L;1(v1 : : : vn) = (ln v1 : : : ln vn):
~ sc~ ) with
Subspaces: A subspace of vector space (V F ad sc) is a vector space (V~ F ad
these properties:
i) V~
V
f = ad jVe Ve
ii) ad
iii) sfc = sc jF Ve .

If V~ is any subset of V , then (V~ F ad Ve Ve sc F Ve ) is a subspace of (V F ad sc)
if and only if
a) ad(Ve Ve )
Ve and also
b) sc(F V~ )
Ve .
Intuitively, subspaces are lines, planes and hyperplanes in V passing through the
origin. (If Ve is a subspace of V , and ~v 2 Ve , then 0~v 2 Ve by iii), but 0~v = ~0. Thus
the zero vector in V is the zero vector in every subspace of V .)
Finite dimensional vector spaces. V is a vector space over eld F . U is an arbitrary

non-empty subset of V .
Linear combination: If ~u1 : : : u~n 2 V and a1 : : : an 2 F , the vector ai~ui is

called a linear combination of f~u1 : : :~ung.
Span: The set of all linear combinations of nite subsets of U is written sp U . It is
called the span of U . It is a subspace of V , so it is called the subspace spanned
or generated by U . If U is a subspace, U = sp U .
D-16 DICTIONARY
Finite dimensional. A vector space V is \nite dimensional" if V = sp U for

some nite subset U V .
Linear dependence. A set U
V is \linearly dependent" if there are nitely
many vectors ~u1 : : : ~un 2 U and scalars a1 : : : an such that
i) at least one of a1 : : : an is not 0, and also
ii) ai~ui = ~0.
It is an important theorem that if (~u1 : : : ~un) is a sequence such that f~u1 : : : ~ung
is linearly dependent, then there is an m 2 f1 : : : ng such that ~um 2 spf~u1 : : : ~um;1g.
Linear independence. A set U
V is linearly independent if it is not linearly
dependent. Linear independence of U means that whenever f~u1 : : :~ung
U
and ai~ui = ~0, then a1 = : : : = an = 0.
Basis. Any linearly independent subset of vector space V which spans V is called
a basis for V . The following are important theorems about bases.
Theorem 2 If V is nite dimensional, it has a basis, and all its bases are nite
and contain the same number of vectors. This number is called the dimension
of V , written dim V .
Theorem 3 If V is nite dimensional and W is a subspace of V , W is nite
dimensional and dim W dim V . Every basis for W is a subset of a basis for
V.
Theorem 4 If f~u1 : : : ~ung spans V then dim V n. If dim V = n, then
f~u1 : : : ~ung is linearly independent, hence a basis for V .
Theorem 5 If V is nite dimensional and U is a linearly independent subset
of V , U is nite, say U = f~u1 : : : ~ung, and n dim V . If n = dim V , U spans
V and so is a basis for V .
Theorem 6 Suppose B = f~b1 : : :~bn g is a basis for V . Then there are func-
tions c1B : : : cnB 2 L(V ! F ) such that for any ~v 2 V
~v = cjB (~v)~bj :
DICTIONARY D-17
The scalars v1 = c1B (~v) : : : vn = cnB (~v), which are uniquely determined by
~v and B , are called the coordinates of ~v relative to the basis B . The linear
functions c1B : : : cnB are called the coordinate functionals for the basis B . (A
function whose values are scalars is called a \functional.") Clearly ~bi = i j~bj .
Since the coordinates of any vector relative to B are unique, it follows that
cjB (~bi ) = i j (D-6)
Theorem 7 Suppose V and W are vector spaces over F , and B = f~b1 : : : ~bng
is a basis for V , and fw~ 1 : : : w~ ng"W . Then 91L 2 L(V ! W ) 3 L(~bi ) = w~ i.
(In other words, L is completely determined by LjB for one basis B , and
LjB can be chosen arbitrarily.) (The L whose existence and uniqueness are
asserted by the theorem is easy to nd. For any ~v 2 V , L(~v) = ciB (~v)w~ i.)
This L is an injection if fw~ 1 : : : w~ ng is linearly independent and a surjection
if W = spfw~ 1 : : : w~ ng.
Linear operators: If L 2 L(V ! V ), L is called a \linear operator on V ." If B =
f~b1 : : : ~bn g is any basis for V , then the array Li j = cjB L(~bi )] is called the matrix
of L relative to B . Clearly, L(~bi ) = Li j~bj . (The matrix of L relative to B is
often dened as the transpose of our Li j . It is that matrix 3 L(~bi ) = ~bj Lj i . Our
denition is the more convenient one for continuum mechanics.)
The determinant of the matrix of L relative to B depends only on L, not on B , so
it is called the determinant of L, written det L. A linear operator L is invertible
i det L 6= 0. If it is invertible it is an isomorphism (a surjection as well as an
injection).
If L 2 L(V V ), ~v 2 V , 2 F , and ~v 6= ~0, and if
L(~v) = ~v (D-7)
then is an \eigenvalue" of L, and ~v is an \eigenvector"of L belonging to eigenvalue
. The eigenvalues of L are the solution 2 F of the polynomial equation
det(L ; IV ) = 0: (D-8)
D-18 DICTIONARY
Linear operators on a nite dimensional complex vector space always have at least
one eigenvalue and eigenvector. On a real vector space this need not be so.
If L and M 2 L(V V ), then L M 2 L(V V ) and det(L M ) = (det L)(det M ).
Euclidean Vector Spaces

Denition: A Euclidean vector space is an ordered quintuple (V R ad sc dp) with these
properties:
i) (V R ad sc) is a nite-dimensional (real) vector space
ii) dp is a functional on V V which is symmetric, positive-denite and bilinear.
In more detail, the requirements on dp are these:
a) dp : V V ! R. (dp is a functional)
b) dp(~u~v) = dp(~v ~u) (dp is symmetric)
c) dp(~u ~u) > 0 if ~u 6= ~0. (dp is positive denite)
d) for any ~u ~v 2 V , dp(~v ) and dp(~u ) 2 L(V ! R). (dp is bilinear).
dp is called the dot-product functional, and dp(~u~v) is usually written ~u ~v. In this
notation, the requirements on the dot product are
a)0 ~u ~v 2 R (dp is a functional)
b)0 ~u ~v = ~v ~u (dp is symmetric)
c)0 ~u ~u > 0 if ~u 6= ~0 (dp is positive denite)
d)0 for any ~u ~u1 : : : ~un ~v 2 V and a1 : : : an 2 F
9
(ai~ui) ~v = ai (~ui ~v) >
=
> dp is bilinear
~v (ai~ui) = ai (~v ~ui)
Example 1: (V R ad sc) is as in Example 1, page D-12, and ~u ~v = uivi. For n = 3
this is ordinary three-space.
DICTIONARY D-19
Example 2: (V R ad sc) is as in Example 4, page D-13. If f and g are two functions in
R
V , their dot product is f g = 01 dxf (x)g(x). Note that without continuity, f =
6 0
need not imply f f > 0. For example, let f (x) = 0 in 0 x 1 except at x = 12 .
6 0 but f f = 0.
There let f ( 21 ) = 1. Then f =
Length and angle. Schwarz and triangle inequalities. The length of a vector ~v in
p
a Euclidean space is dened as k~v k := ~v ~v. All nonzero-vectors have positive
length. From the denitions on page D-18,
j~u ~vj k~uk k~vk (Schwarz inequality)
j~u + ~vj k~uk + k~uk (triangle inequality)
If ~u 6= ~0 and ~v 6= ~0 then ~u ~v=k~u kk~v k is a real number between ;1 and 1, so it
is the cosine of exactly one angle between 0 and . This angle is called the angle
between ~u and ~v, and is written 6 (~u~v). Thus, by the denition of 6 (~u~v),
~u ~v = k~ukk~vk cos 6 (~u~v):
In particular, ~u ~v = 0 , 6 (~u~v) = 2 : If k~uk = 1, we will write u^ for ~u.
Orthogonality: If V is a Euclidean vector space, and ~u~v 2 V , P
V , Q
V , then
~u?~v means ~u ~v = 0:
~u?Q means ~u ~q = 0 for all ~q 2 Q:
P ?Q means ~p ~q = 0 for all p~ 2 P and ~q 2 Q:
Q? := f~x : ~x 2 V and ~x?Qg. This set is called \the orthogonal complement of Q."
It is a subspace of V . Obviously Q?Q?. Slightly less obvious, but true in nite
dimensional spaces, is (Q?)? = sp Q:
n o n o
Theorem 8 Q spans V , Q? = ~0 . In particular, if ~b1 : : : ~bn is a basis for
V and ~v ~bi = 0, then ~v = ~0. Also, if ~v ~x = 0 for all ~x 2 V , then ~v = ~0.
Orthonormal sets and bases. An orthonormal set Q in V is any set of mutually per-
pendicular unit vectors. I.e., ~u 2 Q ) k~uk = 1 and ~u~v 2 Q, ~u 6= ~v ) ~u ~v = 0.
D-20 DICTIONARY
An orthonormal set is linearly independent, so in a nite dimensional Euclidean

space, any orthonormal set is nite, and can have no more than dim V mem-
bers. An orthonormal basis in V is any basis which is an orthonormal set. If
B = fx^1 : : : x^ng is an orthonormal basis for V , the coordinate functionals ciB
are given simply by
ciB (~v ) = ~v xî 8~v 2 V: (D-9)
That is, for any ~v, ~v = (~v xî )^xi .
Theorem 9 Every Euclidean vector space has an orthonormal basis. If U is a

subspace of Euclidean vector space V , U is itself a Euclidean vector space, and
every orthonormal basis for U is a subset of an orthonormal basis for V .
Linear functionals and dual bases: Let V be a Euclidean vector space. For any ~v 2
V we can dene a ~v 2 L(V ! R) by requiring simply
~v (~y) = ~v ~y 8~y 2 V: (D-10)
Theorem 10 Let V be a Euclidean vector space. The mapping ~v j! ~v dened

by equation (9) is an isomorphism between V and L(V ! R): (Therefore we can
think of the linear functionals on V , the members of L(V ! R), simply as vectors
in V .)
Proof:
We must show that the mapping ~v j! ~v is an injection, a surjection,
and linear. Linearity is easy to prove. We want to show ai~vi = ai ~vi .
But for any ~y 2 V ,
ai~vi (~y) = (ai~vi) ~y = ai (~vi ~y) = ai ~vi (~y )]
= (ai ~vi )(~y ):
(See denition of ai ~vi in example 3, page D-12) Therefore the two func-
tions ai~vi and ai~vi are equal.
DICTIONARY D-21
To prove that ~v j! ~v is injective, suppose ~u = ~v . We want to prove

~u = ~v. For any ~y 2 V , we know ~u(~y) = ~v (~y), so ~u ~y = ~v ~y, or
(~u ; ~v) ~y = 0. In particular, setting ~y = ~u ; ~v we see (~u ; ~v) (~u ; ~v) = 0,
so (~u ; ~v) = ~0, ~u = ~v.
To prove that ~v j! ~v is surjective, let 2 L(V ! R): We want to nd
a ~v 2 V 3 = ~v . Let fx^1 : : : x^n g be an orthonormal basis for V and
dene ~v = (^xi)^xi : Then for any ~y 2 V , ~v (~y) = ~v ~y = (^xi)(^xi ~y) =
(^xi )yi = (yixî ) = (~y): Thus, ~v = . QED.
Even in a Euclidean space, it is sometimes convenient to work with bases which are
not orthonormal. The advantage of an orthonormal basis x^1 : : : x^n is that for any
~v 2 V , ~v = (~v xî)^xi . An equation almost as convenient as this can be obtained for
an arbitrary basis. We need some denitions. All vectors are in a Euclidean vector
space V .
Denition: Two sequences of vectors in V , (~u1 : : : ~um) and (~v1 : : : ~vm ), are dual to
each other if ~ui ~vj = ij .
Remark 2 If (~u1 : : : ~um) and (~v1 : : : ~vm) are dual to each other, each is linearly
independent.
Proof:
If ai~ui = ~0, then (ai~ui) ~vj = 0, so ai(~ui ~vj ) = 0, so aiij = 0, so aj = 0.
Denition: An ordered basis for V is a sequence of vectors (~b1 : : : ~bn) such that f~b1 : : : ~bng
is a basis for V .
Remark 3 If two sequences of vectors are dual to each other and one is an ordered
basis, so is the other. (Proof. If (~v1 : : : ~vm ) is a basis, m = dim V . Then, since
(~u1 : : : ~um) is linearly independent, it is also a basis.
D-22 DICTIONARY
Remark 4 If (~b1 : : : ~bn) is an ordered basis for V , it has at most one dual sequence
(~b1 : : : ~bn).
Proof:
If (~b1 : : : ~bn) and (~v1 : : : ~vn) are both dual sequences to (~b1 : : : ~bn), then
~bi ~bj = ij , and ~vi bj = ij , so (~bi ; ~vi ) ~bj = 0. Then (~bi ; ~vi) (aj~bj ) = 0
for any ai : : : an 2 R. But any ~u 2 V can be written ~u = aj~bj , so
(~bi ; ~vi) ~u = 0 for all ~u 2 V . Hence, ~bi ; ~vi = 0, ~bi = ~vi.
Remark 5 If (~b1 : : : ~bn ) is an ordered basis for V , it has at least one dual sequence
(~b1 : : : ~bn).
Proof:
Let B = f~b1 : : :~bn g, and let ciB be the coordinate functions for this basis.
They are linear functionals on V , so according to theorem (10) there is
exactly one ~bi 2 V such that ~bi = ciB . Then ~bi (~y) = ciB (~y ), 8~y 2 V , so
~bi ~y = ciB (~y ), 8~y 2 V . In particular, ~bi ~bj = ciB (~bj ) = i j see (5)]. Thus
(~b1 : : : ~bn) is dual to (~b1 : : : ~bn).
From the foregoing, it is clear that each ordered basis B = (~bi : : : ~bn) for V has
exactly one dual sequence B D = (~b1 : : : ~bn ) , and that this dual sequence is also an
ordered basis for V . It is called the dual basis for (~b1 : : : ~bn). It is characterized
and uniquely determined by
~bi ~bj = i j : (D-11)
There is an obvious symmetry: each of B and B D is the dual basis for the other.
If ~v 2 V , and B = (~b1 : : : ~bn) is any ordered basis, we can write
~v = vj~bj (D-12)
DICTIONARY D-23
where vj = cjB (~v) are the coordinates of ~v relative to B . Then ~bi ~v = vj~bi ~bj =
vj ji = vi. Thus
vi = ~bi ~v: (D-13)
Since (~b1 : : : ~bn) = B D is also an ordered basis for V , we can write
~v = vj~bj : (D-14)
Because duality is symmetrical, it follows immediately that
vj = ~v ~bj : (D-15)
An orthonormal basis is its own dual basis it is self-dual. If ~bi = xî then ~bi = xî ,
and (11), (12) are the same as (13) and (14). We have
vj = vj = x^j ~v:
In order to keep indices always up or down, it is sometimes convenient to write an
orthonormal basis (^x1 : : : x^n) as (^x1 : : : x^n), with xî = xî. Then
vj = vj = x^j ~v = x^j ~v:
If (~b1 : : : ~bn ) = B is an ordered basis for V , and B D = (~b1 : : : ~bn) is its dual basis,
and ~v 2 V , we can write
~v = vi~bi = vi~bi : (D-16)
The vi are called the contravariant components of ~v relative to B , and the vi are the
covariant components of ~v relative to B (and also the contravariant components of ~v
relative to B D ). The contravariant components of ~v relative to B are the coordinates
of ~v relative to B . The covariant components of ~v relative to B are the coordinates
of ~v relative to B D .
The covariant metric matrix of B D is
gij = ~bi ~bj : (D-17)

D-24 DICTIONARY
The contravariant metric matrix of B D is

gij = ~bi ~bj : (D-18)
Clearly gij is the contravariant and gij the covariant metric matrix of B D .
We have vi = ~bi ~v = ~bi (~bj vj ) = (~bi ~bj )vj so
vi = gij vj : (D-19)
Similarly, or by the symmetry of duality,

vi = gij vj : (D-20)
The metric matrices can be used to raise or lower the indices on the components of
~v.
Transposes: Suppose V and W are Euclidean vector spaces and L 2 L(V ! W ). Then
there is exactly one LT 2 F (W ! V ) such that
L(~v) w~ = ~v LT (w~ ) 8(~v w~ ) 2 V W: (D-21)
This LT is linear, i.e. LT 2 L(W ! V ). Furthermore, (LT )T = L, and if
a1 : : : an 2 R and L1 : : : Ln 2 L(V ! W ), then
(aiLi)T = ai(LTi ) (D-22)
The linear mapping LT is called the \transpose" of L (also sometimes the adjoint
of L, but adjoint has a second, quite dierent, meaning for matrices, so we avoid
the term).
If L 2 L(V ! W ) and M 2 L(U ! V ), then L M 2 L(U ! W ) and it is easy to
verify that
(L M )T = M T LT : (D-23)
If L 2 L(V ! W ) is bijective, then L;1 2 L(W ! V ). It is easy to verify that
LT : W ! V is also bijective and
(L;1 )T = (LT );1 : (D-24)
DICTIONARY D-25
Orthogonal operators or isometries: If V is a vector space, the members of L(V !

V ) are called \linear operators on V ." If V is Euclidean and L 2 L(V ! V ), then
L is called \orthogonal" or an \isometry" if kL(~u) ; L(~v)k = k~u ; ~vk for all ~u and
~v in V . If L 2 L(V ! V ), then each of the following conditions is necessary and
su#cient for L to be an isometry:
a) kL~vk = k~vk 8 ~v 2 V
b) L(~u) L(~v) = ~u ~v 8~u ~v 2 V
c) LT L = IV
d) L LT = IV
e) LT = L;1
f) For every orthonormal basis B
V , L(B ) is orthonormal. That is, if B =
fx^1 : : : x^ng is any orthonormal basis, then fL(^x1) : : : L(^x)g is also an or-
thonormal basis.
g) There is at least one orthonormal basis B 3 L(B ) is orthonormal.
h) For every orthonormal basis B
V , the matrix of L relative to B has or-
thonormal rows and columns (i.e., Li j Li k = jk , and Li j Lk j = ik ).
i) There is at least one orthonormal basis B
V relative to which the matrix
of L has either orthonormal rows (Li j Lk j = ik ) or orthonormal columns
(Li j Li k = ij ).
If L is orthogonal, det L = 1. If det L = +1, L is called \proper." Otherwise L is
\improper."
$(V ) := set of all orthonormal operators on V .

$+(V ) := set of all proper orthonormal operators on V .
If L and M 2 $(V ) or $+(V ), the same is true of L M and L;1 . Also IV 2 $(V )
and $+(V ). Therefore, $(V ) and $+(V ) are both groups if multiplication is dened
D-26 DICTIONARY
to mean composition. $(V ) is called the orthogonal group on V , while $+(V ) is

the proper orthogonal group.
If L 2 $+(V ), L is a \rotation." This implies that there is an orthonormal basis
x^1 : : : x^2m x^2m+1 and angles $1 : : : $m between 0 and such that
9
L(^x2i;1 ) = x^2i;1 cos i + x^2i sin i >
>
>
=
L(^x2i ) = ;x^2i;1 sin i + x^2i cos i > 8i 2 f1 : : : mg
>
>
L(^x2n+1 ) = x^2n+1 :
The vector x^2n+1 is omitted in the above denition if dim V is even, and included
if dim V is odd. If included, it is the \axis" of the rotation.
If L 2 $(V ) is improper, L is the product of a rotation and a \reection." A
reection is an L for which there is an orthonormal basis x^1 : : : x^n such that
L(^x1 ) = ;x^1 , L(^xn ) = x^k , if k 2.
Symmetric operators: A symmetric operator on Euclidean space V is an L 2 L(V V ) 3
LT = L. (Antisymmetric means LT = ;L). Each of the following conditions is ne-
cessary and su#cient for a linear operator L to be symmetric.
a) LT = L
b) L(~u) ~v = L(~v) ~u 8~u ~v 2 V
c) The matrix of L relative to every orthonormal basis for V is symmetric
d) The matrix of L relative to at least one orthonormal basis for V is symmetric.
e) There is an orthonormal basis for V consisting entirely of eigenvectors of L.
That is, there is an orthonormal ordered basis (^x1 : : : x^n) for V , and a se-
quence of real numbers (1 : : : n) (not necessarily dierent) such that
L(^x(i) ) = (i) x^(i) 8i 2 f1 : : : ng: (D-25)
Facts: The eigenvalues f1 : : : ng are uniquely determined by L, but the eigenvectors

are not. For any real let L ] denote the set of all ~v 2 V such that L(~v) = ~v.
DICTIONARY D-27
Then L ] is a subspace of V , and dim L ] > 0 , is an eigenvalue of L. In

that case, L ] is called the eigenspace of L with eigenvalue . The eigenspaces
are uniquely determined by L. If 1 6= 2 , L 1] ? L 2 ] .
Positive-denite (semidenite) symmetric operators. If L 2 L(V ! V ) is sym-

metric, L is said to be positive denite when
L(~v) ~v > 0 for all nonzero ~v 2 V (D-26)
and positive semidenite when
L(~v) ~v 0 for all ~v 2 V: (D-27)
A symmetric linear operator is positive denite (semidenite) i all its eigenvalues

are positive (non-negative).
Every symmetric positive (semi) denite operator L has a unique positive (semi)
denite symmetric square root, i.e., a symmetric positive (semi) denite operator
L1=2 such that
L1=2 L1=2 = L (D-28)
Polar Decomposition Theorem: (See Halmos, p. 169 ). Suppose V is Euclidean

and L 2 L(V ! V ). Then there exist orthogonal operators O1 and O2 and positive
semidenite symmetric operators S1 and S2 such that
L = O1 S1 = S2 O2 : (D-29)
Both S1 and S2 are uniquely determined by L (in fact S1 = (LT L)1=2 and S2 =
(LLT )1=2 ). If L;1 exists, O1 and O2 are uniquely determined by L and are equal,
and S1 and S2 are positive denite. If det L > 0 then O1 is proper.
The existence part of the polar decomposition theorem can be restated as follows:
for any L 2 L(V ! V ) there are orthonormal bases (^x1 : : : x^n) and (^y1 : : : y^n) in
V and non-negative numbers 1 : : : n such that
D-28 DICTIONARY
L(^x(i) ) = (i) y^(i) i = 1 : : : n: (D-30)

If L is invertible, all (i) > 0.
Stated this way, the theorem remains true for any L(V ! W ) if V and W are
Euclidean spaces and dim V dim W . If dim V > dim W , then (29) holds for
i = 1 : : : m, with m = dim W , while for i = m + 1 : : : n (with n = dim V ) (29) is
replaced by
L(^xi ) = ~0: (D-31)
Five Prerequisite Proofs
PP-1
The Polar Identity
Let Sn := group all permutations on f1 : : : ng.
"i1:::in := n dimensional alternating symbol

:= 0 if fi1 : : : ing 6= f1 : : : ng
:= sgn if i1 = (1) : : : in = (n) 2 Sn:
Then the polar identity is

X
( sgn )i1j(1) in j(n) = "i1:::in "j1:::jn : (PP-1)
2Sn
Lemma PP-1 Suppose Ai1:::in is an n : : : n dimensional n'th order array which is

totally antisymmetric (i.e. changes sign where any two indices are interchanged). Then
Ai1 :::in = (A12:::n) "i1:::in : (PP-2)
Proof:
If any two of fi1 : : : ing are equal, A(i1 :::in ) = 0. If they are all dierent,
there is a 2 Sn such that i1 = (1) : : : in = (n). This is a product
of transpositions (interchanges), and by carrying out these interchanges in
succession on A12:::n one obtains A(1):::(n). Each interchange produces a sign
change, so the nal sign is + or ; according as is even or odd. Thus,
A(1):::(n) = ( sgn )A1:::n = "(1):::(n) A1:::n. Therefore, equation PP-2, holds
both when fi1 : : : ing contains a repeated index and when it does not.
PP-3
PP-4 PROOFS
Lemma PP-2 Suppose W is a vector space and f : Sn ! W and 2 Sn. Then

X X ;1 X
f () = f ( ) = f (): (PP-3)
2Sn 2Sn 2Sn
Proof:
Both the mapping j! ;1 and the mapping j! are bijections of Sn to
itself. Therefore, each of the sums in (PP-3) contains exactly the same terms.
These terms are vectors in W , so they can be added in any order.
Lemma PP-3 Dene
X
Ai1 :::inj1:::jn = ( sgn )i1 j(1) : : : in j(n) (PP-4)
2Sn
Then
Ai1 :::inj1:::jn = Aj1:::jni1:::in (PP-5)
and for any 2 Sn,
Ai1 :::inj(1):::j(n) = ( sgn )Ai1 :::in j1:::jn (PP-6)
Proof:
To prove (PP-5) note that by lemma 2, since sgn ;1 = sgn ,
X
Ai1 :::inj1:::jn = ( sgn )i1 j;1(1) : : : inj;1 (n):
2Sn
The set of n pairs
80 1 0 19
>
<B 1 C n >
=
@ A : : : B
@ C
A
>
: ;1(1) ;1(n) >

is the same as the set
80 1 0 19
>
<B (1) C (n) C>
=
@ A : : : B
@ A
>
: 1 n >
because a pair 0 1
B@ iC
A
j
PROOFS PP-5
is in the rst set of pairs i j = ;1 (i) and in the second set of pairs i
i = (j ). Therefore
i1 j;1(1) : : : inj;1(n) = i(1) j1 : : : i(n) jn
and
X
Ai1:::in j1:::jn = ( sgn )i(1)j1 : : : i(n) jn
2Sn
X
= ( sgn )j1i(1) : : : jn i(n)
2Sn
= Aj1:::jni1 :::in :
This proves equation (PP-5).

To prove equation (PP-6), let 2 Sn and let j1 = k(1) : : : jn = k(n) . Then
from equation (PP-4),
X
Ai1 :::ink(1):::k(n) = ( sgn )i1 k(1) : : : in k(n) :
2Sn
Now ( sgn )2 = 1 and so ( sgn ) = ( sgn )2 ( sgn ) = ( sgn ) ( sgn )( sgn )] =
( sgn )( sgn ), and
X
Ai1 :::in k(1):::k(n) = ( sgn ) ( sgn )i1 k(1) : : : ink(n)
2Sn
X
= ( sgn ) ( sgn )i1 k(1) : : : in k(n) by Lemma PP-2
2Sn
= ( sgn )Ai1 :::in k1:::kn :
This proves equation (PP-6).

Now we can prove the polar identity. Let Ai1:::in j1:::jn be as in (PP-4). Then
x i1 : : : in. By lemma 1 and equation (PP-6),
Ai1:::in j1:::jn = Ai1 :::in12:::n"j1:::jn :

By equation (PP-5), interchanging the i's and j 's gives
Ai1 :::in j1:::jn = A12:::n j1:::jn "i1 :::in : (PP-7)

PP-6 PROOFS
Set i1 = 1 : : : in = n, and equate these two. The result is
A12:::n j1:::jn "12:::n = A12:::n12:::n"j1:::jn

so
A12:::n j1:::jn = A12:::n 12:::n"j1:::jn : (PP-8)
Substituting (PP-8) in (PP-7) gives
Ai1 :::in j1:::jn = A12:::n 12:::n"i1:::in "j1:::jn : (PP-9)
Then from the denition (PP-4), with ir = r, js = s

X
A12:::n12:::n = ( sgn )1(1) : : : n(n):
2Sn
There are n! terms in this sum, and a term vanishes unless (1) = 1, (2) =
2 : : : (n) = n that is, unless is the identity permutation e. But sgn e = 1,
so only one of the n! terms in the sum is nonzero, and this term is 1. Therefore,
A12:::n12:::n = 1, and equation (PP-9) becomes the polar identity (PP-1).
Spectral Decomposition of a
Symmetric Linear Operator S on a
Euclidean Space V .
Denition PP-1 S : V ! V is symmetric i S = S T , that is i ~u S (~v) = S (~u) ~v for
all ~u, ~v 2 V .
Theorem PP-11 Let S be a symmetric linear operator on Euclidean space V . Then V

has an orthonormal basis consisting of eigenvectors of S .
Lemma PP-4 Suppose S is symmetric, U is a subspace of V , and S (U )

U . Then
S (U ?)
U ? and S jU ? is symmetric as a linear operator on U ?.
Proof:
Suppose w~ 2 U ?. We want to show S (w~ ) 2 U ?. That is, for any ~u 2 U , we
want to show ~u S (w~ ) = 0. But ~u S (w~ ) = S (~u) w~ . By hypothesis, S (~u) 2 U
and w~ 2 U ?, so S (~u) w~ = 0. Thus, S (w~ ) 2 U ?. Therefore S (U ?)
U ?.
And if the denition (PP-1) above is satised for all ~u, ~v 2 V , it certainly
holds for all ~u, ~v 2 U ?. Hence, S jU ? is symmetric.
Lemma PP-5 Suppose S : V ! V is a symmetric linear operator on Euclidean space

6 ~0.
V . Then S has at least one eigenvalue such that S (~v) = ~v, for some ~v =
Proof:
PP-7
PP-8 PROOFS
Let x^1 : : : x^n be an orthonormal basis for V , and let Sij be the matrix of
S relative to this basis, so S (^xi ) = Sij x^j . Then Sij = S (^xi ) x^j = xî
S (^xj ) = S (^xj ) xî = Sji so Sij is a symmetric matrix. A real number is
an eigenvalue of S i det(S ; I ) = 0, where I is the identity operator on
V . (If the determinant is 0, then S ; I is singular, so there is a nonzero
~v 3 (S ; I )(~v) = ~0, or S (~v) ; ~v = ~0, or S (~v) = ~v.) The matrix of S ; I
relative to the basis (^x1 : : : x^n) is Sij ; ij , so we want to prove that the n'th
degree polynomial in , det(Sij ; ij ), has at least one real zero. It certainly
has a complex zero, , so there is a complex n-tuple (r1 : : : rn) such that
(Sij ; ij )rj = 0 or Sij rj = ri :
Let denote complex conjugation. Then
riSij rj = (riri): (PP-10)
Taking the complex conjugate of this equation gives (Sij is real)
riSij rj = (riri):

Changing the summation indices on the left gives
rj Sjiri = (riri): (PP-11)
But Sij = Sji, so the left hand sides of (PP-10) and (PP-11) are the same.
Also, riri = riri 6= 0. Hence, = . Thus is real, and we have proved
lemma (PP-5).
Now we can prove theorem PP-1. Let be any (real) eigenvalue of S . Let v^ be
a unit eigenvector with this eigenvalue. Then S (spfv^g)
spf~vg so by lemma
PP-4, S (fv^g?)
fv^g? and S jfv^g? is symmetric. We proceed by induction on
dim V . Since dimfv^g? < dim V , we may assume theorem PP-4 true on fv^g?.
Adjoining v^ to the orthonormal basis for fv^g? which consists of eigenvectors
of S jfv^g? gives an orthonormal basis for V consisting of eigenvectors of S .
PROOFS PP-9
Denition PP-2 Let S be a linear operator on Euclidean space V . A \spectral decom-

position of S " is a collection of real numbers 1 < : : : < m and a collection of subspaces
of V , U1 : : : Um, such that
i) S jU(i) = (i) I jU(i) for i = 1 : : : m
ii) V = U1 : : : Um . (This means
a) Ui ?Uj if i 6= j . That is, if ~ui 2 Ui and ~uj 2 Uj then u~i ~uj = 0
b) every ~v 2 V can be written in exactly one way as ~v = ~u1 + + ~um with
~ui 2 Ui: )
Corollary PP-1 If S is a symmetric linear operator on Euclidean space V , S has at

least one spectral decomposition.
Proof:
Order the dierent eigenvalues of S which theorem PP-1 produces as 1 <
< m . Let Ui be the span of all the orthonormal basis vectors turned up
by that theorem which have eigenvalue i.
Corollary PP-2 S has at most one spectral decomposition.

Proof:
Let 10 < < u0 and U10 : : : Uu0 be a second spectral decomposition. Let 0
be one of 10 : : : u0 , and let ~v 0 be a corresponding nonzero eigenvector. Then
S (~v 0) = 0~v 0. But ~v 0 = ~u1 + + ~um where ~ui 2 Ui , and S (~v) 0 = 0~v 0 =
0~u1 + : : : + 0~um. Hence S (~v 0) = S (~u1) + + S (~um) = 1~u1 + + m~um.
Hence,
(0 ; 1 )~u1 + + (0 ; m )~um = ~0: (PP-12)
Since ~v 0 6= ~0, there is at least one ~uj 6= ~0. Then, dotting this ~uj into (PP-12)
gives (0 ; (j) )~u(j) ~u(j) = 0, so 0 ; j = 0, or 0 = j . Thus every i0 is
PP-10 PROOFS
included in f1 : : : mg. By symmetry, every i is included in f10 : : : u0 g.

Therefore the two sets of eigenvalues are equal, and u = m. Since the ei-
genvalues are ordered by size, i0 = i for i = 1 : : : m. Now suppose
~u 0 2 Ui0 . Then ~ui0 = ~u1 + + ~um and S (~ui0) = (i)~u(0i) = i(~u1 + + ~um) =
S (~u1)+ + S (~um) = (1)~u1 + + m~um so(i ; 1 )~u1 + +(i ; m )~um = ~0.
Dot in ~uj and we get (i ; j )~u(j) ~u(j) = 0. Since i 6= j , ~u(j) ~u(j) = 0, and
~uj = ~0. Thus ~u0i = ~ui. Thus, ~ui0 2 Ui . Thus Ui0
Ui. By symmetry, Ui
Ui0 .
Thus Ui = Ui0 . QED.
Corollary PP-3 If a linear operator on a Euclidean space has a spectral decomposition,

it is symmetric.
Proof:
Suppose S has spectral decomposition (1 U1) (m Um ). Let ~u~v 2 V .
We can write ~u = Pmi=1 ~ui, ~v = Pmi=1 ~vi with ~ui, ~vi 2 Ui . Then
X
m X
m
S (~u) = S (~ui) = i~ui
i=1 i=1
Xm Xm
S (~v) = S (~vi) = i~vi
i=1X
m
=1
! 0iX
m
1 m
X
~u S (~v) = ~ui @ j~vj A = j (~ui ~vj )
i=1 j =1 ij =1
X
m
= i (~ui ~vi )
i=1X
m ! 0X m
1 m
X
S (~u) ~v = i~ui @ ~vj A = i (~ui ~vj )
i=1 j =1 ij =1
X
m
= i (~ui ~vi ):
i=1
Hence ~u S (~v) = S (~u) ~v.
Corollary PP-4 Two linear operators with the same spectral decomposition are equal.
Proof:
PROOFS PP-11
Suppose S and S 0 have the same spectral decomposition (1 U1) : : : (m Um).
Let ~v 2 V . Then ~v = Pmi=1 ~ui with ~ui 2 Ui . Then
X
m Xm Xm
S (~v) = S (~ui) = i~ui = S 0(~ui)
i=1 i=1 i=1
m !
X
= S0 ~ui = S 0(~v):
i=1
Since this is true for all ~v 2 V , S = S 0.
PP-12 PROOFS
Positive Denite Operators and Their
Square Roots
Denition PP-3 A symmetric linear operator S is positive denite if ~v S (~v) > 0 for
6 ~0. (S is positive semi-denite if ~v S (~v) 0 for all ~v 2 V .)
all ~v =
Corollary PP-5 A symmetric linear operator S is positive (semi) denite i all its
eigenvalues are (non-negative) positive.
Proof:
). Suppose S has an eigenvalue 0. Let ~v be a nonzero vector with
S (~v) = ~v. Then ~v S (~v) = (~v ~v) 0, so S is not positive denite.
(. Let (1 U1) : : : (m Um) be the spectral decomposition of S . Let (~v 2 V ,
~v =6 ~0. Then ~v = Pmi=1 ~ui with ~ui 2 Ui and at least one ~ui =6 ~0. Then
S (~v) = Pmi=1 S (~ui) = Pmi=1 i~ui, so
X m ! X
0m 1 m
X
~v S (~v) = ~ui @ j uj A = j ~ui ~uj
i=1 j =1 ij =1
X
m
= i (~ui ~ui) > 0:
i=1
Note: The proofs require an obvious modication if S is positive semi-denite rather than
positive denite.
Theorem PP-12 Suppose S is a symmetric, positive (semi) denite linear operator in
Euclidean space V . Then there is exactly one symmetric positive (semi) denite linear
PP-13
PP-14 PROOFS
operator Q : V ! V such that Q2 = S . (Q is called the positive square root of S , and is

written S 1=2.)
Proof:
Existence. Let (1 U1 ) : : : (m Um ) be the spectral decomposition of S .
Since i > 0, let i1=2 be the positive square root of i . Let Q be the linear op-
erator on V whose spectral decomposition is (11=2 U1) : : : (m1=2 Um). Then
Q is symmetric by corollary PP-5, and positive denite by corollary PP-6.
Let ~v 2 V . Then ~v = Pmi=1 ~ui with ~u 2 Ui . Then
X
m X
m
Q(~v) = Q(~ui) = i1=2~ui
i=1 i=1
Xm Xm
Q2 (~v) = i1=2 Q(~ui) = i1=2 i1=2~ui
i=1 i=1
Xm Xm
= i~ui = S (~ui) = S (~v):
i=1 i=1
Hence, Q2 = S .
Uniqueness. Suppose Q is symmetric, positive denite, and Q2 = S . Let
(q1 U~1 ) : : : (qu U~u) be the spectral decomposition of Q. Then if ~ui 2 U~i
we have S (~ui) = Q2~ui = QQ(~ui) = Q(q(i)~u(i)) = q(2i)~u(i). Thus qi2 is an
eigenvalue of S . Therefore (q12 U~1 ) : : : (qu2 U~u) is a spectral decomposition
for S . Therefore u = m, U~ = Ui, qi2 = i . Since qi > 0, qi = i1=2 . Therefore Q
has the spectral decomposition (11=2 U1 ) : : : (m1=2 Um ), and is the operator
found in the existence part of the proof.
The Polar Decomposition Theorem
Theorem PP-13 Suppose V is a Euclidean vector space, L : V ! V is a linear operator,
and det L > 0. Then there are unique linear mappings R1 , S1 , R2 , S2 with these properties:
i) L = R1 S1
ii) L = S2 R2
iii) R1 and R2 are proper orthogonal (i.e. R;1 = RT and det R = +1)
iv) S1 and S2 are positive denite and symmetric.
Further, R1 = R2 , so S1 = R2T S2R2 .
Before giving the proof we need some lemmas.

Lemma PP-6 If det 6= 0, LT L and LLT are symmetric and positive denite.
Proof:
It su#ces to consider LT L, because LLT = (LT )T (LT ) and det LT = det L.
First, (LT L)T = LT (LT )T = LT L, so LT L is symmetric. Second, if ~v 6= ~0,
L(~v) 6= ~0 because L;1 exists. But then L(~v) L(~v) > 0. And L(~v) L(~v) =
~v LT L(~v)] = ~v (LT L)(~v)]. Thus, ~v (LT L)(~v)] > 0, so LT L is positive
denite.
Lemma PP-7 If S is positive denite and symmetric, det S > 0.

Proof:
PP-15
PP-16 PROOFS
Let x^1 : : : x^n be an orthonormal basis for V consisting of eigenvectors for

S , namely s1 : : : sn. (Some of these may be the same.) Relative to basis
x^1 : : : x^n, the matrix of S is diagonal, and its diagonal entries are s1 : : : sn.
Therefore det S = s1s2 : : : sn. But since S is positive denite, all its eigenval-
ues are positive. Therefore det S > 0.
Lemma PP-8 If A and B are linear operators on V and AB = I then B ;1 exists and
B ;1 = A. Hence, BA = I and A;1 exists and A;1 = B .
Proof:
If AB = I then (det A)(det B ) = det AB = det I = 1, so det B 6= 0. Hence,

B ;1 exists. By its denition, B ;1 B = BB ;1 = I . And if we multiply
AB = I on the right by B ;1 we have (AB )B ;1 = IB ;1 , or A(BB ;1) = B ;1,
or AI = B ;1 , or A = B ;1. QED.
Lemma PP-9 If L is a linear operator on Euclidean space and L;1 exists so does (LT );1,
and (LT );1 = (L;1)T .
Proof:
Take transposes in the equation LL;1 = I . The result is (L;1 )T LT = I . By

lemma PP-8, (LT );1 exists and equals (L;1 )T .
Proof of Theorem PP-3:

First we deal with R1 and S1. To prove these unique, we assume they exist and have
the asserted properties. Then L = R1 S1 implies LT = (R1 S1)T = S1T R1T = S1R1;1 so
LT L = S1R1;1 R1S1 = S1IS1 = S12 . Now LT L is a symmetric positive denite operator,
and so is S1. Therefore, S1 must be the unique symmetric positive denite square root of
LT L, i.e.
S1 = (LT L)1=2 : (PP-13)
PROOFS PP-17
Since det S1 > 0, S1;1 exists. Then L = R1 S1 implies
R1 = LS1;1: (PP-14)
Thus S1 and R1 are given explicitly and uniquely in terms of L. To prove the existence
of an R1 and S1 with the required properties, we dene them by (PP-8) and (PP-9).
Then S1 is symmetric positive denite as required, and we need show only that R1 is
proper orthogonal, i.e. that det R1 = +1 and R1T = R1;1. But det R1 = det L det(S1;1) =
det L= det S1 > 0 since det L > 0 and det S1 > 0. Therefore, if we can show R1T = R1;1, we
automatically have det R1 = 1. By lemma PP-8 it su#ces to prove R1T R1 = I . But R1T =
(LS1;1)T = (S1;1)T LT = (S1T );1LT = S1;1LT so R1T R1 = S1;1LT LS1;1 = S1;1S12S1;1 = I .
Next we deal with R2 and S2 . To prove them unique, we suppose they exist. Then
L = S2R2 so LT = (S2R2 )T = R2T S2T = R2;1S2 . But if det L > 0 then det LT = det L > 0,
so there is only one way to write LT = R~1 S~1 with R~1 proper orthogonal and S~1 symmetric.
If R2 is proper orthogonal, so is R2;1 , and we must have R2;1 = R~1 so R2 = R~1;1.
Then R2 and S2 are uniquely determined by L. In fact, S2 = S~1 = (LT )T LT = LLT ,
and R2 = (R~1 );1 = (LT S2;1);1 = S2(LT );1. To prove existence of R2 and S2 with
the required properties, we observe that LT = R~1 S~1 with R~1 proper orthogonal and S~1
symmetric. Then (LT )T = L = (R~1 S~1)T = S~1 T R~1T = S~1 R1;1. Therefore we can take
S2 = S~1, R2 = R~1;1.
Finally, to prove R1 = R2 , note that if L = S2R2 then L = R2R2;1 S2R2 = R2 (R2T S2R2 ).
We claim that R2T S2R2 is symmetric and positive denite. If we can prove that, then
L = R2(R2T S2 R2) is of the form L = R1S1 , and uniqueness of R1 and S1 requires R1 = R2 ,
S1 = R2T S2R2 . Symmetry is easy. We have (R2T S2 R2 )T = R2T S2T (R2T )T = R2T S2R2 . For
positive deniteness let ~v 2 V , ~v 6= ~0. Then R2(~v) 6= 0 because R2;1 exists. Then
R2 (~v) S2 R2(~v)] > 0 because S2 is positive denite. Then ~v R2T S2R2 (~v)] > 0, or
~v (R2T S2R2 )(~v)] > 0. Thus R2T S2R2 is positive denite.
We shall not need the PDT when det L < 0 or L;1 fails to exist. For these cases, see
Halmos, p. 170.
PP-18 PROOFS
Representation Theorem for
Orthogonal Operators
Denition PP-4 A linear operator R on Euclidean vector space V is \orthogonal" i it
preserves length that is, kR(~v)k = k~vk for every ~v 2 V .
There are several other properties each of which completely characterizes orthogonal
operators (i.e., R is orthogonal i it is linear and has one of these properties). We list
them in lemmas.
Lemma PP-10 R is orthogonal i R is linear and preserves all inner products that is,
R(~u) R(~v) = ~u ~v for all ~u~v 2 V .
Proof:
Obviously if R preserves all inner products it preserves lengths. The inter-
esting half is that if R preserves lengths then it preserves all inner products.
To see this, we note that for any ~u and ~v 2 V , k~u + ~vk2 = (~u + ~v) (~u + ~v) =
~u ~u + ~u ~v + ~v ~u + ~v ~v. That is
k~u + ~vk2 = k~uk2 + 2~u ~v + k~vk2 : (PP-15)
Applying this result to R(~u) and R(~v), and using R(~u + ~v) = R(~u) + R(~v),
gives
kR(~u + ~v)k2 = kR(~u)k2 + 2R(~u) R(~v) + kR(~v)k2 : (PP-16)

PP-19
PP-20 PROOFS
If R preserves all lengths, then kR(~u +~v)k = k~u +~vk, kR(~u)k = k~uk, kR(~v)k =
k~vk, so subtracting (PP-15) from (PP-16) gives R(~u) R(~v) = ~u ~v:
Lemma PP-11 R is orthogonal i RT = R;1. (Therefore if R is orthogonal R;1 exists.)
Proof:
If RT = R;1 then RT R = I . Then for any ~u~v 2 V , ~u RT R(~v) = ~u ~v so
R(~u) R(~v) = ~u ~v. Hence R is orthogonal. Conversely, suppose R orthogonal.
Then for any ~u~v 2 V , R(~u) R(~v) = ~u ~v, so ~u RT R(~v) = ~u ~v, so ~u
(RT R)(~v) ; ~v ] = 0. Fix ~v. Then we see that RT R(~v) ; ~v is orthogonal to
every ~u 2 V , hence to itself. Hence it is ~0, so RT R(~v) = ~v. Since this is true
for every ~v 2 V , RT R = I . Then by lemma PP-8, RT = R;1.
Corollary PP-6 If either RT R = I or RRT = I , R is orthogonal.

Proof:
By lemma PP-8, either equation implies RT = R;1.
Corollary PP-7 If R is orthogonal, so is R;1.

Proof:
By lemma PP-11, R;1 exists and is RT . But RT (RT )T = RT R = I , so RT
satises the second equation in corollary PP-6. Hence RT is orthogonal.
The easiest way to discover whether a linear R : V ! V is orthogonal is to study its
matrix Rij relative to some orthonormal basis for V . Recall that we dene this matrix by
R(^x)i = Rij x^j (PP-17)
where (^x1 : : : x^n ) is the orthonormal basis for V which we are using. The matrix Lij of
an arbitrary linear operator L is dened in the same way,
L(^x)i = Lij x^j : (PP-18)
PROOFS PP-21
The matrix of LT relative to (^x1 : : : x^n) is the transposed matrix Lji. That is
LT (^xi ) = Lij x^j or (LT )ij = Lji: (PP-19)
To see this, we note that x^k L(^xi ) = Lij x^k x^j = Lij kj = Lik , so
Lij = L(^xi ) x^j : (PP-20)
Therefore (LT )ij = LT (^xi ) x^j = xî L(^xj ) = Lji.

Now we have
Remark 6 If R is orthogonal, then its matrix relative to every orthonormal basis satises
Rij Rik = jk (\orthonormal columns") (PP-21)
and
RjiRki = jk (\orthonormal rows") (PP-22)
Proof:
If R is orthogonal so is RT . Therefore, it su#ces to prove (PP-21). We have
RT (^xj ) = (RT )jixî = Rij xî. Then RRT (^xj ) = Rij R(^xi ) = Rij Rik x^k . But if
R is orthogonal, RRT = I , so RRT (^xj ) = jk x^k . Thus Rij Rik x^k = jk x^k , or
(Rij Rik ; jk )^xk = 0. Fix j . Since x^1 : : : x^n are linearly independent, we
must have Rij Rik ; jk = 0. This is (PP-21).
Remark 7 If R 2 L(V ! V ) and there is one orthonormal basis for V relative to which
the matrix of R satises either (PP-21) or (PP-22), then R is orthogonal.
Proof:
Suppose that relative to the particular basis x^1 : : : x^n, the matrix of R satises
(PP-21). Multiply by x^k and add over k, using Rik x^k = R(^xi). The result is
Rij R(^xi ) = x^j :

PP-22 PROOFS
h i
By linearity of R, this means R(Rij xî ) = x^j or R RT (^xj ) = x^j , or (RRT )(^xj ) =
x^j . But then for any scalars v1 : : : ~vn we have (RRT )(vj x^j ) = vj RRT (^xj ) =
vj x^j . Hence RRT (~v) = ~v for all ~v 2 V . Hence RRT = I . Hence R is
orthogonal.
Next suppose R satises (PP-22) rather than (PP-21). Then (RT )ij (RT )ik =
jk , so the matrix of RT satises (PP-21). Hence, RT = R;1 is orthogonal.
Hence so is (RT )T = (R;1 );1 = R.
Corollary PP-8 If the rows of a square matrix are orthonormal, so are the columns.
A matrix with this property is called orthogonal. What we have seen is that if R is
orthogonal, so is its matrix relative to every orthonormal basis. And if the matrix of R
relative to one orthonormal basis is orthogonal, R is orthogonal, so its matrix relative to
every orthonormal basis is orthogonal.
Now we discuss some properties of orthogonal operators which will eventually tell us
what those operators look like.
First, we introduce the notation in
Denition PP-5 The set of all orthogonal operators on Euclidean space V is written
$(V ). The set of all proper orthogonal operators (those with determinant + 1) is written
$+(V ).
Lemma PP-12 $(V ) and $+(V ) are groups if multiplication is dened as operator
composition.
Proof:
All we need to prove is that both sets are closed under the operations of taking
inverses and of multiplying. But if R 2 $(V ), we know R;1 2 $(V ) by remark
PP-2. And det(R;1) = (det R);1 = 1 if det R = 1 so if R 2 $+(V ) then
R;1 2 $+(V ). If R1 and R2 2 $(V ), then (R1 R2)T (R1 R2 ) = R2T R1T R1 R2 =
R2T IR2 = R2T R2 = I , so R1R2 2 $(V ). And if R1 , R2 2 $+(V ) then
det(R1R2 ) = (det R1)(det R2) = 1, so R1R2 2 $+(V ).
PROOFS PP-23
Lemma PP-13 If R 2 $(V ), det R = +1 or ;1.

Proof:
RT R = I so (det RT )(det R) = det I . But det RT = det R and det I = 1.
Thus (det R)2 = 1.
Lemma PP-14 Suppose R 2 $(V ) and U is a subspace of V and R(U )

U . Then
RjU 2 $(U ).
Proof:
By hypothesis, RjU is a linear operator on U . Since kR(~v)k = k~vk for all
~v 2 V , this is certainly true for all ~v 2 U . Hence, RjU satises denition
PP-4
Lemma PP-15 Under the hypothesis of lemma PP-14, RT (U )

U .
Proof:
Suppose ~u 2 U . Then there is a unique u~ 0 2 U such that ~u = (RjU )(u~ 0) (be-
cause (RjU );1 exists as a linear operator on U ). But u~ 0 2 U , so (RjU )(u~ 0 ) =
R(u~ 0). Thus ~u = R(u~ 0), and R;1(~u) = u~ 0. Then RT (~u) = u~ 0. Thus
RT (~u) 2 U if ~u 2 U . QED
Lemma PP-16 Under the hypotheses of lemma PP-14, R(U ?)

U ?.
Proof:
Suppose w~ 2 U ?. We want to show R(w~ ) 2 U ?. That is, ~u R(w~ ) = 0 for all
~u 2 U . But ~u R(w~ ) = RT (~u) w~ . By lemma PP-5, RT (~u) 2 U . By hypothesis
w~ ?U . Hence, RT (~u) w~ = 0, as required.
Lemma PP-17 If R 2 $(V ) and is an eigenvalue of R, = 1.
Proof:
PP-24 PROOFS
Suppose R(~v) = ~v and ~v 6= ~0. Then k~vk = kR(~v)k = k~vk =j j k~vk so

1 =j j. QED.
Lemma PP-18 Let R 2 $(V ). Let x^1 : : : x^n be an orthonormal basis for V . Let Rij
be the matrix of R relative to this basis. Suppose is a complex zero of the n'th degree
polynomial det(Rij ; ij ). Then j j2= 1.
Proof:
There is a complex n-tuple (r1 : : : rn) 6= (0 : : : 0) such that Rij rj = ri.
Taking complex conjugates gives Rij rj = ri, or Rik rk = ri. Multiplying
and summing over i gives
Rij Rik rj rk = riri:
But Rij Rik = jk , so rj rj =j j2 riri. Since riri > 0, we have j j2= 1.
Lemma PP-19 In lemma PP-18, is also a zero of det(Rij ; ij ) = 0.

Proof:
Since (Rij ; ij )rj = 0 and (r1 : : : rn ) 6= (0 : : : 0), det(Rij ; ij ) = 0.
Lemma PP-20 Suppose R, Rij as in lemma PP-18. Suppose is not real and (r1 : : : rn) 6=
(0 : : : 0) is a sequence of n complex numbers such that Rij rj = ri. Then ri ri = 0.
Proof:
Rik rk = ri so (Rij rj )(Rik rk ) = 2riri , or Rij Rik rj rk = 2riri, or jk rj rk =

2riri, or rj rj = 2riri , or (2 ; 1)riri = 0. Since is not real, 2 ; 1 6= 0, so
riri = 0.
Remark 8 Suppose R 2 $(V ) and V contains no eigenvectors of R. Then V contains

two mutually orthogonal unit vectors ~x and ~y such that for some in 0 < < ,
PROOFS PP-25
8
>
>
< R(^x) = x^ cos $ + y^ sin $
>
> (PP-23)
>
>
: R(^y) = x^ sin $ + y^ cos $:
Proof:
Choose an orthonormal basis z^1 : : : z^n for V , and let Rij be the matrix of
R relative to that basis. If 0 = det(Rij ; ij ) has a real root, , it is an
eigenvalue of R, so R has an eigenvector. Hence no root of det(Rij ; ij )
is real. By lemma PP-18, we can write any root as ei where 0 < < or
< < 2. By lemma PP-19, we can nd a root e;i with 0 < < . Then
there is an n-tuple of complex numbers (r1 : : : rn) 6= (0 : : : 0) such that
Rjk rj = e;i rk : (PP-24)

We may normalize (r1 : : : rn) so that
rjrj = 2 (PP-25)
and by lemma PP-20

rj rj = 0: (PP-26)
Now write rj = xj + iyj where xj and yj are real.
Then separating the real and imaginary parts of (PP-24) gives
Rjk xj = xk cos + yk sin
Rjk yj = ;xk sin + yk cos :
Separating the real and imaginary parts of (PP-26) gives
xj xj ; yj yj = 0
xj yj = 0
PP-26 PROOFS
and (PP-25) gives

xj xj + yj yj = 2:
From these equations, clearly
xj xj = yj yj = 1 and xj yj = 0:
Now take x^ = xj z^j and y^ = yj z^j , and we have the x^ y^, whose existence is asserted in
the theorem.
Corollary PP-9 dim V 2.

Remark 9 Suppose R 2 $(V ) and V contains no eigenvectors of R. Then V has an
orthonormal basis x^1 y^1 : : : x^m y^m such that for each j 2 f1 : : : mg there is an $j in
0 < j < with
8
>
>
< R(^xj ) = x^(j) cos (j) + y^(j) sin (j)
>
> : (PP-27)
>
>
: R(^yj ) = ;x^(j) sin (j) + y^(j) cos (j)
Proof:
By remark PP-4 we can nd mutually orthogonal unit vectors x^1 y^1 and 1
in 0 < 1 < such that (PP-27) holds for j = 1. Then R(spfx^1 y^1g)
spfx^1 y^1g. Hence, by lemma PP-16, R(fx^1 y^1g?)

fx^1 y^1g?. Hence, by
lemma PP-14, Rjfx^1 y^1g? 2 $(fx^1 y^1g?). Since R has no eigenvectors in V ,
it has none in fx^1 y^1g?. Thus Rjfx^1 y^1g? satises the hypotheses of remark
PP-3, and we can repeat the argument, nding 2 in 0 < 2 < an mutually
orthogonal unit vectors x^2 y^2 in fx^1 y^1g? such that (PP-4) holds for j = 2.
We can proceed in this way as long as the dimension of the remaining space
is > 0. (The argument is by induction on dim V .) When the dimension of the
remaining space is 0, we have an orthonormal basis for V with the required
properties.
PROOFS PP-27
Corollary PP-10 dim V is even. That is, if R 2 $(V ) and dim V is odd, R has an
eigenvector. (This is obvious from another point of view. If dim V is odd, so is the degree
of the real polynomial det(R ; I ). Hence, it has at least one real zero).
Theorem PP-14 Suppose V is Euclidean vector space and R 2 $(V ). Then V has an
orthonormal basis x^1 y^1 : : : x^m y^m z^1 : : : z^n w^1 : : : w^p with these properties:
i) R(w^j ) = ;w^j
ii) R(^zj ) = z^j
iii) for j 2 f1 : : : mg, there is a j in 0 < j < such that equation (PP-4) holds.
Proof:
Let Z and W be the eigenspaces of V with eigenvalues +1 and ;1. Let

z^1 : : : z^n be an orthonormal basis for Z and w^1 : : : w^p an orthonormal basis
for W . Then R(Z + W )
Z + W , so R(Z + W )?]
(Z + W )?. Moreover,
(Z + W )? contains no eigenvectors of R, since all their eigenvalues are +1 or
;1, and these are already in Z or W . Thus remark PP-4 applied to (Z + W )?.
QED.
Corollary PP-11 det R = (;1)p:
Proof:
Relative to the basis in theorem PP-15, the matrix of R looks thus:

Each 2 2 diagonal block contributes a factor cos2 j + sin2 j = 1 to the
determinant, whence the result.
PP-28 PROOFS
cos θ1 sin θ1
-sin θ1 cos θ1
cos θ2 sin θ2
-sin θ2 cos θ2
..
.
cos θm sin θm
-sin θm cos θm
1..
.
1
{
n terms -1
..
.
-1
{
p terms
Figure PP-1: Matrix of R.

PROOFS PP-29
Corollary PP-12 If R 2 $+(V ), then V has an orthonormal basis x^1 y^1 : : : x^m y^m z^1 : : : z^n
such that
8
>
> i) R(^zj ) = z^j for j 2 f1 : : : ng:
>
>
>
>
>
>
< ii) For j 2 f1 : : : mg there is a j in 0 < j such that
>
>
> : (PP-28)
>
>
>
> R(^xj ) = x^(j) cos (j) + y^(j) sin (j)
>
>
>
>
>
: R(^yj ) = ;x^(j) sin (j) + y^(j) cos (j) :
Proof:
Since det R = +1, in theorem PP-15, p is even. Therefore, we may divide

w^1 : : : w^p into pairs. For any such pair, we have (for example)
R(w^1) = ;w^1 = w^1 cos + w^2 sin
R(w^2) = ;w^2 = ;w^1 sin + w^2 cos :
If we adjoin these pairs to the pairs (^xj y^j ) given by theorem PP-15, and take the
corresponding angles as = , we have the result of the corollary.
For obvious reasons, a linear operator on V which looks like (PP-27) in some or-
thonormal basis is called a \rotation." Corollary PP-12 says that every proper orthogonal
operator is a rotation. If dim V = 3, the eigenvector z^1 is called the axis of the rotation,
and the angle _1 in 0 < 1 is the angle of the rotation. This terminology breaks down
only when m = 0 and n = 3 in (PP-27). In that case, R = I . The angle of rotation of I
is 0, but its axis of rotation obviously cannot be dened.
For dim V = 3, corollary PP-12 is called Euler's theorem. If R 2 L(V ! V ) and an
orthonormal basis x^1 : : : x^n for V can be found such that R(^x1 ) = ;x^1 , R(^xj ) = x^j for
j 2 then R is said to be a reection along x^1 . Obviously det R = ;1 for a reection,
PP-30 PROOFS
so a reection is an \improper orthogonal" operator. Also, clearly a reection has the

property R;1 = R, or R2 = I .
If R1 is a reection and R2 is any other improper orthogonal operator, then R = R1R2
is orthogonal and det R = (det)R1)(det R2) = (;1)2 = 1, so R is proper orthogonal. But
then R1 R = R12 R2 = R2, so R2 = R1 R. That is, every improper orthogonal operator is
the product of a rotation and a reection.
Part I
Tensors over Euclidean Vector Spaces
1
Chapter 1
Multilinear Mappings
1.1 Denition of multilinear mappings
M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ):
V1 : : : Vq W are vector spaces over a single eld F , and M 2 F (V1 : : : Vq ! W ).
If M satises any of the following three equivalent conditions, M is called a multilinear
mapping from V1 : : : Vq to W .
Denition 1.1.6 For any (~v1 : : : ~vq ) 2 V1 : : : Vq and any p 2 f1 : : : qg,
M (~v1 : : : ~vp;1 ~vp+1 : : : ~vq ) 2 L(Vp ! W ):
(That is, M (~v1 : : : ~vq ) depends linearly on each of the separate vectors ~v1 : : : v~q if the
others are held xed.)
Denition 1.1.7 If a 2 F , p 2 f1 : : : qg, ~xp and ~yp 2 Vp, and (~v1 : : : ~vq ) 2 V1 : : : Vq
then
i) M (~v1 : : : ~vp;1 a~vp~vp+1 : : : ~vq ) = aM (~v1 : : : ~vp;1~vp~vp+n : : : ~vq ). Also
ii) M (~v1 : : : ~vp;1 ~xp + ~yp~vp+1 : : : ~vq ) = M (~v1 : : : ~vp;1 ~xp~vp+1 : : : ~vq )
+ M (~v1 : : : ~vp;1 ~yp~vP +1 : : : ~vq ) .
3
4 CHAPTER 1. MULTILINEAR MAPPINGS
Denition 1.1.8 For each p 2 f1 : : : qg, suppose a1(p) : : : an(pp) 2 F and ~v1(p) : : : ~vn(pp) 2
iq (q)
Vp. Then M ai(1)1 ~vi(1)
1
: : : a ~
v
(q ) iq = ai1 : : : aiq M ~v (1) : : : ~v (q) .
(1) (q) i1 iq
Denition 1.1.9 M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ) denotes the set of all multilinear mappings

from V1 : : : Vq to W .
1.2 Examples of multilinear mappings

In these examples, V1 : : : Vq are Euclidean vector spaces, and the eld F is R. The
vector space W need not be Euclidean (i.e. need not have a dot product) but it must be
real (i.e. its eld is R).
Example 1.2.1 For each p between 1 and q, let ~up be a xed vector in Vp. Let w~ 0 2 W .
For any (~v1 : : : ~vq ) 2 V1 : : : Vq , dene
M (~v1 : : : ~vq ) = (~u1 ~v1 ) (~uq ~vq )w~ 0: (1.2.1)
To give the next example, some terminology is useful. Suppose that for each p 2

f1 : : : qg Bp = ~b1(p) : : : ~bn(pp) is an ordered basis for Vp. Then the sequence of ordered
bases (B1 : : : Bq ) is called a \basis sequence" for V1 : : : Vq . Let BpD = (~b(1p) : : : ~b(npp) )
be the ordered basis for Vp which is dual to Bp. Then (B1D : : : BqD ) is \the basis sequence
dual to (B1 : : : Bq )."
Example 1.2.2 Let (B1 : : : Bq ) be a basis sequence for V1 : : : Vq . Let w~ i :::iq be any 1
q'th order, n1 : : : nq array of vectors from W . For any (V~1 : : : V~q ) 2 V1 : : : Vq

dene

M ~v(1) : : : ~v(q) = ~b i(1)1 ~v (1) : : : ~b(iqq) ~v(q) w~ i1 :::iq : (1.2.2)
Then
M 2 M (V1 : : : Vq ! W ) (1.2.3)
and also

M ~bj(1)
1
: : :~bj(1)
q = w~ j1:::jq : (1.2.4)
1.2. EXAMPLES OF MULTILINEAR MAPPINGS 5
The multilinearity of M is almost obvious (1.2.2) is a sum of n1 n2 : : : nq terms like

(1.2.1). Each of these terms is linear in each v~p if ~v1 : : : ~vp;1~vp+1 : : :~vq are xed.
To prove (1.2.4) we let ~vp = ~b(jpp) in the denition (1.2.2), obtaining M (~b(1) j1 : : : ~bjq ) =
(q )
(~b(1)
i1 ~b (1) ) : : : (~b iq ~b (q) )w
j1 (q) jq ~ i1 :::iq = j1 : : : jq w
i1 iq ~ i :::i = w
1 q ~ j1:::jq . There are no other examples.
Every member of M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ) is like example (1.2.2). We have
Remark 1.2.10 Suppose V1 : : : Vq are Euclidean vector spaces and W is a real vector
space. Suppose dim V1 = n1 : : : dim Vq = nq . Suppose (B1 : : : Bq ) is a basis sequence
for V1 : : : Vq , and w~ i1:::iq is an n1 n2 : : : nq array of vectors from W . Then 91
M 2 M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ) 3 M (~bi(1) 1
: : : ~bi(qq)) = w~ i1:::iq .
Proof:
Example 1.2.2 shows at least one such M . To establish uniqueness suppose
M does satisfy (1.2.3) and (1.2.4). Let (~b1(p) : : : ~b(npp) ) = BpD be the ordered
basis for Vp which is dual to Bp = (~b1(p) : : : ~bn(pp)). For any ~v(p) 2 Vp, we have
~v(p) = v(ipp)~bi(pp) where ~v(ipp) = v(p) ~bi(pp) . Then
i1 ~b (1) : : : v iq ~b (q) ) (by denition 1.1.8)
M (~v(1) : : : ~v (q) ) = M (v(1) i1 (q) iq
= bi(1)1 : : : v(iqq ) M (~bi(1)

1
: : : ~bi(qq) ) (by hypothesis)
i1 : : : v iq w
= v(1) (q) ~ i1 :::iq

= ~bi(1)
1
~v(1) : : : ~b(iqq) ~v(q) w~ i1 :::iq :
In other words, M is the function dened by (1.2.2).
It follows that every M 2 M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ) has the form (1.2.2).
1.3 Elementary properties of multilinear mappings

Remark 1.3.11 If one of ~v1 : : : ~vq is ~0 and if M 2 M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ) then
M (~v1 : : : ~vq ) = ~0, the zero in W .
Proof:
We suppose ~v1 = ~0. Then M (~0~v2 : : : ~vq ) = M (0~0~v2 : : : ~vq ) = 0M (~0~v2 : : : ~vq ) =
~0, where we have used denition (1.1.7).
Remark 1.3.12 M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ) is a vector space over F if we use the ad and

sc dened in example 3, page D-12, or in equations (14.1), (14.2).
Proof:
Refer to \subspaces" on page D-15. We know from example 3, page D-12,
that F (V1 : : : Vq ! W ) is a vector space over F . Obviously, M(V1
: : : Vq ! W ), is a subset of F (V1 : : : V q) ! W ). Therefore, it su#ces
to prove that if a 2 F and M , N 2 M(V1 : : : V q ! W ), then aM and
M + N 2 M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ). That is, if M and N are multilinear, so
are aM and M + N . This is immediate from denition 1.1.6 because we know
it for linear functions. Alternatively, we can use denition 1.1.8 and write
everything out. We will do this for M + N . We have

i1 ~v (1) : : : aiq ~v (q)

(M + N ) a(1) i1 (q) iq
iq (q) i1 (1) iq (q)
= M ai(1)1 ~v(1)i1 : : : a ~
v
(q) iq + N a ~v
(1) i1 : : : a (q)~viq
( by denition of M + N )

i1 : : : a iq M ~v (1) : : : ~v (q) + ai1 : : : aiq N ~v (1) : : : ~v (q)

= a(1) (q ) i1 iq (1) (q) i1 iq
(because M and N are multilinear)
h
i1 : : : a iq M ~v (1) : : : ~v (q) + N ~v (1) ~v (q)
i
= a(1) (a) i1 iq i1 iq
because W is a vector space over F
1.4. PERMUTING A MULTILINEAR MAPPING 7
h i
= ai(1)1 : : : ai(qq) (M + N ) ~vi(1)
1
: : : ~vi(qq)
by denition of M + N:
Comparing the two ends of this chain of equalities, we have a proof that M + N
is multilinear if M and N are, and if M + N is dened by (14.1).
1.4 Permuting a multilinear mapping

Denition 1.4.10 Suppose (~v1 : : : ~vq ) 2 V1 : : : Vq and 1 r < s q. The q-
tuple (~v1 : : : ~vr;1~vs~vr+1 : : : ~vs;1~vr ~vs+1 : : :~vq ) will be abbreviated (~v1 : : :~vq )(rs). It is
simply (~v1 : : : ~vq ) with ~vr and ~vs interchanged. Note that if Vr = Vs, then (~v1 : : : ~vq )(rs) 2
V1 : : : Vq .
Denition 1.4.11 Suppose M 2 M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ) and 1 r < s q. Suppose

Vr = Vs. Then we write (rs)M for the member of F (V1 : : : Vq ! W ) dened by
requiring for any (~v1 : : : ~vq ) 2 V1 : : : Vq that
(rs)M ] (~v1 : : : ~vq ) = M (~v1 : : : ~vq )(rs) : (1.4.1)
That is
(rs)M ] (~v1 : : : ~vr;1~vr ~vr+1 : : : ~vs;1~vs~ss+1 : : : ~vq )
= M (~v1 : : : ~vr;1~vs~vr+1 : : : ~vs;1~vr ~ss+1 : : : ~vq ) : (1.4.2)
Remark 1.4.13 (rs)M 2 M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ) if Vr = Vs.

Proof:
Obvious from (1.4.2) and denition (1.1.6).
Remark 1.4.14 (rs) is a linear operator on M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ) if Vr = Vs.

Proof:
By remark (1.4.13), (rs) : M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ) ! M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ).
It remains to prove that (rs) is linear. Suppose a1 : : : aN are scalars and
M1 : : : MN 2 M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ). We want to prove that (rs)(aj Mj ) =
aj (rs)Mj ]. Let (~v1 : : : ~vq 2 V1 : : : Vq ). Then
h i
(rs)(aj Mj )] (~v1 : : : ~vq ) = (aj Mj )(~v1 : : : ~vq )(rs) = aj Mj (~v1 : : : ~vq )(rs)
h i h i
= aj (rs)Mj (~v1 : : : ~vq ) = aj (rs)Mj (~v1 : : : ~vq ):
Since this is true for any (~v1 : : : ~vq ) 2 V1 : : : Vq , we have the required
result.
Denition 1.4.12 Suppose M , r, s as in denition (1.4.2). If (rs)M = M , M is \sym-
metric" under (rs). If (rs)M = ;M , M is \antisymmetric" under (rs).
Remark 1.4.15 If Vr = Vs, the members of M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ) which are symmetric

under (rs) constitute a subspace of M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ). The same holds for the
members antisymmetric under (rs).
Proof:
It su#ces to show that if a is any scalar and M , N are symmetric (or antisym-
metric) under (rs), so are aM and M +N . We give the proof for antisymmetry.
In that case, by hypothesis,
(rs)M = ;M (rs)N = ;N:
But (rs) is linear, so (rs)aM ] = a(rs)M ] = a(;M ) = ;aM , and (rs)(M +
N ) = (rs)M +(rs)N = ;M ; N = ;(M + N ). (Note that the set of members
of M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ) which are symmetric (anti-symmetric) under (rs)
is simply the eigenspace of (rs) with eigenvalue 1(;1). Of course, it is a
subspace of M(V1 : : : Vq ! W ).)
1.4. PERMUTING A MULTILINEAR MAPPING 9
Denition 1.4.13 Suppose V1 = = Vq = V . Suppose M 2 M(q V ! W ) and

2 Sq . Then M is dened as that member of F (q V ! W ) such that for any
~v1 : : :~vq 2 V

(M )(~v1 : : : ~vq ) = M ~v(1) : : : ~v(q) :
Remark 1.4.16 If V1 = = Vq = V then M 2 M(q V ! W ), and in fact is a

linear operator on M(q V ! W ). Moreover if , 2 Sq and M 2 M(q V ! W ) then
(M ) = ()M: (1.4.3)
Proof:
Except for (1.4.3), the proof is like that of remark (1.4.14). To prove equation
(1.4.3), let ~v1 : : : ~vq 2 V and let w~ 1 = ~v(1) : : : w~q = ~v(q) . Then

(M ) (~v1 : : : ~vq ) = (M ) ~v(1) : : : ~v(q)

= (M ) (w~ 1 : : : w~ q ) = M w~ (1) : : : w~ (q)

= M ~v(1)] : : : ~v(q)]

= M ~v()(1) : : : ~v()(q)
= ()M ] (~v1 : : : ~vq )
Since this is true for all ~v1 : : : ~vq 2 V , we have (1.4.3).
Denition 1.4.14 Suppose V1 = = Vq = V and M 2 M 2 (q V ! W ). M is

totally symmetric (antisymmetric) if M = M (M = ( sgn )M ) for every 2 Sq .
Remark 1.4.17 M is totally symmetric (antisymmetric) i (rs)M = M (= ;M ) for

every transposition (rs).
Proof:
=) is obvious. For (=, recall that any 2 Sq is a product of transpositions.
By remark 1.4.16 the eects of these transpositions on M can be calculated
one after the other. If all leave M unchanged, so does . If all multiply M by
;1, then M is M multiplied by sgn (= 1 for even/odd ).
Remark 1.4.18 The totally symmetric (antisymmetric) members of M(q V ! W )
constitute a subspace of M(q V ! W ).
Proof:
We give the proof for the totally symmetric case. Suppose M1 : : : MN are
totally antisymmetric members of M(q V ! W ) and a1 : : : aM are scalars.
We want to show that aiMi is totally antisymmetric. But for any 2 Sq , is
linear operator on M(q V ! W ), so (aiMi) = ai(Mi ) = ai ( sgn )Mi ] =
( sgn )(ai Mi). That is, aiMi is totally antisymmetric.
Chapter 2
Denition of Tensors over Euclidean
Vector Spaces
If V1 : : : Vq are Euclidean vector spaces, then M(V1 : : : Vq ) ! R is called the \tensor
product of V1 : : : Vq ". It is written V1 : : : Vq . Thus
V1 : : : Vq := M(V1 : : : Vq ) ! R: (2.0.1)
The multilinear functionals which are the members of V1 : : : Vq are called the tensors
of order q over V1 : : : Vq .
z q times
}| {
If V1 = : : : = Vq = V , then V1 : : : Vq = V : : : V , and this is abbreviated q V .
Its members are called the tensors of order q over V . By convention, tensors of order zero
are scalars that is
V = R: (2.0.2)
For tensors of order 1, the notation requires some comment. When q = 1, multilinearity
is simply linearity. That is M(V ! R) = L(V ! R). Thus the tensors of order 1 over
a vector space V are simply the linear functional on V . This would not be a problem,
except that for q = 1, (2.0.1) reduces to V1 := M(V1 ! R), which says
V = L(V ! R): (2.0.3)

11
12 CHAPTER 2. DEFINITION OF TENSORS OVER EUCLIDEAN VECTOR SPACES
It is at this point that we require V to be a Euclidean vector space. If it is, then ~v 2 V can
be safely confused with the linear functional ~v 2 L(V ! R) dened by (21.2). Tensors
of order 1 over V are simply the vectors in V .
When V is not a Euclidean vector space, (2.0.3) is false. (The situation is very
subtle. If V is not Euclidean but is nite dimensional, every basis B for V generates an
isomorphism between V and L(V ! R), namely ~bij! ciB . But each of these isomorphisms
depends on the basis B chosen to produce it. There is no \natural", basis-independent
isomorphism which can be used to identify vectors with linear functionals. See MacLane
and Birkho, Algebra, MacMillan 1967, p. 237 for a more detailed discussion.) Tensors
over vector spaces which are not Euclidean are constructed in a more complicated fashion
than (2.0.1). We will not need this generality, and tensors over Euclidean spaces have
some very useful properties for continuum mechanics. It is for this reason that we consider
only tensors over Euclidean spaces. See M. Marcus's book, on reserve, for a treatment of
tensors over arbitrary vector spaces.
Chapter 3
Alternating Tensors, Determinants,
Orientation, and n-dimensional
Right-handedness
In this section we discuss an application of tensors which some of you may have seen in
your linear algebra courses.
Let V be an n-dimensional Euclidean vector space. The set of totally antisymmetric
tensors of order q over V is written q V . It is a subspace of q V . (See remark 1.4.18.)
We want to study nV . The members of nV are called \alternating tensors over V ."
3.1 Structure of nV

We want to understand what the alternating tensors over V are like. It will turn out that
there are not very many of them. In fact dim nV = 1. We want to prove this and to
nd a basis \vector" in the vector space nV .
First we note a technique for verifying that A 2 nV . We need to prove only that
A 2 n V and that (rs)A = ;A for every transposition (rs) 2 Sn. If this latter fact is
true, then clearly remark 2.0.1 tells us A 2 nV .
A second property of an A 2 n V which is equivalent to membership in nV is that
13
14CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATING TENSORS, DETERMINANTS, ORIENTATION, AND N -DIMENSIONAL RIGHT-HANDEDNESS
for any (~v1 : : : ~vn) 2 n V and any 2 Sn,

A ~v(1) : : : ~v(n) = ( sgn )A (~v1 : : :~vn) : (3.1.1)
This is obvious from the denition of A and nV . It implies the rst step in our
attempt to understand alternating tensors:
Lemma 3.1.21 If A 2 nV and two of ~v1 : : :~vn are equal, then A(~v1 : : : ~vn) = 0.
Proof:
If ~vr = ~vs, interchanging them will not change A(~v1 : : : ~vn). But sgn (rs) =
;1, so (3.1.1) says interchanging them changes the sign of A(~v1 : : : ~vn).
Hence A(~v1 : : : ~vn) = 0.
Equation (3.1.1) and lemma 3.1.21 are equivalent to the single equation
A (~vi1 : : : ~vin ) = "i1 :::in A (v1 : : : ~vn) : (3.1.2)
For if two of i1 : : : in are equal, both sides of (3.1.2) vanish. If i1 : : : in are all dierent,
there is a permutation 2 Sn such that i1 = (1) : : : in = (n). Then (3.1.2) reduces
to equation (3.1.1).
Lemma 3.1.21 can be extended to
Remark 3.1.19 If A 2 nV and ~v1 : : : ~vn are linearly dependent, then A(~v1 : : : ~vn) =
0.
Proof:
By hypothesis, there are scalars c1 : : : cn, not all zero, such that ci~vi = ~0.
If ~v1 = ~0, then A(~v1 : : : ~vn) = 0 by remark 1.3.11. If ~v1 6= 0 then at least
one of c2 : : : cn is nonzero. Let cp be the last scalar which is nonzero. Then
c1~v1 + : : : + cp~vp = ~0 and we can divide by cp to write
;1
pX
~vp = ai~vi
i=1
3.1. STRUCTURE OF N V 15
where
ai = ; cci :
p
Then
0 ;1
pX
1
A (~v1 : : : ~vn) = A @~v1 : : : ~vp;1 ai~vi ~vp+1 : : : ~vnA
i=1
;1
pX
= aiA (~v1 : : :~vp;1~vi~vp+1 : : : ~vn)
i=1
= 0 by lemma 3.1.21:
Remark 3.1.19 would be rather dull if A 2 nV implied A = 0. Therefore at this

point we pause to construct a nonzero member of nV . Let B = (~b1 : : : ~bn) be any basis
for V . Let B D = (~b1 : : : ~bn) be its dual basis. Dene AB 2 F (nV ! R) by requiring

AB (~v1 : : : ~vn) = ~v1 ~bi1 : : : ~vn ~bin "i1 :::in (3.1.3)
for any (~v1 : : :~vn) 2 nV . From denition (1.1.6) it is clear that AB is multilinear,

so AB 2 n V , because the values of AB are scalars. Furthermore, AB ~b1 : : : ~bn =
~ ~i1 ~ ~in
b1 b : : : bn b "i1 :::in = 1 i1 : : : n in "i1 :::in = "12:::n = 1. That is, if B = ~b1 : : : ~bn ,

AB ~b1 : : : ~bn = 1 (3.1.4)
when AB is dened by (3.1.3). Thus AB 6= 0. We claim also that AB 2 nV . To show
this, is su#ces to show that (rs)AB = ;AB for any transposition (rs). The argument is
the same for all (rs), so we consider (12). We have
(12)AB ] (~v1 : : : ~vn) = AB (~v2 ~v1~v3 : : : ~vn)

= ~v2 ~bi1 ~v1 ~bi2 ~v3 ~bi3 : : : ~vn ~bin "i1 :::in :
If we relabel the summation index i1 as i2, and relabel i2 as i1 , this is

(12)AB ] (~v1 : : : ~vn) = ~v2 ~bi2 ~v1 ~bi1 ~v3 ~bi3 : : : ~vn ~bin "i2 i1 i3 :::in

= ~v1 ~bi1 : : : ~vn ~bin "i2 i1 i3 :::in

= ; ~v1 ~bi1 : : : ~vn ~bin "i1 i2 i3 :::in
= ;AB (~v1 : : : ~vn) :
Since these equations hold for any (~v1 : : : ~vn) 2 nV , we have (12)AB = ;AB . QED
Now for every ordered basis B in V we have managed to construct a nonzero member
of nV , namely AB . It looks as if nV must be rather large. In fact it is not. We can
now easily prove
dim nV = 1 if n dim V: (3.1.5)
To see this, let B = (~b1 : : : ~bn) be a xed ordered basis for V . We will prove that if
A 2 nV then A is a scalar multiple of AB . Thus, fAB g is a basis for nV . The argument
goes thus. Let A 2 nV . For any (~v1 : : : ~vn) 2 nV we can write ~vp = vp i~bi where vp i =
~vp ~bi, B D = (b~1 : : : ~bn) being the basis dual to B . Then

A (~v1 : : : ~vn) = A v1 i1~bi1 : : : vn in~bin

= v1 i1 : : : vn in A ~bi1 : : : ~bin

= v1 i1 : : : vn in "i1 :::in A ~b1 : : : ~bn by (3:1:2)

= A ~b1 : : : ~bn ~v1 ~bi1 : : : ~vn ~bin "i1 :::in

= A ~b1 : : : ~bn AB (~v1 : : : ~vn) :
Since this is true for all ~v1 : : : ~vn 2 V , we have for ordered basis B = (~b1 : : : ~bn) in V
3.2. DETERMINANTS OF LINEAR OPERATORS 17
and for any A 2 nV

A = A ~b1 : : : ~bn AB : (3.1.6)

Of course, A ~b1 : : : ~bn 2 R, so (3.1.6) shows A 2 spfAB g. This proves (3.1.5).
Equation 3.1.6 permits us to prove the following test for linear independence of a
sequence of n vectors in an n-dimensional space.
Remark 3.1.20 Suppose A 2 nV and A 6= 0, and dim V = n. Suppose ~v1 : : : ~vn 2 V .
Then ~v1 : : : ~vn are linearly dependent if and only if A(~v1 : : : ~vn) = 0.
Proof:
=) is remark 3.1.2. To prove (=, we want to prove that if A(~v1 : : : ~vn) = 0
then ~v1 : : : ~vn are linearly dependent. If they are not, they are a basis B for
V . Then (3.1.6) says A = A(~v1 : : : ~vn)AB , and since A 6= 0, we must have
A(~v1 : : : ~vn) 6= 0, contrary to our hypothesis.
3.2 Determinants of linear operators

The fact that dim nV = 1 makes possible a simple and elegant denition of the determ-
inant det L of a linear operator L 2 L(V ! V ). Choose any nonzero A 2 nV . Dene
AL] 2 F (nV ! R) by
AL] (~v1 : : : ~vn) = A L(~v1 ) : : : L(~vn)] 8 (~v1 : : : ~vn) 2 nV: (3.2.1)
Since L is linear and A is multilinear, denition (1.1.6) shows that AL] is multilinear. It
is obvious that AL] is totally antisymmetric if A is. Thus AL] 2 nV . Since A 6= 0, A is
a basis for nV , and there is a scalar kAL such that
AL] = kALA: (3.2.2)
From the denition (3.2.1), if a 2 R, (aA)L] = aAL]. Thus by (3.2.2), (aA)L] = kALaA.
But, applying the general result (3.2.2) to aA instead of A, we have (aA)L] = kaAL(aA).
Thus
kaAL(aA) = (aA)L] = aAL] = akALA = kAL(aA):
Since A 6= 0, kaAL = kAL. But every member of nV can be written aA for some a 2 R.
Therefore kAL has the same value for all nonzero A 2 nV . It is independent of A, and
depends only on L. Thus for any L 2 L(V ! V ) there is a real number kL such that for
any nonzero A 2 nV ,
AL] = kLA: (3.2.3)
This equation is obviously true also for A = 0, and hence for all A in nV . The determ-
inant of L, det L, is dened to be kL. Thus, by the denition of det L,
AL] = (det L) A (3.2.4)
for any A 2 nV . Returning to the denition (3.2.1) of AL], we have
A L (~v1 ) : : : L (~vn)] = (det L) A (~v1 : : : ~vn) (3.2.5)
for any A 2 nV and any (~v1 : : : ~vn) 2 nV .

Now suppose (~v1 : : : ~vn) is any ordered basis for V , and Li j is the matrix of L relative
to this basis. Then L(~vi) = Li j~vj so
h i
A L (~v1 ) : : : L (~vn)] = A L1 j1~vj1 : : : Ln jn ~vjn
= L1 j1 : : : Ln jn A (~v1 : : : ~vn) because A is multilinear
= L1 j1 : : : Ln jn "j1 : : : jnA (~vj1 : : : ~vjn ) because

A is totally antisymmetric (3.1.1)

= det Li j A (~v1 : : : ~vn)
where det Li j is the determinant of the n n matrix Li j . Comparing this with (3.2.5),
we see that
det L = det Li j : (3.2.6)
3.2. DETERMINANTS OF LINEAR OPERATORS 19
The determinant of a linear operator is the determinant of its matrix relative to any basis.
In deducing (3.2.6) from (3.2.5) we have used the fact that A(~v1 : : : ~vn) 6= 0. This fact
follows from remark (3.1.6).
Some properties of det L are easy to deduce from (3.2.5). For example, if K and L
are both linear operators on V ,
det (K L) = (det K ) (det L) : (3.2.7)
The proof is simple. From (3.2.5),
A (K L) (~v1) : : : (K L) (vn)] = det (K L) A (~v1 : : : ~vn)
= A K (L(~v1 )) : : : K (L(~vn ))]
= (det K ) A L (~v1 ) : : : L (~vn)]
= (det K ) (det L) A (~v1 : : : ~vn) :
These equations are true for any A 2 nV and any f~v1 : : : ~vng
V . If we choose A 6= 0
and (~v1 : : : ~vn) an ordered basis, then A(~v1 : : : ~vn) 6= 0, and we can cancel it, obtaining
(3.2.7).
This choice of A and (~v1 : : : ~vn) also shows that if we set L = IV in (3.2.5) (IV :=
identity mapping of V onto V ) then
det IV = 1: (3.2.8)
As another application of (3.2.5), let A 6= 0 and f~v1 : : : ~vng be a basis for V . Then,
as remarked in theorem (18.2), L is an isomorphism () fL(~v1 ) : : : L(~vn )g is linearly
independent. From remark 3.1.20 this is true () A L(~v1 ) : : : L(~vn )] 6= 0: From (3.2.5),
since A(~v1 ~vn) 6= 0, AL(~v1 ) L(~vr )] 6= 0 , det L 6= 0. Thus a linear operator is
invertible, and hence an isomorphism, i its determinant is nonzero.
If det L 6= 0, then L;1 exists, and L L;1 = IV , so (det L)(det L;1 ) = det(L L;1 ) =
det IV = 1. Thus

det L;1 = (det L);1 : (3.2.9)
Finally we claim
det LT = det L: (3.2.10)
Recall that LT is the unique member of L(V ! V ) 3
L (~u) w~ = LT (w~ ) ~u 8~u w~ 2 V:

Let (^x1 : : : x^n) be an ordered orthonormal basis for V . Relative to this basis B , the
matrix of LT is
T j h i h i
L i = cjB LT ~bi = x^j LT (^xi ) = xî L (^xj )
= ciB L (xj )] = Lj i and
T jn
det LT = det LT i
j = LT 1
j1 : : : L n "j1:::jn
= Lj1 1 : : : Ljn n"j1:::jn
X
= L(1) 1 : : : L(n) n ( sgn ) :
2Sn
Now for any 2 Sn,
n o
Li j 2 L(1) 1 : : : L(n) n
n o
() i = (j ) () j = ;1 (i) () Li j 2 L1 ; (1) : : : Ln ; (n) :
1 1
Hence,
n o n ;1 o
L(1) 1 : : : L(n) n = L1 (1) : : : Ln ;1(n)
3.3. ORIENTATION 21
so,
L(1) 1 : : : L(n) n = L1 ;1(1) : : : Ln ;1 (n) :
Moreover, sgn = sgn ;1. Hence
X ;1(1)
det LT = L1 : : : Ln ;1 (n) sgn ;1 : (3.2.11)
2S n
Now suppose f : Sn ! W where W is any vector space. We claim
X ;1 X
f = f () : (3.2.12)
2Sn 2Sn
The reason is that as runs over Sn so does ;1. The mapping ! ;1 is a bijection of
Sn to itself. But from (3.2.11) and (3.2.12),
X (1)
det LT = L1 : : : Ln (n) sgn
2Sn
= L1 i1 : : : Ln in "i1:::in = det L:
If L 2 $(V ) (see page D-25) then L;1 = LT so L LT = IV . Then (det L)(det LT ) =
det IV = 1, so (det L)2 = 1. Thus
det L = 1 if V 2 $(V ):
3.3 Orientation
Two ordered orthonormal bases for V , (^x1 : : : x^n) and (^x01 : : : x^0n ), are said to have
the same orientation i one basis can be obtained from the other by a continuous rigid
motion. That is, there must be for each t in 0 t 1 an ordered orthonormal basis
(^x1 (t) : : : x^n(t)) with these properties:
i) xî(0) = xî
ii) xî(1) = x^0i
iii) xî(t) depends continuously on t.
Since (^x1 (t) : : : x^n(t) is orthonormal, there is an Lt 2 $(V ) 3 xî(t) = Lt (^xi ). From
i) and iii) above,
i)0 L0 = IV
iii)0 Lt depends continuously on t (i.e., its components relative to any basis depend
continously on t. For example, its components relative to (^x1 : : : x^n) are Li j =
x^j Lt (^xi) = x^j xî (t), and these are continuous in t.)
Then det L0 = 1 and det Lt depends continuously on t. But Lt 2 $(V ) for all t, so
det Lt = 1 for all t. Hence det Lt = 1 and det L1 = 1. Thus,
Remark 3.3.21 If two ordered o:n: bases for V have the same orientation, the orthogonal
operators L which maps one basis onto the other has det L = 1.
The converse of remark 3.3.21 is also true, as is clear from the comment on page D-26
and from Theorem PP-14. We will not prove that comment here. It is obvious when
dim V = 2, and for dim V = 3 it is Euler's theorem.
If two ordered orthonormal bases do not have the same orientation, we say they have
opposite orientations. The orthogonal operator L which maps one basis onto the other has
det L = ;1. Given any ordered orthonormal basis B = (^x1 : : : x^n), if two other ordered
orthonormal bases are oriented oppositely to B , they have the same orientation. Proof:
Let the bases be B 0 and B 00 . Let L0 and L00 be the orthogonal operators which
map B onto B 0 and B 00. Then L00 (L0 );1 is the orthogonal operator which maps
B 0 onto B 00, and detL00 (L0);1 ] = (det L00 ) det ((L0 );1) = (det L00)(det L0);1 =
(;1)(;1) = +1.
Thus, we can divide the ordered orthonormal bases for V into two oppositely oriented
classes. Within each class, all bases have the same orientation. We call these two classes
the \orientation classes" for V . Choosing an orientation for V amounts to choosing one
of the two orientation classes for V .
It turns out that orientations are easily described in terms of alternating tensors.
3.3. ORIENTATION 23
Denition 3.3.15 We call A 2 nV \unimodular" if

jA (^x1 : : : x^n)j = 1 (3.3.1)
for every ordered orthonormal basis (^x1 : : : x^n) of V .
If A and A0 are both unimodular, neither is 0, so there is a real nonzero a such that
A0 = aA. Applying (3.3.1) to both A and A0 for one particular (^x1 : : : x^n) shows a = 1.
Thus
A0 = A (3.3.2)
if A and A0 are unimodular. Hence
Remark 3.3.22 nV contains at most two unimodular members. Does it contain any?
To see that the answer is yes, we prove
Remark 3.3.23 Let B = (^x1 : : : x^n ) and B 0 = (^x01 : : : x^0n) be any two ordered orthonor-
mal bases for V . Let AB be dened by (3.1.1). Then AB (B 0) (an abbreviation for
AB (^x01 : : : x^0n)) is +1 or ;1 according as B and B 0 have this same or opposite orienta-
tions. Therefore, AB and ;AB are unimodular.
Proof:
There is an L 2 $(V ) such that x^0i = L(^xi). Then AB (^x01 : : : x^0n) = AB L(^x1 ): : : L(^xn )]
= (det L)AB (^x1 : : : x^n). But det L = 1, and AB (B ) = +1 by (3.1.3). QED.
If A and ;A are the two unimodular members of nV , we see from remark 3.3.23 that
A is positive on one of the two orientation classes of V , and ;A is positive on the other
orintation class. Choosing an orientation class for V amounts simply to choosing one of
the two unimodular members of nV . Therefore we accept
Denition 3.3.16 An oriented Euclidean vector space is an ordered pair (V A) in which
V is Euclidean vector space and A is one of the two unimodular alternating tensors over
V . A is called \the" alternating tensor of the oriented space. An ordered orthonormal
basis (^x1 : : : x^n) is \positively" or \negatively" oriented according as A(^x1 : : : x^n) is +1
or ;1.
Chapter 4
Tensor Products
4.1 Denition of a tensor product
Denition 4.1.17 Suppose U1 : : : Up V1 : : : Vq are Euclidean vector spaces and P 2
U1 : : : Up and Q 2 V1 : : : Vq . Dene PQ as the member of F (U1 : : :
Up V1 : : : Vq ! R) which assigns to any (p + q)-tuple ~u1 : : : ~up~v1 : : :~vq ) 2
U1 : : : Up V1 : : : Vq the real number
PQ (~u1 : : : ~up~v1 : : : ~vq ) = P (~u1 : : : ~up) Q (~v1 : : : ~vq ) : (4.1.1)

By denition (1.1.6) it is clear that PQ is multilinear, so
PQ 2 U1 : : : Up V1 : : : Vq : (4.1.2)
PQ is called the \tensor product" of P and Q. Note that if P were in M(U1 : : :Up !
W ) and Q were in M(V1 : : : Vq ! W 0) with W 6= R, W 0 6= R, then PQ could not
be dened, because the product on the right of (4.1.1) would not be dened. Tensors can
be multiplied by one another, but in general multilinear mappings cannot. The tensor
product PQ is sometimes written P Q.
4.2 Properties of tensor products

25
26 CHAPTER 4. TENSOR PRODUCTS
Remark 4.2.24 Commutativity can fail. PQ need not equal QP . In fact, these two
functions usually have dierent domains, namely U1 : : : Up V1 : : : Vq and
V1 : : : Vq U1 : : : Up. Even if their domains are the same, it is unusual to have
PQ = QP . For example, suppose p = q = 1 and U1 = V1 = V . Then P and Q are
vectors in V , say P = ~u, Q = ~v. For any ~x and ~y 2 V we have P (~x) = ~u ~x, Q(~y) = ~v ~y
so (PQ) (~x ~y) = P (~x) Q (~y) = (~u ~x) (~v ~y). Similarly
(QP ) (~x ~y) = Q (~x) P (~y) = (~v ~x) (~u ~y) :
If PQ = QP , then (PQ)(~x ~y) = (QP )(~x ~y) for all ~x ~y 2 V , so
(~u ~x) (~v ~y) = (~v ~x) (~u ~y) :
Then ~x ~u (~v ~y)] = ~x ~v (~u ~y)] so
~x ~u (~v ~y) ; ~v (~u ~y)] = 0: (4.2.1)
If we x ~y to be any particular vector in V , then (4.2.1) holds for all ~x 2 V . Therefore
~u (~v ~y) ; ~v (~u ~y) = ~0: (4.2.2)
This holds for every ~y 2 V , so it holds for ~y = ~u. If ~u 6= ~0 then ~u~u 6= 0 so ~u(~v ~u);(~u~u)~v =
~0 shows that ~u and ~v are linearly dependent. And if ~u = ~0, then of course ~u and ~v are
also linearly dependent. Thus PQ = QP implies ~u and ~v are linearly dependent. The
converse is obvious.
Remark 4.2.25 There are no divisors of zero. That is if P 2 U1 Up and Q 2
V1 Vp then
PQ = 0 =) P = 0 or Q = 0: (4.2.3)
To prove this, suppose PQ = 0 and Q 6= 0. We will show P = 0. Choose (~v1 ~vq ) 2
V1 Vq so that Q(~v1 ~vq ) 6= 0 (by hypothesis Q 6= 0 so this is possible). Then
for any (~u1 ~up) 2 U1 Up, PQ = 0 implies P (~u1 ~up)Q(~v1 ~vq ) = 0:
Cancelling Q(~v1 ~vq ), which is 6= 0, gives P (~u1 ~up) = 0. Since ~u1 ~up were
arbitrary, P = 0.
4.2. PROPERTIES OF TENSOR PRODUCTS 27
Corollary 4.2.13 P1 Ps = 0 =) one of P1 Ps = 0. (Induction on s gives proof).

Remark 4.2.26 Associative law. If P 2 U1 Up, Q 2 V1 Vq , and
R 2 W1 Wr then
(PQ) R = P (QR) : (4.2.4)
Hence, we can write PQR without ambiguity.
Proof:
For any u~ = (~u1 ~up) 2 U1 Up , any v~ = (~v1 ~vq ) 2 V1 Vq ,
and any w~ = (w~ 1 w~ r ) 2 W1 Wr , we have
(PQ)R] (~u v~ w~) := (PQ)(~u v~)] R(w~)
:= P (~u) (Qv~)R(w~)] (rule of arithmetic in R)
:= P (~u) (QR)(~v w~)]
:= P (QR)] (~u v~ w~):
Remark 4.2.27 Right and left distributive laws. Suppose a1 am 2 R, P1 Pm 2

U1 Up, and Q 2 V1 Vq . Then
(ai Pi)Q = ai (PiQ) and Q(ai Pi) = ai(QPi ): (4.2.5)
Proof:
For any u~ = (~u1 ~up) 2 U1 Up and any v~ = (~v1 ~vq ) 2 V1 Vq
we have
(aiPi)Q] (~u v~) = (aiPi)(~u)] Q(~v)
= fai Pi(~u)]g Q(~v)
= ai Pi(~u)Q(~v)] (real arithmetic)
= ai (PiQ)(~u v~)] = ai (PiQ)] (~u v~):
The second of equations (4.2.5) is proved in the same way.

Remark 4.2.28 Multilinearity. For i 2 f1 sg, suppose Pi 2 U1(i) Up(ii) .

Then P1P2 Ps is separately linear in each of P1 P2 Ps.
Proof:
To prove linearity in Pr , write P = P1 Pr;1, Q = Pr , R = Pr+1 Ps. (If
r = 1, P = 1 if r = s, R = 1.) Then we want to show that PQR depends
linearly on Q. We take Q1 Qm 2 U1(r) Up(rr) and a1 am 2
R. Then P (aiQi)R = (by 4.2.2) P (aiQi)R] (by 4.2.5) = P ai(QiR)] =
(by 4.2.5) = ai P (QiR)] = (by remark 4.2.2) = ai(PQiR).
4.3 Polyads
Denition 4.3.18 If (~v1 ~vq ) 2 V1 Vq , where V1 Vq are Euclidean spaces,
then the tensor product ~v1~v2 ~vq is called a polyad of order q. It is a member of
V1 Vq . It is a \dyad" if q = 2, a \triad" if q = 3, a \tetrad" if q = 4, a \pentad"
if q = 5. By the denition 4.1.17 of a tensor product, for any (~x1 ~xq ) 2 V1 Vq
we have
(~v1 ~vq ) (~x1 ~xq ) = (~v1 ~x1 ) (~vq ~xq ) : (4.3.1)
By remark (4.2.28), ~v1~v2 ~vq depends linearly on each of ~v1 ~vq when the others are
xed. We dene a mapping
a) : V1 Vq ! V1 Vq
by requiring that for any (~v1 ~vq ) 2 V1 Vq we have
b) (~v1 ~vq ) = ~v1~v2 ~vq :
Then is multilinear. That is
c) 2 M (V1 Vq ) ;! V1 Vq ) : (4.3.2)
The tensor product PQ is sometimes written P Q, and ~v1~v2 ~vq is written ~v1 ~v2
~vq . This notation makes (4.3.2b) look thus: (~v1 ~vq ) = ~v1 ~vq . We will
usually avoid these extra 's.
4.3. POLYADS 29
Remark 4.3.29 ~u1~u2 ~uq = 0 i at least one of ~u1 ~u2 ~uq is 0.

Proof:
(= follows from remark 1.3.11 and the multilinearity of in (4.3.2). =)
follows by induction on q from remark (4.2.25).
Remark 4.3.30 Suppose for each p 2 f1 qg that ~up~vp 2 Vp and ap 2 R, and
~vp = a(p)~u(p). Suppose also a1 aq = 1. Then ~u1 ~uq = ~v1 ~vq .
Proof:
h i
Since is multilinear, ~v1~v2 ~vq = (a1~u1)(a2~u2) (a(q)~u(q)) = a1 a2 a(q)
~u1~u2 ~uq = ~u1 ~u2 ~uq .
Remark 4.3.31 Suppose that for each p 2 f1 qg, we have ~up~vp 2 Vp. Suppose also
that ~u1 ~uq = ~v1 ~vq 6= 0. Then 9a1 aq 2 R such that a1 a2 aq = 1 and for each
p 2 f1 qg we have ~vp = a(p)~u(p).
Proof:
By remark 4.3.29, no ~up or ~vp is ~0. By hypothesis, for any (~x1 ~xq ) 2
V1 Vq we have

(~u1 ~x1 ) ~u(q) ~x(q) = (~v1 ~x1) ~v(q) ~x(q) : (4.3.3)
Choose any p 2 f1 qg, and take ~xr = ~vr if r 6= p. Then for any ~xp 2 Vp
(4.3.3) implies
~v(p) ~x(p) = (~u1 ~v(1~v) ~v(~u) (p;1)(~v ~v(p;1) ~v)(~u(p))( ~~xv (p) )(~u(~vp+1) ~)v(p+1) ) (~u(q) ~v(q) )
1 1 (p;1) (p;1) (p+1) (p+1) (~v(q) ~v(q) )
or
~v(p) ~x(p) = a(p)~u(p) ~x(p) (4.3.4)
where
a(p) = ((~u~v1 ~v~v1 )) ((~u~v(p;1) ~~vv(p;1) )(
)(~u(p+1) ~v(p+1) ) (~u(q) ~v(q) ) : (4.3.5)
1 1 (p;1) (p;1) ~v(p+1) ~v(p+1) ) (~v(q) ~v(q) )
Since (4.3.4) is true for all ~xp 2 Vp, it follows that
~vp = a(p)~u(p):
Then ~v1 ~vq = (a1 aq )(~u1 ~uq ). But ~v1 ~vq = ~u1 ~uq by hypothesis,
so (a1 aq ; 1)(~u1 ~uq ) = 0. Since ~u1 ~uq 6= 0, a1 aq ; 1 = 0, or
a1 aq = 1 (see facts about ~0, p=s).
Chapter 5
Polyad Bases and Tensor Components
5.1 Polyad bases
It is true (see exercise 4) that some tensors of order 2 are not polyads. However, every
tensor is a sum of polyads. We have
Theorem 5.1.15 For p 2 f1 : : : qg, suppose Vp is a Euclidean space and Bp = (~b(1p) ~b(npp))
is an ordered basis for Vp. Then the n1 n2 nq polyads ~b(1)
i1 ~bi2 ~biq are a basis for
(2) (q)
V1 Vq .
Proof:
First these polyads are linearly independent. Suppose that S i1 iq is an n1
n2 nq dimensional array of scalars such that
S i1 iq~b(1)
i1 ~biq = 0:
(q) (5.1.1)
We want to prove S i1 iq = 0. Equation (5.1.1) is equivalent to the assertion
that for any (~x1 ~xq ) 2 V1 Vq ,
~(q)
S i1 iq ~b(1)
i
1
~
x 1 bi ~xq = 0:
q (5.1.2)
Let BpD = (~b1(p) ~bn(pp)) be the dual basis for Bp. Choose a particular q-tuple
of integers (j1 jq ) and set ~x1 = ~bj(1)1 ~xq = ~bj(qq) in (5.1.2). The result is
~j1 ~(q) ~jq
S i1 iq ~b(1)
1 i b
(1) = bi b = 0:
q (q)
31
32 CHAPTER 5. POLYAD BASES AND TENSOR COMPONENTS
But for dual bases, (~bi ~bj ) = i j , so

S i1 iq i1 j1 = i jq = 0:
Hence, S j1 iq = 0, as we hoped.
Second, the n1n2 nq polyads ~b(1)
i1 ~biq span V1 Vq . For let T 2
(q)
V1 Vq . Dene

T i1 iq := T ~bi(1)1 ~bi(qq) (5.1.3)
and
' := T i1 iq~b(1)
i1 ~biq :
(q) (5.1.4)
Clearly ' is a linear combination of the polyads ~b(i1i) ~b(iqq) . We will show that
T = '. Since (B1D BqD ) is a basis sequence for V1 Vq , by remark
1.2.10 it su#ces to show that

' ~bj(1)1 ~bj(qq) = T ~bj(1)1 ~bj(qq) :
But
h (q) (j1 ) (q) i
' ~bj(1)1 ~bj(qq) = T i1 iq ~b(1)
i1 ~biq ~b(1) ~biq
~j1 ~(q) ~jq i1 iq j1
= T i1 iq ~b(1)
i1 b(1) biq b(q) = T i1 iq jq

= T j1 iq = T ~bj1 ~bjq :
(1) (q)
QED.
Corollary 5.1.14 If T 2 V1 Vq and p 2 f1 qg then T is a sum of n1 nq =np
polyads, where n1 = dim V1 nq = dim Vq .
Proof:
From T = ' and (5.1.4) we can write
T = ~bi(1)
1
~bi(pp;;11)~v i1 ip;1 ip+1 iq~bi(pp+1+1) ~bi(qq)
where
~v(ip1) ip;1ip+1 iq = T i1 iq~bi(pp) 2 Vp:
5.2. COMPONENTS OF A TENSOR RELATIVE TO A BASIS SEQUENCE: DEFINITION 33
Corollary 5.1.15 Suppose V1 Vq are Euclidean spaces and W is a real vector space,
not necessarily Euclidean. Suppose L : V1 Vq ! W and M : V1 Vq ! W
are linear, and L(T ) = M (T ) for every polyad T . Then L = M .
Proof:
For an arbitrary T 2 V1 Vq , write T = PNj=1 Tj where the Tj are
polyads. Then L(T ) = PNj=1 L(Tj ) = PNj=1 M (Tj ) = M (T ) because L and M
are linear.
5.2 Components of a tensor relative to a basis

sequence: Denition
Denition 5.2.19 For each p 2 f1 qg, suppose Vp is a Euclidean space and Bp =
(~b1(p) ~b(npp)) is an ordered basis for Vp, with dual basis BpD = (~b1(p) ~bn(pp) ). Suppose
T 2 V1 Vq . Then T has 2q arrays of components relative to the basis sequence
(B1 Bq ) for V1 Vq . Each array has dimension n1 nq . The arrays are
as follows: 8
>
> T i1 iq = T ~bi1 ~biq
>
>
(1) ( q )
>
>
>
>
i1 iq;1 i = T ~b(1) i1 ~b(q;1) iq;1 ~b (q)

>
> T q i
>
>
q
>
<.
.. (5.2.1)
>
>
>
>
>
> (1) ~ q;1 ~ iq
>
> T i1 iq;1 i q =T ~ bi1 biq;1 b(q)
>
>
>
>
: Ti1 iq = T ~bi(1)
>
1
~
b (q)
iq
An array is said to be \covariant" in its subscripts and \contravariant" in its super-

scripts. The rst array in (5.2.1) is the array of \contravariant components of T re-
lative to (B1 Bq )." The last array is the array of \covariant components relative
to (B1 Bq )." The other 2q ; 2 arrays are arrays of \mixed components relative
to (B1 Bq )." Note that each array in the list (5.2.1) is the array of contravariant
components of T relative to a suitable basis sequence. For example, T i1 iq;1 iq is the
contravariant array relative to the basis sequence (B1 Bq;1 BqD ), and Ti1 iq is the
contravariant array relative to (B1D B2D BqD ). Similarly, each array is the covariant
array relative to some basis sequence.
From (5.1.3) and (5.1.4) and the fact that T = ' in those equations, we conclude
T = T i1 iq~b (1)
i1 ~b i2 ~biq :
(2) (q ) (5.2.2)
That is, if T 2 V1 Vq , then the coe#cients required to express T as a linear
combination of the basis polyads from the basis sequence (B1 Bq ) are precisely the
contravariant components of T relative to that basis sequence. By considering all 2q basis
sequences, (B1 Bq ), (B1 Bq;1 BqD ) (B1D BqD ) we obtain from (5.2.2) the
2q equations 8
>
> T = T i1 iq~b (1) ~b (q)
i1 iq
>
>
>
>
>
>
> T = T i1 iq;1 iq~b(1) q;1 iq
> i1 ~biq;1~b(q)
>
>
>
>
<.
.. (5.2.3)
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
> T = Ti1 iq;1 iq = ~bi(1)1 ~b(iqq;;11) ~bi(qq)
>
>
>
>
>
: T = Ti1 iq~b(1)
i1 ~b iq
(q)
Note 5.2.1 Suppose T = T~i iq~b(1) 1

1
(q) i i
i ~biq for some array T~ q . Since the polyads
1
~bi(1) ~bi(qq) are a basis for V1 Vq , therefore T~i iq = T i iq . By using others of the
1
1 1
2q basis sequences one can reach the same conclusion for any of the 2q equations (5.2.3).
Note 5.2.2 If S and T 2 V1 Vq and there is one basis sequence for V1 Vq
relative to which one of the 2q component arrays of S is the same as the corresponding
component array of T (e.g. Ti1 i2 i3 iq = Si i2 i3 iq ) then S = T .
5.3. CHANGING BASES 35
Note 5.2.3 The notation has been chosen to permit the restricted index conventions. A
double index is summed only when it is a superscript at one appearance and a subscript
at the other. The equation ai = bi holds for all possible values of i, but ai = bi should
not occur unless we introduce orthonormal bases.
Note 5.2.4 If each of the bases B1 Bq is orthonormal, then Bp = BpD , and all 2q
component arrays (5.2.3) are identical, and all 2q equations (5.2.3) are the same. One
uses the non-restricted index convention.
5.3 Changing bases

Suppose T 2 V1 Vq . If we know the array of contravariant components of T relative
to one basis sequence (B1 Bq ), we know T . Therefore, we ought to be able to calculate
the contravariant components of T relative to any other basis sequence (B~1 B~q ). The
procedure is this. Let
~ (p) ~ (p) ~ ~~ (p) ~~ (p)!
Bp = b1 bnp Bp = b1 bnp
~1 1 !
~ np ~ D ~
~ ~~np
BpD = b (p) b (p) Bp = b (p) b (p) :
The array of contravariant components of T relative to (B~1 B~q ) is

j1
jq
!
T~j1 jq = T ~~b(1) ~~b(q)
i1 iq~ (1) ~ (q) ~~ j1 ~ jq !
= T bi1 biq b(1) ~b(q)
" ~~ j1 jq
!#
= T i 1 iq ~ (1) ~ ( q ) ~
~
bi1 biq b(1) b (q)

1 iq ~ (1) ~ j1
~~ (q) ~~ jq !
= T i bi1 b(1) biq b(q) :
Thus ! !
T~j1 jq = T i1 iq ~bi(1) ~b j1 ~b (q) ~~b jq :
~ (5.3.1)
1 (1) iq (q)
If we replace some of the bases in (B1 Bq ) and (B~1 B~q ) by their duals, we
can immediately obtain (5.3.1) with some of the j 's as subscripts and some of the i's as
subscripts on the components and superscript on the ~b's.
For example,
(1) ! j2
!
T~j1 j2 jq ~ ~
= T i1 iq;1 iq ~bi1 ~bj1 ~bi2 ~b(2)
(1) (2)
jq;1
! jq
!
q ;1) ~
~biq;1 ~b(q;1) ~b(q) ~b(q)
( i q ~ (5.3.2)
As an interesting special case of (5.3.1), we can take for (B~1 B~q ) the basis sequence
obtained from (B1 Bq ) by replacing some of the Bp by BpD . For example, if B~1 = B1D
and B~p = Bp for p 2, (5.3.1) becomes
Tj1 j2 jq = T i1 j2 jq gi(1)1j1 (5.3.3)
where gij(1) = ~bi(1) ~bj(1) is the covariant metric matrix of B1. Similarly, if (B~1 B~q ) =
(B1D BqD ), (5.3.1) becomes
Tj1 jq = T i1 iq gi(1)1 j1 gi(qqj)q : (5.3.4)
Formulas like (5.3.3) and (5.3.4) (there are 4q such) are said to raise or lower the indices
of the component array of T .
5.4 Properties of component arrays

Remark 5.4.32 If S , T 2 V1 Vq and a b 2 R, then relative to any basis sequence
for V1 Vq ,
(aS + bT )i1 iq = aS i1 iq + bT i1 iq :
Proof:
Immediate from denition of components, 5.2.19.

5.5. SYMMETRIES OF COMPONENT ARRAYS 37
Remark 5.4.33 Suppose P 2 U1 Up and Q 2 V1 Vq . Then relative to any

basis sequence for U1 Up V1 Vq
(PQ)i1 ipj1 jq = P i1 ip Qj1 jq :
Proof:
Immediate from denition of components, 5.2.19.
Remark 5.4.34 Suppose T 2 V1 Vq and ~v(p) 2 Vp p = 1 q. Taking compon-

ents relative to any basis sequence gives

T ~v(1) ~v(q) = T i1 iq vi(1)1 vi(qq):
Proof:
i1
~v (p) = vi(pp)~bi(pp) so T (~v (1) ~v (q) ) = T vi(1)1 ~b(1) vi(qq)~b(iqq)
= vi(1) v (q) T ~bi1 ~b iq = v (1) v (q) T i1 iq .
1 iq (1) (q) i1 iq
5.5 Symmetries of component arrays

If V1 = = Vq = V , it is usual to consider only basis sequences (B1 Bq ) in which
B1 = = Bq = B . This is not necessary, but it does help if one wants to study the
symmetries of T 2 V1 Vq = q V by looking at its arrays of components. If
B1 = = Bq = B , then one speaks of the arrays of components of T relative to the
basis B .
If we do have B1 = = Bq = B = (~b1 ~bn), and if T 2 q V , then for any
permutation 2 Sq we have

(T )i1 iq = (T ) ~b i1 ~b iq = T b i(1) ~b i(q)
= T i(1) i(q) : (5.5.1)
Here B D = (~b1 ~bn) is the basis dual to B . For mixed arrays of components, things
are not quite so simple. For example, if (rs) is a transposition with r < s then

(rs)T ]i1 ir is;1 is is+1 iq = (rs)T ] ~b i1 ~b is;1 ~bis ~b is+1 ~b iq

= T ~b i1 ~b ir;1 ~bis ~b ir+1 ~b is;1 ~bir ~bis+1 ~biq
= T i1 ir;1 is ir+1 is;1ir is+1 iq :
Whether T 2 q V is symmetric or antisymmetric under (rs) can be tested by looking

at one array of components of T relative to one basis, as long as the r and s indices in that
array are both covariant or both contravariant. If one index is covariant and the other is
contravariant, two dierent component arrays must be compared to test for symmetry.
For example, if T 2 V V antisymmetric, then relative to any basis for V ,
T ij = ;T ji T i j = ;Tj i Tij = ;Tji: (5.5.2)
Proof:
T (~bi ~bj ) = ;T (~bj ~bi ) , T (~bi ~bj ) = ;T (~bj ~bi) , T (~bj ~bi) = ;T (~bj ~bi) .
Moreover, if any one of the three equations (5.5.2) is true relative to one basis B for
V , then T is antisymmetric. For example, if T i j = ;Tj i then T and ;(12)T take the
same values on the basis sequence (B D B ) for V V . Therefore, by remark 1.2.10,
T = ;(12)T .
5.6 Examples of component arrays

Example 5.6.3 Let I be the identity tensor on Euclidean vector space V . By denition,
I is that member of V V such that for any ~u~v 2 V we have
I (~u~v) = ~u ~v:
Let B = (~b1 ~bn) be any ordered basis for V , with dual basis B D = (~b1 ~bn ). Let
gij = ~bi ~bj and gij = ~bi ~bj be the covariant and contravariant metric matrices relative to
5.6. EXAMPLES OF COMPONENT ARRAYS 39
B . Then

I ij = I ~bi ~bj = ~bi ~bj = gij

Ii j = I ~bi ~bj = ~bi ~bj = i j

Ii j = I ~bi ~bj = ~bi ~bj = i j

Iij = I ~bi ~bj gij :
(The reason for calling I the \identity tensor" will appear later.) Relative to an orthonor-
mal basis, any component array of I is ij .
From (5.2.3) it follows that
I = gij~bi~bj = i j~bi~bj = i j~bi~bj = gij~bi~bj :
Thus,
I = gij~bi~bj = ~bi~bi = ~bi~bi = gij~bi~bj : (5.6.1)
In particular, if (^x1 x^n) is an orthonormal basis for V ,
I = xîxî (5.6.2)
Example 5.6.4 Let V , B , B D be as in example 5.6.3. Let A be any alternating tensor
over V (i.e. any member of nV ). Then from (3.1.2)

Ai1 in = A ~b i1 ~b in = "i1 in A ~b 1 ~b n : (5.6.3)

Ai1 in = A ~bi1 ~bin = "i1 in A ~b1 ~bn : (5.6.4)
It is not true that

Ai1 i2 in = "i1 i2 in A ~b1 ~b2 ~bn :
If (V A) is an oriented Euclidean vector space, then A is unimodular. If B =
(^x1 x^n) is an orthonormal basis for V then from (5.6.4)
Ai1 in = "i1 in if (^x1 x^n) is positively oriented:
Ai1 in = ;"i1 in if (^x1 x^n ) is negatively oriented:
Chapter 6
The Lifting Theorem
We must learn to perform a number of simple but useful operations on tensors of order q.
Most of these operations will be easy to perform on polyads, so we express T 2 V1 Vq
as a sum of polyads and perform the operations on the individual polyads, adding the
results. The procedure works quite well once we have overcome a di#culty which is best
understood by considering an example.
Suppose 1 r < s q and V1 Vq are Euclidean vector spaces and Vr = Vs. For
any T 2 V1 Vq , we want to dene the \trace on indices r and s", written trrsT .
First, suppose P is a polyad in V1 Vq , that is
P = ~u1 ~ur ~us ~uq : (6.0.1)
Then we dene
trrsP := (~ur ~us) ~u1 6 ~ur 6 ~us ~uq
:= (~ur ~us) ~u1 ~ur;1~ur+1 ~us;1~us+1 ~uq : (6.0.2)
If T 2 V1 Vq , we write
X
m
T= Pi Pi a polyad (6.0.3)
i=1
and we dene
X
m
trrsT = trrsPi: (6.0.4)
i=1
There are two serious objections to this apparently reasonable procedure:
41
42 CHAPTER 6. THE LIFTING THEOREM
(i) Suppose P = ~u1 ~ur ~us ~uq = ~v1 ~vr ~vs ~vq . Is it true that (~ur
~us)~u1 6 ~ur 6 ~us ~uq = (~vr ~vs)~v1 6 ~vr 6 ~vs ~vq ? If not, trrsP is not
uniquely dened by (6.0.2).
(ii) Suppose T = Pmi=1 Pi = Pnj=1 Qj where Pi and Qj are polyads. Is it true that
Pm tr P = Pn tr Q ? If not, tr T is not uniquely dened by (6.0.3).
i=1 rs i j =1 rs j rs
To attack this problem, we return to the very rst sloppiness, in (6.0.2). We hope that
trrsP will be a unique polyad in V1 6 V r 6 V s Vq , so that trrs maps the
set of polyads in V1 Vq into the set of polyads in V1 6 V r 6 V s Vq .
But di#culty i) above leads us to look carefully at (6.0.1) and (6.0.2), and to recognize
that until we have provided some theory all we have really done in (6.0.2) is to show
how to take an ordered q-tuple (~u1 ~uq ) and assign to it a polyad of order q ; 2 in
V1 6 V r 6 V s Vq . The polyad assigned to (~u1 ~uq ) is
M (~u1 ~uq ) = (~ur ~us) ~u1 6 ~ur 6 ~us ~uq : (6.0.5)
This equation does clearly and unambiguously dene a function M 2 F (V1 Vq !

V1 6 V r 6 V s Vq ). In fact, from denition (1.1.6), property d0 on
page D-18 for dot products, and remark 4.2.28 for tensor products, it is clear that M is
multilinear. Hence,
M 2 M(V1 Vq ! V1 6 V r 6 V s Vq ): (6.0.6)
This M is all we really have. The process of constructing a linear mapping trrs : V1
Vq ! V1 6 V r 6 V s Vq from the M of (6.0.5) is a very general one. That
such a construction is possible and unique is the intent of the \lifting theorem." This
theorem holds for all tensors, not just those over Euclidean spaces, and it is sometimes
(as in Marcus, Multilinear Algebra) taken as the denition of V1 Vq .
A formal statement of the lifting theorem for Euclidean vector spaces is as follows:
Theorem 6.0.16 (Lifting theorem). Let V1 Vq be Euclidean vector spaces and let
W be any real vector space. Let M 2 M(V1 Vq ! W ). Then there is exactly one
43
M x
V1 x . . . x Vq W
x
M
V1 x . . . x Vq
Figure 6.1:
M
2 L(V1 Vq ! W ) such that
M = M
(6.0.7)
where 2 M(V1 Vq ! V1 Vq ) is dened by (~v1 ~vq ) = ~v1 ~vq .
Before proving the theorem, we discuss it and try to clarify its meaning. To make
(6.0.7) less abstract we note that it is true ()
M (~v1 ~vq ) = M
(~v1 ~vq )] 8 (~v1 ~vq ) 2 V1 Vq :
This is equivalent to
M (~v1 ~vq ) = M
(~v1 ~vq ) : (6.0.8)
In other words, the lifting theorem asserts the existence of exactly one linear mapping
M
: V1 Vq ! W such that when M
is applied to any polyad the result is the
same as applying M to any q-tuple of vectors whose tensor product is that polyad.
A diagram of the three functions may clarify matters: M maps V1 Vq into W ,
and maps V1 Vq into V1 Vq . Both mappings are multilinear. The lifting
theorem \lifts" M from V1 Vq to V1 Vq by producing a unique linear mapping
M
: V1 Vq ! W which satises (6.0.7) or (6.0.8). These equations mean that if
we start at any (~v1 ~vq ) in (V~1 V~q ), and go to W either via M or via and
M
, we will reach the same vector in W . Usually, when people draw the diagram as in
Figure 6.2 they mean f : U ! W , g : U ! V , h : V ! W , and f = h g.
Proof of the lifting theorem:
The proof is actually rather simple. Choose a basis sequence (B1 Bq ) for V1
Vq , with Bp = (~b(1p) ~b(npp) ). Let BpD = (~b1(p) ~bn(pp) ) be the basis for Vp dual to Bp. First
h
V W
g
f
U
Figure 6.2:
we will prove that M

is unique, i.e. there can be no more than one M
2 L(V1 Vq !
W ) which satises (6.0.7) or (6.0.8). Suppose M
is such a mapping. Let T 2 V1 Vq .
By (5.2.2), T = T i1 iq~b(1) (q ) i i
i1 ~biq so M
(T ) = T 1 q M
(~bi1 ~biq ) because M
is linear.
(1) (q)
Then M
(T ) = T i1 iq M (~bi(1)
1
~bi(qq) ) from (6.0.8) with ~v1 = ~bi(1)
1
~vq = ~biq(q) . Thus
if such an M
exists, then for any T 2 V1 Vq we must have
(q )
M
(T ) = T ~bi(1)1 ~bi(qq) M ~b(1)
i1 ~biq : (6.0.9)
In other words, M
is determined because M
(T ) is known for all T 2 V1 Vq .
It still remains to prove that there is an M
2 L(V1 Vq ! W ) which satises
(6.0.7) and (6.0.8). Our uniqueness proof has given us an obvious candidate, namely
the M
: V1 Vq ! W dened by (6.0.9). This M
is certainly a well dened
function mapping V1 Vq into W . By the denitions of ad and sc in V1 Vq ,
M
(T ) depends linearly on T , i.e. M
2 L(V1 Vq ! W ). For a formal proof,
let T1 Tn 2 V1 Vq and a1 an 2 R. Then we want to show M
(aj Tj ) =
aj M
(Tj ). From (6.0.9), and the denition of aj Tj , and the rules of vector arithmetic in
W , given on page D-11, we compute
j ~ i1 (q)
M
aj Tj = a Tj b(1) ~b(iqq) M ~bi(1) ~
b iq
n j h ~ i1 io (q)
1
= a Tj b(1) ~b(iqq) M ~bi(1) ~

b iq
h i
1
= aj Tj ~b(1)
i1 ~b iq M ~b (1) ~b (q)
(q) i1 iq
= aj M
(Tj ):
QED.]
45
It remains only to prove that M

satises (6.0.8). Let (~v1 ~vq ) 2 V1 Vq .
i1
Then if T = ~v1 ~vq we have T ~b(1) ~b(iqq) = (~v1 ~b(1)
i1 ) (~v ~b iq ) = v i1 v iq , so
q (q ) 1 (q)
i 1 iq ~ ~
M
(~v1 ~vq ) = v1 v(q) M (bi1 biq ). By hypothesis, M is multilinear, so
(1) (q )
M
(~v1 ~vq ) = M (v1i1~bi(1)
1
vqiq~bi(qq) ). But this is just (6.0.8). QED.
As an application of the lifting theorem, let us return to trrsT . The M dened in
(6.0.5) will be the M of the lifting theorem. The vector space W in that theorem will be
W = V1 6 V r 6 V s Vq . Then, M
2 L(V1 Vq ! V1
6 V r 6 V s Vq ) is given to us by the lifting theorem, and we dene for any
T 2 V1 Vq
trrsT := M
(T ): (6.0.10)
If a T is a polyad, T = ~v1 ~vq , then
trrs (~v1 ~vq ) = M
(~v1 ~vq ) = M (~v1 ~vq )
= (~vr ~vs) ~v1 6 ~vr 6 ~vs ~vq : (6.0.11)
Thus the lifting theorem answers both the objections on page 41.
We agree to dene
trsr T := trrsT: (6.0.12)
As an application of this \machinery," let us nd the component arrays of tr12 T
relative to the basis sequence (B3 Bq ) for V3 Vq . We have
T = Ti1 i2i3 iq~bi(1)1 ~b(2)
i2 ~bi3 ~biq :
(3) (q )
We must suppose V1 = V2 if tr12 T is to be dened. Then we take B1 = B2, so ~bi(1) = ~bi(2) .

Since tr12 is a linear mapping,
h i1 ~ (2)~ (3) ~ (q) i
tr12 T = Ti1 i2 iq tr12 ~b(1) bi2 bi3 biq : (6.0.13)
By (6.0.12),
h (q) i i1 (2) (3)
i2 ~bi3 ~biq = ~b(1) ~bi2 ~bi3 ~biq :
tr12 ~bi(1)1 ~b(2) (3) (q)
We have agreed to take B1 = B2 , so ~bi(1)1 ~b(2) i2 = 1 i2 . Thus,

i
h (q) i i1 (3) (q)
tr12 ~bi(1)1 ~b(2)
i2 ~bi3 ~biq = i2~bi3 ~biq :
(3) (6.0.14)
Then, substituting this in (6.0.13),
tr12 T = Tj ji3 iq~b(3)

i3 ~biq
(q)
so
(tr12 T )i3 iq = Tj ji3 iq : (6.0.15)
Similarly
(tr12 T )i3 iq = T j j i3 iq (6.0.16)
is proved from
T = T i1 i2 i3 iq~bi(1)
1
~b(2)
i2 ~b(3) ~b (q) :
i3 iq
Recall that for orthonormal bases we need not distinguish between superscripts and
subscripts. Thus, if all bases are orthonormal and B1 = B2,
(tr12 T )i3 iq = Tjji3 iq : (6.0.17)

Chapter 7
Generalized Dot Products
7.1 Motivation and denition
Suppose U , V , and W are Euclidean vector spaces, and ~u 2 U , ~x 2 V , ~y 2 V , w~ 2 W .
Then ~u~x 2 U V and ~yw~ 2 V W . What could be more natural than to dene (following
Willard Gibbs)
(~u~x) (~yw~ ) := ~u (~x ~y) w~ (7.1.1)
which is the same as (~u~x) (~yw~ ) := (~x ~y) ~uw~ ? Then the denition can be extended so
that if P 2 U V and R 2 V W we dene P R by writing
X
m X
n
P= Pi R= Rj (7.1.2)
i=1 j =1
where Pi and Rj are dyads then we dene
X
m X
n
P R := Pi Rj (7.1.3)
i=1 j =1
where Pi Rj is dened by (7.1.1). It is in U W , as is P R.
Does all this work? If ~u~x = ~u 0~x 0 and ~yw~ = ~y 0 w~ 0, is it true that (~x ~y) ~uw~ =
(~x 0 ~y 0 ) ~u 0w~ 0? And if P = Pmi=1 Pi = Pmi=10 Pi0 and R = Pnj=1 Rj = Pnj=1 0
Rj0 , is it true
that Pmi=1 Pnj=1 Pi Rj = Pmi=10 Pnj=1 0
Pi0 Rj0 ?
The lifting theorem will show that all of this works, and that it can even be generalized
as follows: Suppose U1 Up, V1 Vq , W1 Wr are Euclidean spaces, and ~ui 2 Ui ,
47
48 CHAPTER 7. GENERALIZED DOT PRODUCTS
~xj and ~yj 2 Vj , w~ r 2 Wr . We would like to dene a generalized dot product of order q as
(~u1 ~up~x1 ~xq ) hqi (~y1 ~yq w~ 1 w~ r )

:= (~u1 ~up) (~x1 ~y1) (~xq ~yq ) (w~ 1 w~ r )
= (~x1 ~y1) (~xq ~yq ) (~u1 ~upw~ 1 w~ r ) : (7.1.4)
Then for any P 2 U1 Up V1 Vq and any R 2 V1 Vq W1 Wr

we would like to dene P hqiR 2 U1 Up W1 Wr by writing (7.1.2) and
X
m X
n
P hqiR := PihqiRj : (7.1.5)
i=1 j =1
Incidentally, note the mnemonic device that
(~u1 ~up~x1 ~x0q ) hqi (1~y1 ~y0q w~ 1 1 w~ r )

:= ~u1 ~up B ~x1 C B ~y1 C
BB CC BB CC
BB CC BB CC : (7.1.6)
@ A @ A
~xq ~yq w~ 1 w~ r
Some authors dene
(~u1 ~up~x1 ~xq ) hqi (~yq ~y1 w~ 1 w~ r )

(~xq ~yq )
... ...
:=
(~x2 ~y2)
~u1 ~up (~x1 ~y1 ) w~ 1 w~ r
= (~xq ~yq ) (~x1 ~y1) ~u1 ~upw~ 1 w~ r :
De gustabus non disputandum est, but I think the rst denition has more convenient
properties.]
To prove that these denitions are unambiguous, we dene
M 2 M(U1 Up V1 Vq V1 Vq W1 Wr !
U1 Up W1 Wr )
7.1. MOTIVATION AND DEFINITION 49
by requiring
M (~u1 ~up ~x1 ~xq ~y1 ~yq w~ 1 w~ r ) :=
= (~x1 ~y1) (~xq ~yq ) ~u1 ~upw~ 1 w~ r : (7.1.7)
Since M is multilinear, the lifting theorem provides a unique
M
2 L(U1 Up V1 Vq V1 Vq W1 W !
U1 Up W1 Wr )
satisfying
M
(~u1 ~up ~x1 ~xq ~y1 ~yq w~ 1 w~ r )
= M (~u1 ~up ~x1 ~xq ~y1 ~yq w~ 1 w~ r )
= (~x1 ~y1) (~xq ~yq ) ~u1 ~upw~ 1 w~ r (7.1.8)
for all
(~u1 ~up ~x1 ~xq ~y1 ~yq w~ 1 w~ r )
2 U1 Up V1 Vq V1 Vq V1 Vq W1 Wr :
For any P 2 U1 Up V1 Vq and any R 2 V1 Vq W1 Wr ,
we dene
P hqiR := M
(PR): (7.1.9)
Then if P and R are polyads, (7.1.8) says we do have (7.1.4).
We can calculate P hqiR for any tensors and P and R by writing them as sums of
polyads and doing the arithmetic justied by
Remark 7.1.35 Suppose P1 Pm 2 U1 Up V1 Vq and R1 Rn 2
V1 Vq W1 Wr and a1 am b1 bn 2 R. Then
(aiPi) hqi (bj Rj ) = aibj (Pi Rj ) (7.1.10)
Proof:
(ai Pi) hqi (bj Rj ) = M

(aiPi) (bj Rj )] by denition of hqi
= M
aibj (PiRj )] by multilinearity of the tensor product
= aibj M
(PiRj ) because M
is linear
= aibj (PihqiRj ) by denition of hqi:
Equation (7.1.10) is true for any Pi and Rj , but when Pi and Rj are polyads,
(7.1.10) and (7.1.4) give a convenient way to calculate P hqiR for any tensors
P and R.
7.2 Components of P hqiR

Suppose P 2 U1 Up V1 Vq and R 2 V1 Vq W1 Wr . Suppose
(~b(1)
1 ~bmi ) is an ordered basis for Ui , and (~1 ~nj ) is an ordered basis for Vj , and
(i) (j ) (j )
(~6(1R) ~6(PRk) ) is an ordered basis for Wk . We would like to compute the components of
P hqiR relative to the basis sequence for U1 Up W1 Wr . We have
P = P i1 ipj1 jq~bi(1)
1
~bi(pp) ~j(1)1 ~j(qq)
R = Rk1 kq l1 lr ~(1)
k1 ~ kq ~6 (1) ~6 (r)
( q ) l1 lr
(~(kpp) are the dual basis vectors to ~k(pp) ). Then (7.1.4) gives

P hqiR = P i1 ipj1 jq Rk1 kq l1 lr ~j(1)1
~ k1 ~ (q) ~ kq ~b (1) ~b (p)~6 (1) 6(r)
(1) jq (q ) i1 ip l1 lr
= P i1 ipj1 jq Rk1 kq l1 lr jk11 jkqq i(1)
1
~bi(pp~) 6(1)
l1 ~6lr
(r)
But Rk1 kq l1 lr j1 k1 jq kq = Rj1 jq l1 lr so

P hqiR = P i1 ipj1 jq Rj1 jq l1 lr ~bi(1)
1
~bi(pp)~6l(1)1 ~6l(rr) :
Therefore, by note (5.2.1),
(P hqiR)i1 ipl1 lr = P i1 ipj1 jq Rj1 jq l1 lr : (7.2.1)

7.3. PROPERTIES OF THE GENERALIZED DOT PRODUCT 51
It is important to remember that for (7.2.1) to hold, the same bases for V1 Vq (and
their dual bases) must be used to calculate the components of P and R.
Covariant or contravariant metric matrices can be used to raise or lower any index i or
l or pair j in (7.2.1). The same collection of 2p+q+r formulas can be obtained immediately
from (7.2.1) by choosing to regard certain of the original bases for the Ui, Vj or Wk as
dual bases, the duals becoming the original bases. For example,
(P hqiR)i1 i2 ipl1 lr;1 lr =
= Pi1 i2 ipj1 j2 jg Rj1 j2 jq l1 lr;1 lr
All the 2p+q+r variants of (7.2.1) collapse into a single formula when all the bases are
orthonormal.
7.3 Properties of the generalized dot product

Property 7.3.1 Bilinearity. For i 2 f1 mg and j 2 f1 ng, suppose Pi 2
U1 Up V1 Vq and Rj 2 V1 Vq W1 Wr and ai bj 2 R.
Then (aiPi)hqi(bj Rj ) = ai bj (PihqiRj ).
This has already been proved as remark (7.1.35).
Property 7.3.2 Suppose P 2 U1 Up V1 Vq and R 2 V1 Vq
W1 Wq : Then if P = 0 or R = 0, P hqiR = 0.
Proof:
Suppose P = 0. Then 0P = P so P hqiR = (0P )hqiR = 0(P R) = 0:
Note that the converse is false. We can have P hqiR = 0 even though P 6= 0 and R 6= 0.
For example ~uh1i~v = ~u ~v and this can vanish even though ~u 6= ~0 and ~v 6= ~0.
Denition 7.3.20 Since ~uh1i~v = ~u ~v for vectors, it is usual to write P h1iR as P R,
P h2iR as P : R, P h3iR as P R and P h4iR as P : : R. The notation P : : R for P h5iR
seems not to be used.
Property 7.3.3 P h0iR = PR.

Proof:
If P and R are polyads, this is obvious from (7.1.4) with q = 0. Both P h0iR
and PR depend linearly on R, so if R = P Rj where the Rj are polyads, and
if P is a polyad, we have P h0iR = P h0i(Pj Rj ) = Pj (P h0iRj ) = Pj (PRj ) =
P (Pj Rj ) = PR. Therefore P h0iR = PR if P is a polyad and R is any
tensor. If P = Pi Pi where the Pi are polyads, then for any tensor R, P 0R =
(Pi Pi)h0iR = Pi (Pih0iR) = Pi(PiR) = (Pi Pi)R = PR. Thus P h0iR = PR
for any tensors P and R.
Property 7.3.4 P hqiR and RhqiP need not be the same even if both are dened. This is
obvious from property 7.3.3 and the corresponding result for tensor products. An example
with q = 1 is this. Let ~u~v w~ ~x 2 V . Let P = ~u~v, R = w~ ~x. Then P R = (~v w~ )~u~x and
R P = (~x ~u)w~ ~v. If these two dyads are equal and not 0, remark (4.3.30) shows that ~u
must be a multiple of w~ and ~x must be a multiple of ~v.
Property 7.3.5 (Associativity). Suppose

P 2 U1 Up V1 Vq
R2 V1 Vq W1 Wr X1 Xs
T2 X1 Xs Y1 Yt:
Then
P hqi (RhsiT ) = (P hqiR) hsiT: (7.3.1)
Proof:
First we prove (7.3.1) when P R, T are polyads. In that case (7.3.1) follows
from (7.1.4) by simple computation, which we leave to the reader. That
(7.3.1) holds for polyads can also be seen immediately from the mnemonic
diagram (7.1.6). The generalized dot products hqi and hsi are formed by
R
{{
p q
T
{
{
{
s
t
Figure 7.1:
dotting vertical pairs of vectors in the regions of overlap of P , R, T . It is

clearly irrelevant to the outcome, whether we dot rst the q vectors in P with
those below them in R or the s vectors in R with those below them in T .
Next, suppose P , R and T1 Tn are polyads and T = Pi Ti. Then P hqi(RhsiT ) =
P hqi Rhsi(Pi Ti )] = P hqi Pi(RhsiTi)] = Pi P hqi(RhsiTi)] = Pi P hqi(RhsiTi)] =
(P hqiR) hsi (P Ti ) = (P hqiR) hsiT: This proves (7.3.1) when P and R are
polyads and T is any tensor.
Next suppose P , R1 Rn are polyads and T is any tensor and R = Pi Ri.
Then P hqi(RhsiT ) = P hqi (Pi Ri)hsiT ] = P hqi Pi(RihsiT )] = Pi P hqi(RihsiT )] =
P (P hqiR )hsiT ] = P (P hqiR )] hsiT = P hqi(E R )] hsiT = (P hqiR)hsiT .
i i i i i i
Thus (7.3.1) holds when P is a polyad and R and T are any tensors.
Finally, suppose P1 Pn are polyads and R and T are any tensors, and
P = Pi Pi, Then P hqi(RhsiT ) = (Pi Pi)hqi(RhsiT ) = Pi Pihqi(RhsiT )] =
Figure 7.2:
P (P hqiR)hsiT ] = P (P hqiR)] hsiT = (P P )hqiR] hsiT = (P hqiR)hsiT .
i i i i i i
This proves (7.3.1) for any tensors P , R, T .
Figure (7.1) also shows how associativity can fail. If P and T overlap as
in gure (7.2), there is trouble. The tensors P hqi(RhsiT ) and (P hqiR) hsiT
may be dierent even if both are dened (they may not be). As an example,
suppose all tensors are over a single space V . Let ~u~v w~ ~x ~y 2 V . Let
P = ~u~v, R = w~ , T = ~x~y. Then we have the diagram
P = 22
R = 2
T = 22
which exhibits the fatal P ; T overlap shown in Figure (7.2). We have P

(R T ) = ~u~v (w~ ~x)~y] = (w~ ~x) (~u~v) ~y] = (w~ ~x)(~v ~y)~u and (P R) T =
~u(~v w~ )] (~x~y) = (~v w~ ) ~u (~x~y)] = (~v w~ )(~u ~x)~y. If we choose ~x and ~y to
be mutually perpendicular unit vectors, and take ~v = ~y, ~u = w~ = ~x, we have
P (R T ) = ~u = ~x and (P R) T = ~0.
Property 7.3.6 Suppose P , R 2 V1 Vq . Then
P hqiR = RhqiP: (7.3.2)
v=y
u =w=x
Figure 7.3:
Proof:
If P = ~x1~x2 ~xq and R = ~y1~y2 ~yq then P hqiR = (~x1 ~y1) (~xq ~yq ) =
(~y1 ~x1) (~yq ~xq ) = RhqiP , so (7.3.2) is true of P and R are polyads. But
both RhqiP and P hqiR are bilinear in P and R, so the proof of (7.3.2) for
general tensors P and R in V1 Vq is like the proof of (7.3.1).
Property 7.3.7 Suppose P 2 V1 Vq and P 6= 0. Then

P hqiP > 0: (7.3.3)
Proof:
For i 2 f1 qg, let (^x(1i) x^(nii) ) be an orthonormal basis for Vi. By
(7.2.1),
P hqiP = Pi1 iq Pi1 iq : (7.3.4)
This is a sum of squares of real numbers. It is > 0 unless every term is 0, i.e. Pi1 iq = 0.
In that case P = 0.
Theorem 7.3.17 On the vector space V1 Vq , dene the dot product dp(P R) =
P hqiR for all P , R 2 V1 Vq . With this dot product, V1 Vq is a Euclidean
vector space.
Proof:
Properties (7.2.1), (7.3.2), (7.3.3) show that dp satises a) b), c), d) on page D-
18.
Corollary 7.3.16 Let (^x(1i) x^(nii) ) be an orthonormal basis for Vi, i = 1 q. Then
the n1 n2 nq polyads x^(1)
i xî xîq are an orthonormal basis for V1 Vq .
(2)
1
(1)
2
Proof:
By theorem 5.1.15 they are a basis. To prove them orthonormal, we note
i1 xîq )hq i(^

(^x(1) j1 x^jq ) = (î1 x^j1 ) (^
x(iqq) x^(jqq) ) = i1 j1 i2 j2 iq jq :
(q) x(1) (q) x(1) (1)
Denition 7.3.21 If P 2 V1 Vq , dene the \length" of P , kP k, in the way one

usually does for vectors in a Euclidean space. That is, kP k is the non-negative square
root of P hqiP .
Remark 7.3.36 Suppose P 2 U1 Up V1 Vq and R 2 V1 Vq
W1 Wr . Then
kP hqiRk kP kkRk: (7.3.5)
Proof:
Introduce an orthonormal basis for each space Ui , Vj and Wk . Take compon-
ents relative to these bases. Abbreviate the p-tuple of integers (i1 ip) as I ,
the q-tuple (j1 jq ) as J , the r-tuple (l1 lr ) as L. Then (7.2.1) can be
abbreviated
X
(P hqiR)IL = PIJ RJL :
J
By the ordinary Schwarz inequality for real numbers,
X !2 X ! X !
PIJ RJL PIJ2 2
RKL
J J K
where K stands for the q-tuple (k1 kq ). (We have simply changed the
summation index from J to K .) Summing over I and L gives
X X !2 0X 1 0X 1
PIJ RJL @ PIJ2 A @ RKL
2 A
IL J IJ KL
7.4. APPLICATIONS OF THE GENERALIZED DOT PRODUCT 57
u1 . . . u p
v1 . . . v q
Figure 7.4:
or 0 10 1
X X X
(P hqiR)2IL @ PIJ2 A @ RKL
2 A:
IL IJ KL
By equation (7.3.4), this last inequality is
kP hqiRk2 kP k2kRk2:
Taking square roots gives (7.3.5).
7.4 Applications of the generalized dot product

Application 1: The value of a tensor.
Suppose T 2 U1 Up V1 Vq and (~u1 ~up~v1 ~vq ) 2 U1
Up V1 Vq . Then
T (~u1 ~up~v1 ~vq ) = (~u1~u2 ~up) hpiT hqi (~v1~v2 ~vq ) : (7.4.1)
Note that (7.3.1) applies, so no parentheses are needed to say whether hpi or hqi is
calculated rst. There is none of the overlap shown in gure 7.2. The diagram for (7.4.1)
is shown in Figure 7.4. Therefore, at least (7.4.1) is unambiguous. To prove it true,
suppose rst that T is a polyad, T = ~x1 ~xp~y1 ~yq . Then
(~u1 ~up) hpi T hqi (~v1 ~vq ) = (~u1 ~up) hpiT ] hqi (~v1 ~vq )
= (~u1 ~x1) (~up ~xp) ~y1 ~yq ] hqi (~v1 ~vq )

= (~u1 ~x1) (~up ~xp) (~y1 ~yq ) hqi (~v1 ~vq )]
= (~x1 ~u1) (~xp ~up) (~y1 ~v1 ) (~yq ~vq )
= T (~u ~up~v1 ~vq ) :
This proves (7.4.1) when T is a polyad. But both sides of (7.4.1) depend linearly on T ,
so if (7.4.1) is true for polyads T , it is true when T is a sum of polyads. That is, (7.4.1)
is true for any tensor T 2 U1 Up V1 Vq .
Corollary 7.4.17 Suppose P is a xed tensor in U1 Up V1 Vq , with the
property that P hqiR = 0 for every R 2 V1 Vq W1 Wr . Then P = 0. (Also,
if R is a xed tensor in V1 Vq W1 Wr with the property that P hqiR = 0
for every P 2 U1 Up V1 Vq then R = 0 ).
Proof:
Choose a xed nonzero T 2 W1 Wr . For any (~v1 ~vq ) 2 V1 Vq ,
we know by hypothesis that P hqi (~v1 ~vq )T ] = 0. Figure (7.3) works, so
P hqi(~v1 ~vq )]T = 0. By remark (4.2.25), P hqi(~v1 ~vq ) = 0. Then for any
(~u1 ~up) 2 U1 Up we have (~u1 ~up)hpiP hqi(~v1 ~vq )] = 0. By
equation (7.4.1), P (~u1 ~up~v1 ~vq ) = 0. Since (~u1 ~up~v1 ~vq ) is
an arbitrary member of U1 Up V1 Vq , therefore P = 0. (The
other half of the corollary, in parentheses, is proved similarly.
Corollary 7.4.18 Suppose P , P 0 2 U1 Up V1 Vq and for every R 2
V1 Vq W1 Wr we have P hqiR = P 0hqiR. Then P = P 0. (Also, if R,
R0 2 V1 Vq W1 Wr and for every P 2 U1 Up V1 Vq we
have P hqiR = P hqiR0, then R = R0.)
Application 2: Vector cross product.
Suppose (V A) is an oriented three dimensional Euclidean space whose alternating
tensor is A. For any ~u, ~v 2 V , we dene their A-cross product as
A
~u ~v = Ah2i (~u~v) : (7.4.2)
Usually we omit the A and write simply ~u ~v, but it should always be remembered that
there are two oriented 3-spaces, (V A) and (V ;A), and so two ways to dene ~u ~v.
We will now show that our cross product is the usual one. First, if ai, bj 2 R and ~ui,
~vj 2 V for i = 1 m and j = 1 n
(ai~ui) (bj~vj ) = ai bj (~ui ~vj ) : (7.4.3)
For (ai~ui) (bj~vj ) = Ah2i (ai~ui)(bj~vj )] = Ah2i (aibj ~ui~vj )] = aibj Ah2i(~ui~vj )] = aibj (~ui
~vj ). Second, w~ (~u ~v) = w~ Ah2i(~u~v)] = A(w~ ~u~v) = A(~u~v w~ ) so
(~u ~v) w~ = A (~u~v w~ ) : (7.4.4)
Therefore, since A is totally antisymmetric,

8
>
< (~u ~v) w~ = (~v w~ ) ~u = (w~ ~u) ~v
> (7.4.5)
: = ; (~v ~u) w~ = ; (~u w~ ) ~v = ; (w~ ~v) ~u:
In particular, (~u ~v) w~ = ;(~v ~u) w~ for all w~ , so
~v ~u = ;~u ~v: (7.4.6)
Therefore, ~u ~u = ~0. Setting w~ = ~u in (~u ~v) w~ = (w~ ~u) ~v gives (~u ~v) ~u =
(~u ~u) ~v = 0. Thus, using (7.4.6),
(~u ~v) ~u = (~u ~v) ~v = 0: (7.4.7)
Relative to any ordered basis (~b1 ~b2 ~b3 ) for V we have

(~u ~v)i = Aijk uj vk = A ~b1 ~b2 ~b3 "ijk uj vk :
If the ordered basis is positively oriented and orthonormal, A(~b1 ~b2 ~b3 ) = 1, so
(~u ~v)i = "ijk uj vk : (7.4.8)
If the ordered basis is negatively oriented and orthonormal, A(~b1 ~b2 ~b3 ) = ;1 so
(~u ~v)i = ;"ijk uj vk : (7.4.9)

The notorious formula
~u (~v w~ ) = (~u w~ ) ~v ; (~u ~v) w~ (7.4.10)
can be derived from (7.4.8) as follows: relative to any positively oriented orthonormal
basis
~u (~v w~ )]i = "ijkuj (~v w~ )k

= "ijkuj "klmvl wm
= "ijk"klmuj vl wm
= (il jm ; imjl ) uj vl wm see page D-9
= uj wj vi ; uj vj wi
= (~u w~ ) vi ; (~u ~v) wi = (~u w~ ) ~v ; (~u ~v) w~ ]i :
Since the vector on the left of (7.4.5) has the same components as the vector on the right,
those two vectors are equal.
From (7.4.5) and (7.4.10) we have (~u~v)(~u~v ) = ~u~v (~u ~v)] = ~uk~vk2~u ; (~v ~u)~v] =
k~uk2 k~vk2 ; (~u ~v)2 , so
k~u ~vk2 = k~uk2k~vk2 ; (~u ~v)2: (7.4.11)
We have dened the angle between ~u and ~v as the in 0 such that ~u ~v =
k~ukk~vk cos . With this denition of , (7.4.11) implies
k~u ~vk = k~ukk~vk sin : (7.4.12)
Equations (7.4.7) and (7.4.12) determine that ~u ~v is ?~u and ~v and has length
k~ukk~vk sin . This leaves two possibilities for a nonzero ~u ~v. The correct one is determ-
ined by the fact that
A (~u~v ~u ~v) > 0 if ~u ~v 6= 0: (7.4.13)
To prove (7.4.3), we note that A(~u~v ~u ~v) = A(~u ~v ~u~v) = (~u ~v) Ah2i(~u~v)] =
(~u ~v) (~u ~v). Inequality (7.4.3) is usually paraphrased by saying that \~u~v ~u ~v is
a positively oriented ordered triple." If we orient the space we live in by choosing A so
Figure 7.5:
that our right thumb, index nger and middle nger are positively oriented ordered triple
of vectors when extended as in Figure (7.5), we will obtain the usual denition of ~u ~v
in terms of the right hand screw rule.
Application 3: Let U1 Up, V1 Vq be Euclidean spaces. Then
U1 Up V1 Vq = (U1 Up) (V1 Vq ) : (7.4.14)
Proof:
What is meant is that there is a natural isomorphism between the spaces

on the two sides of (7.4.14). Before proving this, we note that the tensor
product of U1 Up and V1 Vq on the right in (7.4.14) is dened,
because U1 Up and V1 Vq are Euclidean spaces. Their dot
products are hpi and hqi. To construct the isomorphism whose existence
is asserted by (7.4.14), let T 2 U1 Up V1 Vq and dene
Te : (U1 Up ) (V1 Vq ) ! R by requiring for any P 2 U1 Up
and any Q 2 V1 Vq that
Te(P Q) = P hpiT hqiQ: (7.4.15)

Then Te is bilinear, so Te 2 (U1 Up) (V1 Vq ). From (7.4.15),

(ag
j Tj ) = aj Tej , so T 7! Te is a linear mapping of U1 Up V1 Vq
into (U1 Up ) (V1 Vq ). We claim this mapping is bijective. To see
that it is injective, suppose T1 , T2 2 U1 Up V1 Vq and Te1 = Te2 .
Then for every P 2 U1 Up and Q 2 V1 Vq we have P hpiT1hqiQ =
P hpiT2hqiQ, so P hpi(T1hqiQ ; T2hqiQ = 0 so P hpi(T1 ; T2 )hqiQ] = 0. Hence,
(T1 ; T2 )hqiQ = 0 for all Q 2 V1 Vq . Hence, T1 ; T2 = 0. To see
that T 7! Te is a surjection, suppose ' 2 (U1 Up) (V1 Vq ).
Dene T 2 U1 Up V1 Vq by requiring T (~u1 ~up~v1 ~vq ) =
'(~u1 ~up~v1 ~vq ): Then P hpiT hqiQ = '(P Q) if P and Q are polyads.
Hence P hpiT hqiQ = '(P Q) for all P 2 U1 Up and Q 2 V1 Vq .
By (7.4.15), ' = Te . Thus T 7! ', and the mapping T ! 7 Te is a surjection of
U1 Up V1 Vq onto (U1 Up) (V1 Vq ).
Application 4: Linear mappings as second order tensors.
Denition 7.4.22 Suppose U and V are Euclidean vector spaces and L 2 L(U ! V ).
$
Dene L2 F (U V ! R) by
$
L (~u~v) = L(~u) ~v: (7.4.16)
$ $ $
Then L (~v) and L (~u ) are linear, so L2 M(U V ! R):
That is,
$
L2 U V: (7.4.17)
Thus, (7.4.16) can be written in the equivalent form
$
~u L ~v = L(~u) ~v: (7.4.18)
For a xed ~u 2 U , (7.4.18) is true for all ~v 2 V . Hence, since ~u L~ and L(~u) are both in
V , we have
$
~u L= L(~u): (7.4.19)
$ $
Let : L(U ! V ) ! U V be dened by (L) =L. If we know L= (L), we can
recover L from (7.4.19), so is an injection. We claim is also a surjection. That is,
every T 2 U V is (L) for at least one L 2 L(U ! V ). Suppose T is given and dene L
$ $ $
by L(~u) = ~u T . Then L (~u~v) = ~u L ~v = L(~u) ~v = ~u T ~v = T (~u~v), so T =L= (L).
We claim that : L(U ! V ) ! U V is also linear. If L1 Ln 2 L(U ! V ) and
a1 an 2 R, we claim
! $
(aiLi )= ai Li : (7.4.20)
The proof is this: for any ~u 2 U and ~v 2 V ,
!
~u (aiLi ) ~v = (aiLi)(~u)] ~v = fai Li(~u)]g ~v
$
= ai Li(~u) ~v] = ai (~u Li ~v)
$
= ~u ai Li ~v:
! $
Thus (aiLi )(~u~v) = (ai L)(~u~v) for all ~u 2 U , ~v 2 V . Hence (7.4.20).
We have now shown that is a linear bijection between the two vector spaces L
(U ! V ) and U V . We can use to regard any linear mapping L : U ! V as a tensor
$
L2 U V and vice-versa. The process of taking linear combinations can be done either
to the tensors or to the linear mappings, so confusing tensors with linear mappings does
no harm to linear combinations.
Linear mappings can also be \multiplied" by composition. If K 2 L(U ! V ) and
L 2 L(V ! W ) then L K 2 L(U ! W ). Our identication of tensors with linear
mappings almost preserves this multiplication. We have
! $ $
L K =K L : (7.4.21)
The proof is simple. For any ~u 2 U ,
!
~u (L K ) = (L K )(~u) = L K (~u)]
$ $
= K (~u) L= (~u K~ ) L
$
= ~u (K~ L) by (7.3.1):
Since this is true for all ~u 2 U , corollary (7.4.18) gives (7.4.21).
If IU : U ! U is the identity operator on U (that is, IU (~u) = ~u for all ~u 2 U ) then for
any ~u1 ~u2 2 U ,
$
I U (~u1 ~u2) = IU (~u1) ~u2 = ~u1 ~u2: (7.4.22)
$
That is, I U is what we have already called the identity tensor on U see example 5.6.3.
The origin of that name is now clear. And (7.4.22) can also be written
$
~u1 I U ~u2 = ~u1 ~u2: (7.4.23)
This is true for all ~u1 and ~u2 2 U , so we have for any ~u 2 U
$ $
~u I U = I U ~u = ~u: (7.4.24)
If L : U ! V then L IU = IV L = L. It follows then from (7.4.20) that

$ $ $ $ $
I U L=L I V =L : (7.4.25)
Actually, a more general result is true. If U , V , W1 , , Wq are Euclidean spaces and

T 2 U W1 Wq V then
$ $
I U T = T I V = T: (7.4.26)
The proof follows the usual lines. Since all three expressions in (7.4.26) are linear in T , it
su#ces to prove (7.4.26) for polyads T . But for T a polyad, (7.4.26) follows immediately
from associativity and (7.4.24).
$
Thus, I U acts like a multiplicative identity. Then some second order tensors can have
inverses.
Denition
7.4.23 If L 2 L(U ! V ) has an inverse L;1 2 L(V ! U ), then we dene
$ ;1 $
L to be L;1 .
Thus, using (7.4.20), we conclude
$ $ $ $ $ $
L;1 L= I V L L;1 = I U : (7.4.27)
Since the tensors in U V and the linear mappings in L(U ! V ) can be thought of
as essentially the same objects, any concept dened for one can be dened immediately
for the other. Denition 7.4.23 is an example of this process. Other examples are below.
Denition 7.4.24 If $L2 V V then det $L:= det L.

$ $
From denition 7.4.23 and 7.4.24 it is apparent that for any L2 V V , L;1 exists i
$
det L6= 0.
$ $T $ $
Denition 7.4.25 If L2 U V then L :=LT . Thus LT 2 V U .
Here LT is the
$transpose of L : U ! V , as dened on page D-24. From the denition
T $ $
of LT we have L (~v ~u) =LT (~v ~u) = LT (~v) ~u = ~v L(~u) = L(~u) ~v =L (~u~v): Thus
$ $
LT = (12) L : (7.4.28)
$T $T $ $
It is also
$ true that for
any (~u~
v ) 2 U V , ~
v L ~u = L (~v ~
u ) = L (~u~
v ) = ~
u L ~v.
$
Thus ~v LT ~u ; ~u L = 0. This is true for that for any ~v 2 V so for all ~u 2 U
$ $
LT ~u = ~u L : (7.4.29)
$ $
Similarly, ~v LT ; L ~v ~u = 0 for all ~u 2 U so if ~v 2 V
$T $
~v L =L ~v: (7.4.30)
Application 5: Linear mappings as higher order tensors.

Suppose U1 Up V1 Vq are Euclidean vector spaces and L 2 L(U1 Up !
V1 Vq ). Both U1 Up and V1 Vq are Euclidean vectors spaces, with
$
dot products hpi and hqi. Therefore, L corresponds to a second order tensor L in (U1
Up) (V1 Vq ), exactly as in (7.4.16). That is if P 2 U1 Up and
Q 2 V1 Vq then
$
L (P Q) = L(P )hqiQ
or
$
P hqi L hqiQ = L(P )hqiQ: (7.4.31)
Here hpi and hqi are to be interpreted as the dot products on U1 Up and V1 Vq ,
$
and L is a second order tensor in the space (U1 Up) (V1 Vq ), which is the
tensor product of two Euclidean spaces.
$
However, as we saw on page 61, L can also be interpreted as a tensor of order p + q
in U1 Up V1 Vq . Equation (7.4.31) continues to hold, but now hpi and
hqi are interpreted as generalized dot products, and $L2 U1 Up V1 Vq .
Therefore, the linear mappings L 2 L(U1 Up ! V1 Vq ) can be viewed as
$ $
tensors L2 U1 Up V1 Vq . If we know L, we nd L from (7.4.31) by taking
$
P and Q to be arbitrary polyads. If we know L2 U1 Up V1 Vq , then we
know it in (U1 Up) (V1 Vq ) so we nd L by appealing to (7.4.19). That
is, for any P 2 U1 Up,
$
L(P ) = P hpi L : (7.4.32)
The generalization from application 4 to application 5 is particularly useful in con-
tinuum mechanics.
Chapter 8
How to Rotate Tensors (and why)
8.1 Tensor products of linear mappings
For j 2 f1 qg, suppose Vj and Wj are Euclidean vector spaces and Lj 2 L(Vj ! Wj ).
We would like to dene a linear mapping
L1 Lq : V1 Vq ! W1 Wq
by requiring that for any polyad ~v1 ~vq 2 V1 Vq we have
(L1 Lq ) (~v1 ~vq ) = L1 (~v1) Lq (~vq ) : (8.1.1)
The lifting theorem will show that there is exactly one such L1 Lq . To nd it, we
invoke that theorem. We dene
M : V1 Vq ! W1 Wq
by requiring for any (~v1 ~vq ) 2 V1 Vq that
M (~v1 ~vq ) = L1 (~v1) Lq (~vq ):
Since L1 Lq are linear, M is multilinear, so we can use the lifting theorem with M as
above and W = W1 Wq . The picture is shown in 8.1. Then we dene L1 Lq
to be the M
provided by the lifting theorem. With this choice, L1 Lq is linear
and satises (8.1.1).
67
68 CHAPTER 8. HOW TO ROTATE TENSORS (AND WHY)
M x
V1 x . . . x Vq W1 x . . . x Wq
x
M
V1 x . . . x Vq
Figure 8.1:

Remark 8.1.37 Suppose ~b(1j) ~b(njj) is an ordered basis for Vj and Q = Qi iq~b(1)
1
i ~biq
1
(q)
2 V1 Vq . Then
h i
(L1 Lq ) (Q) = Qi1 iq L1 ~b(1)
i1 Lq ~biq :
(q) (8.1.2)
Proof:
h (q) i
L1 Lq is linear, so (L1 Lq )(Q) = Qi1 iq (L1 Lq ) ~b(1)
i1 ~biq :
Now use (8.1.1).
Remark 8.1.38 Suppose for j 2 f1 qg that Uj , Vj , Wj are Euclidean and Kj 2
L(Vj ! Wj ) and Lj 2 L(Uj ! Vj ). Then
(K1 Kq ) (L1 Lq ) = (K1 L1 ) (Kq Lq ) : (8.1.3)
Proof:
We want to show for every P 2 U1 Uq that
(K1 Kq ) (L1 Lq )] (P ) = (K1 L1 ) (Kq Lq )] (P ):
By linearity it su#ces to prove this when P is any polyad ~u1 ~uq . But
(K1 Kq ) (L1 Lq )] (~u1 ~uq )
= (K1 Kq ) (L1 Lq )(~u1 ~uq )]
= (K1 Kq ) L1(~u1) Lq (~uq )]
= K1 L1 (u1)] K2 L2 (u2)] Kq Lq (uq )] (K1 L1 )(~u)] (K2 L2 )(~u2)]
(Kq Lq )(~uq )]
= (K1 L1 ) (Kq Lq )] (~u1 ~uq ):
8.1. TENSOR PRODUCTS OF LINEAR MAPPINGS 69
Another way to try to understand L1 Lq is to exhibit explicitly for any P 2

V1 Vq the tensor (L1 Lq )(P ) 2 W1 Wq by evaluating it at any
(w~ 1 w~ q ) 2 W1 Wq . We have
Remark 8.1.39 Suppose that for j 2 f1 qg we have Lj 2 L(Vj ! Wj ) for Euclidean
spaces Vj and Wj . Suppose P 2 V1 Vq and (w~ 1 w~ q ) 2 W1 Wq . Then
h i
(L1 Lq )(P )] (w~ 1 w~ q ) = P LT1 (w~ 1) LTq (w~ q ) : (8.1.4)
Proof:
Both sides of this equation are linear in P , so it su#ces to prove the equation
when P is a polyad, P = ~v1 ~vq . In that case,
(L1 Lq )(P )] (w~ 1 w~ q ) = L1(~v1 ) Lq (~vq )] (w~ 1 w~ q )
= L1(~v1 ) w~ 1] Lq (~vq ) w~ q ]
h i h i
= ~v1 LT1 (w~ 1) ~vq LTq (w~ q )
h i
= P LT1 (w~ 1) LTq (w~ q ) :
Finally, it will be useful to understand how permutations aect tensor products of
mappings. To do this we need
Lemma 8.1.22 Suppose V1 Vq are Euclidean spaces, ~vj 2 Vj for j 2 f1 qg, and
2 Sq . Then
(~v1 ~vq ) = ~v; ~v;q : 1
(1)
1
( )
(8.1.5)
Proof:
From the denition (1.4.10),

(~v1 ~vq )] w~ ;1(1) w~ ;1(q) = (~v1 ~vq ) (w~ 1 w~ q )
= (~v1 w~ 1) (~vq w~ q )

= ~v;1 (1) w~ ;1(1) ~v;1 (q) w~ ;1(q)

= ~v;1 (1) ~v;1(q) w~ ;1(1) w~ ;1(q)
for any (w~ 1 w~ q ) 2 V1 Vq . QED.
Now we can prove
Remark 8.1.40 For j 2 f1 qg, suppose Lj 2 L(Vj ! Wj ), and suppose 2 Sq .

Then

(L1 Lq ) = L;1(1) L;1(q) : (8.1.6)
Proof:
The domain of L1 Lq is V1 Vq . We want to prove that if
P 2 V1 Vq then (L1 Lq )](P ) = (L;1(1) L;1 (q) )](P ),
i.e., (L1 Lq )](P ) = (L;1 (1) L;1 (q) )(P ). Both sides of the
last equation are linear in P , so it su#ces to prove that equation when P is a
polyad, say P = ~v1 ~vq . In this case
(L1 Lq ) (~v1 ~vq )] = L1 (~v1 ) Lq (~vq )]

= L;1 (1) ~v;1 (1) L;1 (q) ~v;1 (q) by 8.1.5

= L;1 (1) L;1 (q) ~v;1(1) ~v;1 (q)

= L;1 (1) L;1 (q) (~v1 ~vq )] by 8.1.5
QED.
Special Case:
Suppose V1 = = Vq = V and W1 = = Wq = W and L1 = = Lq = L. Then
we write L1 Lq as q L. Then
q L 2 L (q V ! q W ) (8.1.7)
and q L is dened by requiring for all (~v1 ~vq ) 2 xq V that
q L(~v1 ~vq ) = L(~v1 ) L(~vq ): (8.1.8)
If P 2 q V , (8.1.8) leads to the gure of speech that (q L)(P ) is obtained by applying
L to P . (Really q L is applied to P ).
8.2. APPLYING ROTATIONS AND REFLECTIONS TO TENSORS 71
If K 2 L(V ! W ) and L 2 L(U ! V ) then from (8.1.3)
(q K ) (q L) = q (K L) : (8.1.9)
If L 2 L(V ! W ) and P 2 q V and (w~ 1 w~ q ) 2 xq W then from (8.1.4)

h i
(q L)(P )] (w~ 1 w~ q ) = P LT (w~ 1) LT (w~ q ) : (8.1.10)
If L 2 L(V ! W ) and 2 Sq then from (8.1.6)
(q L) = (q L): (8.1.11)
8.2 Applying rotations and reections to tensors

Recall that L 2 L(V ! V ) is \orthogonal" if LT = L;1 , and \proper orthogonal" if also
det L = +1 rather than ;1. Recall the denitions on page D-25:
$(V ) = set of all orthogonal operators on V

$+(V ) = set of all proper orthogonal operators on V:
Recall that according to corollary PP-12, every proper orthogonal operator is a rotation.
As remarked on page PP-30, if L is improper orthogonal (det L = ;1) then L is the
product of a rotation and a reection.
If L is an orthogonal operator on V and Q 2 q V , then two more facts about (q L)(Q)
make it even more reasonable to think of that tensor as the result of applying L to Q.
These facts are remark 8.2.41 and its corollary.
Remark 8.2.41 If L 2 $(V ), applying L to tensors over V preserves their generalized

dot products. More precisely suppose p q r are any non-negative integers. Suppose
P 2 p+q V , R 2 q+r V , and L 2 $(V ). Then
h i h i
(p+r L)(P hqiR) = (p+q L)(P ) hqi (q+r L)(R) : (8.2.1)
Proof:
Both sides of this equation are linear in P and R, so it su#ces to prove

the equation when P and R are polyads, say P = ~u1 ~up~x1 ~xq and R =
~y1 ~yq~v1 ~vr . Then (p+r L)(P hqiR) = (p+r L) (~x1 ~y1) (~xq ~yq )~u1 ~up~v1 ~vr ]
= (~x1 ~y1) (~xq ~yq )(p+r L)(~u1 ~up~v1 ~vr )
= (~x1 ~y1) (~xq ~xq ) L(~u1) L(~up)L(~v1 ) L(v~r )].
So far we have not used L 2 $(V ). Now we use it to set ~x ~y = L(~x) L(~y).
Therefore the above polyad is (p+r L)(P hqiR) =
= L(~x1 ) L(~y1)] L(~xq ) L(~yq )] L(~u1) L(~up)L(~v1 ) L(~vr )]

= L(~u1) L(~up)L(~x1 ) L(~xq )] hqi L(~y1) L(~yq )L(~v1 ) L(~vr )]
h i h i
= (p+q L)(~u1 ~up~x1 ~xq ) hqi (q+r L)(~y1 ~yq~v1 ~vr )
h i h i
= (p+q L)(P ) hqi (q+r L)(R) :
QED
Corollary 8.2.19 The value of a rotated q-tensor at a rotated q-tuple of vectors is the
value of the original tensor at the original q-tuple of vectors. The same is true for reec-
tions. in general, if L 2 $(V ) and Q 2 q V and (~v1 ~vq ) 2 xq V then
(q L) (Q)] L (~v1) L (~vq )] = Q (~v1 ~vq ) :
Proof:
(q L) (Q)] L (~v1 ) L (~vq )]

= (q L) (Q)] hqi L (~v1) L (~v2 ) L (~vq )]
= (q L) (Q)] hqi (q L) (~v1~v2 ~vq )]
= Qhqi (~v1 ~vq ) by remark 8.2.41
= Q (~v1 ~vq ) :
8.3. PHYSICAL APPLICATIONS 73
8.3 Physical applications

Some physical properties of physical systems are tensors. For example, Ohm's law in a
crystal says that if an electric eld E~ is applied, the resulting current density J~ depends
$ $
linearly on E~ . This means that there is a second-order tensor K such that J~ = E~ K .
$
This K is the \conductivity tensor" of the crystal. In a liquid, J~ = EK ~ where K is a
$ $
scalar, so K = K I , but in a crystal all that can be said in general is that if there is
$ $T $
no magnetic eld, K is symmetric (K =K ). This is Onsager's theorem for dissipative
thermodynamics.
A second example is an elastic crystal. As we will see later, its local state of deforma-
tion is described by a symmetric second order tensor $ , the strain tensor. Its local state
$
of stress is described by another symmetric second order tensor S , the stress tensor. For
$
small $ (i.e. k $ k << 10;2) S is a linear function of $ , so there is a tensor of fourth
$
order over ordinary 3-space, the elasticity tensor E , such that S =$ h2iE . Thermody-
namics assures that (12)E = (34)E = (13)(24)E = E , but E has no other symmetries
in general so the dimenson of the space of all possible elasticity tensors is 21. (We will
discuss all this in detail later.)
$
A third example is the second moment tensor M of a collection of mass points. If
there is a mass mv at position ~rv for v = 1 N , then
$ X N
M := mv~rv~rv : (8.3.1)
v=1
This is the underlying tensor from which the inertia tensor and gravitational second degree
harmonic tensor of a solid body are calculated.
If V is real 3-space and L 2 L(V ! V ), then \subjecting a physical system to the
mapping L" means that we move all the mass points (atoms) which make up the system,
$
so that a mass point which was originally at ~rv is moved to the new location L(~rv ) = ~rv L.
If L 2 $+(V ), L subjects the body to a rigid rotation. If L 2 $(V ) but det L = ;1, L
subjects the body to a rigid rotation and also a reection in some plane. If L 2 $(V )
but det L > 0 then L is the product of a rigid rotation and a symmetric linear operator.
The latter stretches the body by dierent amounts in dierent directions. If det L < 0, a
H H
F Cl F Br
Br Cl
Left Handed Right Handed
Figure 8.2:
reection also occurs.

It is actually possible to imagine subjecting a real body to a reection if we allow
ourselves to disassemble and reassemble the body atom-by-atom. For example, iceland
spar (calcite) crystals come in right-handed or left-handed version. Liquids can also be
reected. For most, reection has no eect because the distribution of molecules in the li-
quid has no preferred directions and the molecules either have no right- or left-handedness,
or the right- and left-handed versions are present in equal amounts. A liquid which is
aected by reection is bromochlorouoromethane, C H F Cl Br. At one atmosphere of
pressure, it is liquid between ;115C and 36C. the molecule is a tetrahedron with H, F,
Cl, Br at the four vertices and C at the center. It can come in two forms, left handed or
right handed. To reect a pot of left-handed C H F Cl Br means to replace it by a pot of
right-handed C H F Cl Br.
If we subject a system of mass points mv at positions ~rv to the mapping L 2 L(V !
$
V ), where V is real 3-space, then the second moment tensor M of that system (see (8.3.1))
$
changes to 2 L(M ). To see this, note that the second moment tensor of the deformed
8.3. PHYSICAL APPLICATIONS 75
system is
$ XN XN
ML = m v L (~
r v ) L (~r v ) = mv 2 L (~rv~rv )
v=1
2 X N ! v=1 $
= L mv~rv~rv = 2 L M :
v=1
$
If we subject a homogeneously stressed crystal to the mapping L, the stress tensor S in
$
that crystal will not change to 2 L(S ). Rather it will be determined by the elasticity
tensor E of the crystal. These examples show that it is not always obvious how to calculate
the eect of subjecting a physical system to a linear mapping L. Some tensor properties
of that system simply have L applied to them, and others do not.
The situation is much simpler if L 2 $(V ). To see this, suppose ~b1 , ~b2 , ~b3 is any basis
for real 3-space V . Suppose Q 2 q V is a measurable tensor property of a particular
physical system. Then
Q = Qi1 iq~bi1~bi2 ~biq : (8.3.2)
\Measuring" Q means measuring the real numbers Qi1 iq . Suppose we apply to the
physical system a mapping L 2 $(V ). The new physical system will have instead of
Q the tensor QL to describe that particular physical property. Suppose we apply L to
the apparatus we used to measure Qi1 iq , and we use this mapped apparatus to measure
the contravariant components of QL relative to the basis L(~b1 ), L(~b2 ), L(~b3 ). We assume
either that no gravity or electromagnetic eld is present or, if they are, that they are
also mapped by L. Then the experiment on QL is identical to that on Q, except that it
has been rotated and possibly reected relative to the universe. As far as we know, the
univese does not care the laws of nature are invariant under reection and rigid rotation.
The universe seems to be isotropic and without handedness. (As a matter of fact, a small
preference for one orientation or handedness exists in the weak nuclear force governing
-decay Yang, Lee and Wu won Nobel prizes for this discovery it has no measurable
eects at the macroscopic level of continuum mechanics in an old universe.) Therefore,
the numbers we read on our dials (or digital voltmeters) will be the same in the original
and mapped systems. That is, the contravariant components of QL relative to L(~b1 ),
L(~b2 ), L(~b3 ) will be the same as the contravariant components of Q relative to ~b1 , ~b2, ~b3 .
Thus
QL = Qi1 iq L(~bi1 ) L(~bi2 ) L(~biq )
= Qi1 iq (q L)(~bi1~bi2 ~biq )
h i
= (q L) Qi1 iq~bi1~bi2 ~biq :
Therefore, if L 2 $(V ) and the physical system is mapped by L, the new tensor property
QL is obtained by applying L to the original Q
QL = (q L)(Q): (8.3.3)
A tensor property of a physical system rotates with that system, and is reected if the
system if reected.
8.4 Invariance groups

Sometimes, subjecting a physical system to certain rotations or reections will not aect
any of its measurable physical properties. For example, suppose I work all morning on
a cubic crystal of Na Cl. While I am at lunch, you rotate it in such a way as simply to
permute its three crystal axes. When I return from lunch, I will be unable to detect that
anything has happened to the crystal. The same is true if you manange to work so fast
as to disassemble and reassemble the crystal so as to subject it to a reection along one
of its crystal axes while I am at lunch. If I was working not on Na Cl but on a pot of
left-handed CH F CL Br before lunch, you can subject it to any rotation whatever. I will
not be able to detect the rotation when I return. However, if you reect it, I can detect
that now I have a pot of right-handed CH F Cl Br. For example, it will rotate the plane
of polarized light oppositely before and after lunch.
Let S be any physical system in real 3-space V . For any L 2 $(V ), let LS be the
physical system obtained by subjecting S to L. Let G (S ) be the set of all members of
$(V ) which, when applied to S , change none of the measurable properties of S . That is,
L 2 (V ) is a member of G (S ) if no measurement can distinguish between S and LS .
8.4. INVARIANCE GROUPS 77
These denitions have some simple but useful implications. Obviously
I 2 G (S ) (8.4.1)
where I is the identity operator on V . And if L1, L2 2 G (S ), then L2 S is indistinguishable

from S , so L1 (L2 S ) is indistinguishable from S . Therefore
if L1 L2 2 G (S ) then L1 L2 2 G (S ): (8.4.2)
Finally, we claim
if L 2 G (S ) then L;1 2 G (S ): (8.4.3)
For LS and S are indistinguishable. Hence so are L;1(LS ) and L;1 S . But L;1 (LS )
is S , so S and L;1S are indistinguishable. Properties (8.4.1), (8.4.2), (8.4.3) show that
G (S ), is a subgroup of $(V ). It is called the invariance group of the physical system S .
Examples of invariance groups are these:
Example 8.4.5 If S is water, G (S ) = $(V ).

Example 8.4.6 If S is liquid, left-handed C H F Cl Br , G (S ) = $+(V ).
Example 8.4.7 If S is polycrystalline calcite, with the microcrystals randomly oriented,
and with equal numbers of right and left-handed microcrystals, and if we make only
measurements involving lengths > > microcrystal diameter (e.g. study only seismic
waves very long compared to the size of the microcrystals), G (S ) = $(V ).
Example 8.4.8 If in example 8.4.7, 30% of the microcrystals are left handed and 70%
are right handed, G (S ) = $+(V ).
Example 8.4.9 If S is an Na Cl crystal, G (S ) is the \cubic group". It is the group

of orthogonal operators which send into itself a cube centered on ~0. If x^1 x^2 x^3 are
unit vectors parallel to the edges of the cube, G (S ) consists of those L 2 $(V ) such that
L(^xi ) = (i) x^(i) for i = 1 2 3, where 2 S3 and 1 2 3 can be +1 or ;1 independently.
If Q 2 q V describes some measurable property of physical system S , then clearly

(q L)(Q) = Q for all L 2 G (S ). This fact limits the possible forms which Q can take,
and is therefore of physical interest. It leads us to introduce
Denition 8.4.26 Let V be a Euclidean vector space. Let G be a subgroup of $(V ).
Then I q (G ) is the set of all Q 2 q V such that
(q L) (Q) = Q for all L 2 G : (8.4.4)
The set I q (G ) is called the space of q'th order tensors invariant under G . The tensors in
I q ($(V )) are unchanged by any orthogonal operator. They are called \isotropic tensors".
The tensors in I q ($+(V )) are unchanged by any rotation, but may be changed by reec-
tions. They are called \skew isotropic tensors." If G is the cubic group, the tensors in
I q (G ) are unchanged by any rotation or reection which is physically undetectable in an
Na Cl crystal.
The following are simple consequences of denition 8.4.26.
Corollary 8.4.20 I q (G ) is a subspace of q V .
Proof:
Clearly I q (G )
q V , so all we need prove is that any linear combination of
members of I q (G ) is a member. If Q1 QN 2 I q (G ) and a1 aN 2 R
and L 2 G , then (q L)(Qi ) = Qi, so (q L)(ai Qi ) = ai(q L)(Qi ) = ai Qi
because q L is linear.
Corollary 8.4.21 If G1
G2 then I q (G2 )
I q (G1 ).
Proof:
If Q 2 I q (G2), Q is unchanged by any L 2 G2 , and then certainly by any
L 2 G1 . Hence Q 2 I q (G1). (The bigger the group G , the harder it is to be
unchanged by all its members.)
8.4. INVARIANCE GROUPS 79
Corollary 8.4.22 If Q 2 I q (G ), and 2 Sq then Q 2 I q (G ).

Proof:
For any L 2 L(V ! V ), equation 8.1.11 gives (q L) = (q L). Then
(q L)(Q) = (q L)(Q)]. If Q 2 I q (G ) then for any L 2 G , (q L)(Q) = Q,
so (q L)(Q) = Q. Hence Q 2 I q (G ).
Corollary 8.4.23 If P 2 I p+q (G ) and R 2 I q+r (G ) then P hqiR 2 I p+r (G ).
Proof:
For any L 2 G , L 2 $(V ), so (p+r L)(P hqiR) = (p+q L)(P )] hqi (q+r L)(Q)] =
P hqiR .
Corollary 8.4.24 If Q 2 I q (G ) then the component array of Q is the same relative to
any two ordered orthonormal bases (^x1 x^n ) and (^x01 x^0n) such that x^0i L(^xi ) for
some L 2 G .
Proof:
For any Q 2 q V ,
Q = Qi1 iq xî1 xîq = Q0i1 iq x^0i1 x^0iq : (8.4.5)
For any L 2 L(V ! V ),

(q L) (Q) = Qi1 iq L (^xi1 ) L xîq : (8.4.6)
If Q 2 I q (G ) and x^0i = L(^xi ) for some L 2 G , then (q L)(Q) = Q and
comparing (8.4.5) with (8.4.6) gives Qi1 iq = Q0i i . 1 q
Corollary 8.4.25 Suppose Q 2 q V . Suppose V has one ordered orthonormal basis

(^x1 x^n) such that whenever L 2 G and x^0i = L(^xi ), then Q has the same component
array relative to (^x1 x^n) and (^x01 x^0n). Then Q 2 I q (G ).
Proof:
Suppose L 2 G . Let x^0i = L(^xi ). By hypothesis Q0i1 iq = Qi1 iq . Comparing
(8.4.5), and (8.4.6) gives (q L)(Q) = Q. Since this is true for every L 2 G ,
Q 2 I q (G ).
8.5 Isotropic and skew isotropic tensors

Denition 8.5.27 Let V be a Euclidean vector space. The tensors in I q ($(V )) are
called \isotropic". The tensors in I q ($+(V )) are called \skew isotropic".
Any tensor describing a measurable property of water, or of polycrystalline calcite with

randomly oriented microcrystals and equal numbers of left- and right-handed microcrys-
tals, is isotropic. Any tensor describing a property of left-handed liquid C H F Cl Br , or of
polycrystalline calcite with randomly oriented microcrystals and more of one handedness
than the other, is skew isotropic. Since $+(V )
$(V ), corollary (8.4.21) implies
I q ($(V ))
I q ($+(V )): (8.5.1)
That is, every isotropic tensor is skew isotropic.

By corollaries 8.4.24 and 8.4.25, a tensor is isotropic i it has the same array of
components relative to every orthonormal basis for V .
Suppose (V A) is an oriented Euclidean space. By corollary 8.4.25, a tensor is skew
isotropic if it has the same array of components relative to every positively oriented
orthonormal basis for V . Also, it is skew isotropic if it has the same array of components
relative to every negatively oriented orthonormal basis for V . If a tensor is skew isotropic,
by corollary 8.4.25 it has the same array of components relative to every positively oriented
orthonormal basis, and the same array relative to every negatively oriented orthonormal
basis. The two arrays need not be the same (indeed, if they are, the tensor is isotropic).
Example 8.5.10 The identity tensor $I is isotropic. For, relative to any orthonormal
$
basis (^x1 x^n) for V , Iij = I (^xi x^j ) = xî x^j = ij .
Example 8.5.11 If A is a unimodular alternating tensor, A is skew isotropic but not

isotropic. For as we saw on page 39, A has the same component array relative to every
positively oriented orthonormal basis, but its component array changes sign for negatively
oriented bases.
8.5. ISOTROPIC AND SKEW ISOTROPIC TENSORS 81
Example 8.5.12 By corollary 8.4.23, $I $I is isotropic. So is $I $I $I , $I $I $I $I , etc. By

corollary 8.4.22 , every permutation of these tensors is isotropic. By corollary 8.4.20,
every linear combination of such permuted tensors is isotropic.
Example 8.5.13 All the tensors in example 8.5.12 are skew isotropic. By corollary
$ $$ $$$
8.4.23, so are I A, I I A, I I I A, etc. By corollary 8.4.22, so are all permutations of these
tensors. By corollary 8.4.20, so is every linear combination of such permuted tensors. We
gain nothing new by using more than one factor A. The polar identity (10.2) shows that
$$ $
if n = dim V then AA is a linear combination of n! permutations of I I I (with n
$
factors I ).
On p. 64 of his book \The Classical Groups" (Princeton, 1946), Hermann Weyl shows
that there are no isotropic tensors except those listed in example 8.5.12, and no skew
isotropic tensors except those listed in example 8.5.13. Note the corollary that all nonzero
isotropic tensors are of even order. We cannot consider Weyl's general proof, but we will
discuss in detail the tensors of orders q = 0 1 2 3 4, which are of particular interest in
continuum mechanics. We assume dim V 2.
q = 0 Tensors of order 0 are scalars. They are unaected by any orthogonal transform-
ation, so are isotropic and therefore also skew isotropic.
q = 1 If dim V 2, the only skew isotropic tensor of order 1 is ~0. Therefore the only
isotropic tensor of order 1 is ~0.
Proof:
Tensors of order 1 are vectors. We are claiming that if dim V 2 then

the only vector which is unaected by all rotations is the zero vector.
A formal proof of this intuitively obvious fact is as follows. Suppose
~v 2 I 1 ($+(V )). Let x^ and y^ be any two unit vectors. Each is the rst
vector of a positively oriented ordered orthonormal basis (pooob), so by
corollary 8.4.24, ~v(^x) = ~v(^y). That is ~v x^ = ~v y^ for any two unit vectors
x^ and y^. If dim V 2, we can always nd a y^ such that ~v y^ = 0. Then

~v x^ = 0 for all x^, so ~v = ~0.
q=2
I 2 ($(V )) = spf$I g (8.5.2)

I 2 ($+(V )) = spf$I g if dim V 3 (8.5.3)
I 2 ($+(V )) = spf$I Ag if dim V = 2 and
A is any nonzero member of 2V: (8.5.4)
Proof:
The containments have all been established in examples 8.5.12 and

8.5.13, so we need prove only
in (8.5.2, 8.5.3, 8.5.4). In all these cases,
suppose T 2 I 2 ($+(V )). If x^ and y^ are any unit vectors, each is the
rst vector of an ordered orthonormal basis (oob), and by changing the
sign of one later basis vector, if necessary, we can assume that these oob's
have the same orientation. Therefore T (^x x^) = T (^y y^) because T has
the same component array relative to all oobs with the same orientation.
Thus there is a scalar aT such that
T (^x x^) = aT for every unit vector x^: (8.5.5)
If fx^ y^g is orthonormal, (^x y^) is the rst pair of vectors in an oob. Re-
placing (^x y^) by (^y ;x^) in that oob gives a second oob with the same
orientation. Hence, T (^x y^) = T (^y ;x^) = ;T (^y x^).
T (^x y^) = ;T (^y x^) if fx^ y^g is orthonormal : (8.5.6)
When dim V = 2, choose an oob (^x1 x^2 ) and let a = aT , b = T (^x1 x^2 )
$
=A(^x1 x^2). Then relative to this oob, Tij = aij + bA(^x1 x^2 )"ij = (a I
$
+bA)ij , so T = a I +bA, and (8.5.4) is proved. To treat (8.5.2, 8.5.3), let
(^x y^) be orthonormal. Both (^x y^) and (^y x^) are the rst pair of vectors
in an oob, so if T 2 I 2 ($(V )),
T (^x y^) = T (^y x^) if fx^ y^g is orthonormal: (8.5.7)
If dim V 3, both (^x y^) and (^y x^) are rst pairs in oobs with the same
orientation, namely (^x y^ x^3 x^n) and (^y x^ ;x^3 x^4 x^n). If T 2
I ($+ (V )), we again have 8.5.7. In either case we have (8.5.6) and (8.5.7)
so
T (^x y^) = 0 if fx^ y^g is orthonormal: (8.5.8)
Now let (^x1 x^n ) be an oob. By (8.5.5) and (8.5.8), relative to this
$
oob we have Tij = aT ij , so T = aT I . QED
q=3
I 3 ($(V )) = f0g (8.5.9)

I 3 ($ + (V )) = f0g if dim V 6= 3 (8.5.10)
I 3 ($+(V )) = spfAg if dim V = 3 and A 6= 0 A 2 3V: (8.5.11)
Proof:
If dim V is even, let (^x1 x^n) be an oob for V . Then (;x^1 ;x^n)
is another oob with the same orientation. Then if T 2 I 3 ($+(V )),
T (^xi x^j x^k ) = T (;xî ;x^j ;x^k ) = ;T (^xi x^j x^k ) = 0 so Tijk = 0 .
If dim V is odd and dim V 5, let (^x y^ z^) be any ordered orthonor-
mal sequence. It is the rst triple of an oob (^x y^ z^ x^4 x^n) and
(;x^ y^ z^ ;x^4 x^5 x^n) is an oob with the same orientation, so
T (^x y^ z^) = T (;x^ y^ z^) = ;T (^x y^ z^) = 0. Similarly, T (^x y^ y^ ) =
;T (^x y^ y^ ) = 0 and T (^x x^ x^ ) == ;T (^x x^ x^ ) = 0. Thus if x^1 x^2 x^3
are orthonormal, T (xî x^j x^k ) = 0 for fi j kg
f1 2 3 g. This com-
ment applies to any three vectors from an arbitrary oob for V , so Tijk = 0
for fi j kg
f1 ng relative to any oob, and T = 0. Finally, sup-
pose dim V = 3. If fx^ y^g is orthonormal, (^x y^) is the rst pair of an
oob (^x y^ z^), and the oob (;x^ y^ ;z^) has the same orientation. Thus
T (^x y^ y^) = T (;x^ y^ y^) = ;T (^x y^ y^) = 0. Similarly T (^y x^ y^) = 0 and
T (^y y^ x^) = 0. Also T (^x x^ x^) = T (;x^ ;x^ ;x^) = ;T (^x x^ x^) = 0.
Thus if T 2 I 3 ($+(V ))
T (^x x^ x^) = 0 for every unit vector x^ (8.5.12)
T (^x y^ y^) = T (^y x^ y^) = T (^y y^ x^) if fx^ y^g is orthonormal: (8.5.13)
Finally, if (^x y^ z^) is an oob, then the following are oobs with the same
orientation: (^y z^ x^) , (^z x^ y^) , (^y x^ ;z^) , (^x ;z^ y^) , (;z^ y^ x^) . Then
if T 2 I 3 ($+(V ))
T (^x y^ z^) = T (^y z^ x^) = T (^z x^ y^) = ;T (^y x^ z^) = ;T (^x z^ y^) = ;T (^z y^ x^)
(8.5.14)
if fx^ y^ z^g is orthonormal. Let (^x1 x^2 x^3) be an oob for V . Let c =
T (^x1 x^2 x^3)=A(^x1 x^2 x^3 ). Then (8.5.12 , 8.5.13 , 8.5.14) imply Tijk =
cA(^x1 x^2 x^3 )"ijk = cAijk so T = cA. QED.
Note that in all the foregoing arguments, only mutually ? vectors were used. These
arguments remain valid if G is the cubic group and T 2 I q (G ) with q = 1 2 3 and
we work only with unit vectors and oobs in the crystal axis directions. Therefore
the conclusions apply to tensors of orders 1 2 3 known only to be invariant under
$
the cubic group of Na Cl. For example, it follows that the conductivity tensor K
$ $
of Na Cl must have the form K I . In Na Cl, Ohm's law J~ = E~ K reduces to the
isotropic form J~ = EK
~ , even though an Na Cl crystal is not isotropic.
q=4
$$ $$ $$
I 4 ($(V )) = sp I I (23) I I (24) I I (8.5.15)
I 4 ($+(V )) = 00if dim V 62 f2 4g (8.5.16)

$$ $$ $$
I ($ (V )) = sp I I (23) I I (24) I I A
4 +
if dim V = 4 (8.5.17)
I 4 ($+(V )) = spf$I $I (23) $I $I (24) $I $I

$ $ $
I A (23) I A (24) I A
$ $ $
AI (23)AI (24)AI g if dim V = 2: (8.5.18)
Here A is any nonzero alternating tensor, A 2 nV with n = dim V .
Proof:
The containments have all been established in examples 8.5.12 and 8.5.13,
so we need prove only
. We consider only (8.5.15, 8.5.17), and leave (8.5.17,
8.5.18) to the reader with Sitzeisch. Therefore we assume T 2 I 4 ($+(V )),
and if dim V 2 f2 4g we assume T 2 I 4 ($(V )). If dim V 5, then any four
orthonormal vectors (w ^ x^ y^ z^) are the rst four vectors of and oob for V , say
^ x^ y^ z^ x^5 x^n). The vectors (;w
(w ^ x^ y^ z^) are the rst four vectors of
an oob with the same orientation, namely (;w ^ x^ y^ z^ ;x^5 x^6 x^n). Since
T 2 I 4 ($+(V )), T has the same component array relative to both oob's, so
^ x^ y^ z^) = T (;w
T (w ^ x^ y^ z^) = ;T (w^ x^ y^ z^). Thus for dim V 5,
^ x^ y^ z^) = 0 if fw
T (w ^ x^ y^ z^)g is orthonormal: (8.5.19)
This result is also vacuously true for dim V = 3, because then we cannot nd
four orthonormal vectors in V .
Next, suppose dim V 3 and fx^ y^ z^g is orthonormal. Then fx^ y^ z^g and
(;x^ y^ ;z^) are both the rst triple in oobs with the same orientation, so
T (^x y^ z^ z^) = T (;x^ y^ ;z^ ;z^) = ;T (^x y^ z^ z^) = 0. Similarly, if fx^ y^ z^g is
orthonormal
T (^x y^ z^ z^) = T (^x z^ y^ z^) = T (^x z^ z^ y^)
= T (^z x^ y^ z^) = T (^z x^ z^ y^) = T (^z z^ x^ y^) = 0: (8.5.20)
Equations (8.5.20) are vacuously true if dim V = 2 because then we cannot

nd three orthonormal vectors in V .
Next, suppose fx^ y^g is orthonormal. Then (^x y^) and (;x^ y^) are the rst pairs
in oobs, and if dim V 3 we may assume these oobs to have the same orient-
ation, say (^x y^ x^3 x^n) and (;x^ y^ ;x^3 x^4 x^n). Then T (^x y^ y^ y^) =
T (;x^ y^ y^ y^) = ;T (^x y^ y^ y^) = 0. Similarly
T (^x y^ y^ y^) = T (^y x^ y^ y^)
= T (^y y^ x^ y^) = T (^y y^ y^ x^) = 0 if fx^ y^g orthonormal:(8.5.21)
Next, suppose that fx^ y^g and fx^0 y^0g are both orthonormal. Each pair (^x y^)
and fx^0 y^0g is the rst pair in an oob, so if T 2 I 4 ($(V )) then T (^x x^ y^ y^) =
T (^x0 x^0 y^0 y^0). If dim V 3, then (^x y^) and (^x0 y^0) are rst pairs in oobs with
the same orientation, say (^x y^ x^3 x^n) and (^x0 y^0 x^3 x^4 x^n): Then in
that case also, T (^x x^ y^ y^) = T (^x0 x^0 y^0 y^0). In either case, there is a scalar
T depending only on T such that
T (^x x^ y^ y^) = T if fx^ y^g is orthonormal: (8.5.22)
Similarly, there are scalars uT and vT such that

T (^x y^ x^ y^) = uT if fx^ y^g is orthonormal (8.5.23)
T (^x y^ y^ x^) = vT if fx^ y^g is orthonormal: (8.5.24)
Finally, if x^ and y^ are unit vectors, each is the rst member of an oob, and
the two oobs can have the same orientation, so T (^x x^ x^ x^) = T (^y y^ y^ y^).
Therefore, there is a scalar T depending only on T such that
T (^x x^ x^ x^) = T for every unit vector x^: (8.5.25)
$$
Then tensor I I satises (8.5.19)-(8.5.25) with = 1, = 1, u = 0, v = 0.
$$
The tensor (23) I I satises (8.5.19)-(8.5.25) with = 1 , = 0 , u = 1,
$$
v = 0. The tensor (24) I I satises (8.5.19)-(8.5.25) with = 1 , = 0 ,
u = 0, v = 1. Therefore, the tensor
$$ $$ $$
S = T ; T I I ;uT (23) I I ;vT (24) I I (8.5.26)
satises (8.5.19)-(8.5.25) with S = T ; T ; uT ; vT and S = uS = vS = 0.

Now let (^x y^) be orthonormal in V and let (^x y^ x^3 x^n) be an oob for V .
Then (^x0 y^0 x^3 x^n) is an oob with the same orientation if we take
x^0 = x^ cos + y^ sin y^0 = ;x^ sin + y^ cos :
To see this, let A 2 nV , A 6= 0. Then
A(^x0 y^0 x^3 x^n) = A(^x cos + y^ sin ;x^ sin + y^ cos x^3 x^n)
= ; cos sin A(^x x^ x^3 x^n) + cos2 A(^x y^ x^3 x^n )
; sin2 A(^y x^ x^3 x^n) + sin cos A(^y y^ x^3 x^n)

= cos2 + sin2 A(^x y^ x^3 x^n) = A(^x y^ x^3 x^n ):
But if (^x y^ x^3 x^n ) and (^x0 y^0 x^3 x^n) have the same orientation and
S 2 I 4 ($+(V )), the S (^x x^ x^ x^) = S (^x0 x^0 x^0 x^0 ). The S of (8.5.26) is a linear
combination of members of I 4 ($+(V )), so it is in I 4 ($+(V )). In addition, S
satises (8.5.19)-(8.5.25) with S = uS = vS = 0. Therefore
S (^x x^ x^ x^) = S (^x0 x^0 x^0 x^0 )

= S (^x cos + y^ sin
x^ cos + y^ sin x^ cos + y^ sin x^ cos + y^ sin )
= cos4 S (^x x^ x^ x^) + sin4 S (^y y^ y^ y^) (8.5.27)
since all other 14 terms in the multilinear expansion of S vanish. Thus S =

(cos4 + sin4 )S . It is possible to choose so that cos4 + sin4 6= 1.
Therefore S = 0. Therefore S = 0. Therefore
$$ $$ $$
T = T I I +uT (23) I I +vT (24) I I : (8.5.28)
This completes the proofs of (8.5.15) and (8.5.17).

Notice that the proof of (8.5.26) works equally well if all the unit vectors are
parallel to the crystal axes of an Na Cl crystal. Only (8.5.27) fails. But if
x^ y^ z^ are crystal axes, then S = S (^xx^x^x^ + y^y^y^y^ + z^z^z^z^). Therefore, we have
proved that if T is invariant under the cubic group we can write
T = S (^xx^x^x^ + y^y^y^y^ + z^z^z^z^)

$$ $$ $$
+ T I I +uT (23) I I +vT (24) I I (8.5.29)
where S = T ; T ; uT ; vT .
Chapter 9
Dierential Calculus of Tensors
9.1 Limits in Euclidean vector spaces
Denition 9.1.28 Let U be a Euclidean vector space. Let ~u 2 U . Let t 2 R, t > 0. We
dene three sets:
i) B (~u t) := f~u0 : ~u0 2 U and k~u0 ; ~uk < tg
ii) @B (~u t) := f~u0 : ~u0 2 U and k~u0 ; ~uk = tg
iii) B) (~u t) := f~u0 : ~u0 2 U and k~u0 ; ~uk tg .
B (~u t) , @B (~u t) and B) (~u t) are called, respectively, the open ball, the sphere, and the
closed ball centered at ~u with radius t. See gure 9.1
Denition 9.1.29 A subset D of Euclidean space U is \open" if every point in D is the

center of a ball lying entirely in D. That is, if ~u 2 D then 9" > 0 3 B (~u ")
D. See
gure 9.2.
Denition 9.1.30 Suppose U and V are Euclidean vector spaces, D

U , f~ : D ! V ,
~u 2 D and ~v 2 V . We say that lim~u!~u f~(~u) = ~v , or, equivalently f~(~u) ! ~v, as ~u ! ~u
if for every " > 0 there is a (") > 0 such that whenever ~u 2 D and 0 < k~u ; ~uk < (")
then kf (~u) ; ~v0 k < ":
89
90 CHAPTER 9. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS OF TENSORS
t
u
B(u, t)
∂ B(u, t)
Figure 9.1:
9.1. LIMITS IN EUCLIDEAN VECTOR SPACES 91
.
.
D
.
Figure 9.2:
Denition 9.1.31 If f~(~u) = ~v in denition 9.1.30 then f~ is \continuous at ~u".
Denition 9.1.32 If x and y are real numbers, denote the algebraically smaller of them
by x ^ y (read \x meet y") and the algebraically larger by x _ y (read \x join y"). Thus
1 ^ 6 = 1, 1 _ 6 = 6, (;1) ^ 0 = ;1, (;1) _ 0 = 0.
Corollary 9.1.26 Suppose U and V are Euclidean vector spaces, D

U and f : D ! V .
Suppose ~u0 2 D, ~v0 2 V and f~(~u) ! ~v0 as ~u ! ~u0. Then if ~u 2 D and k~u ; ~u0k < (1),
we have
kf (~u)k < 1 + k~v0 k:
Proof:
If ~u 2 D and k~u ; ~u0 k < (1), then kf (~u) ; ~v0 k < 1 so kf~(~u)k = kf~(~u) ; ~v0 +
~v0k kf (~u) ; ~v0k + k~v0 k < 1 + k~v0k.
Corollary 9.1.27 Suppose U and V are Euclidean vector spaces, D

U , f~ : D ! V ,
f~ 0 : D ! V , ~u0 2 D, ~v0 and ~v00 2 V . Suppose that f~(~u) ! ~v0 and f~ 0(~u) ! ~v00 as ~u ! ~u0.
Then (f~ ; f~ 0)(~u) ! ~v0 ; ~v00 as ~u ! ~u0.
Proof:
For any given " > 0 we must nd a 00(") > 0 such that ~u 2 D and k~u ; ~u0 k <
00(") implies k(f + f 0)(~u) ; ~v0 ; ~v00 k < ". By hypothesis, there are ("=2) > 0
and 0("=2) > 0 such that if ~u 2 D then
kf~(~u) ; ~v0 k < "=2 if k~u ; ~u0k < ("=2) (9.1.1)

kf~0(~u) ; ~v00 k < "=2 if k~u ; ~u0k < 0 ("=2): (9.1.2)
Let 00(") = ("=2) ^ 0("=2). If k~u ; ~u0k < 00("), then both (9.1.1) and
(9.1.2) are true, so k(f~ + f~ 0)(~u) ; ~v0 ; ~v00 k = kf~(~u) ; ~v0 + f~0 (~u) ; ~v00 k
kf~(~u) ; ~v0k + kf~0(~u) ; ~v00 k "=2 + "=2 = ". QED.
9.1. LIMITS IN EUCLIDEAN VECTOR SPACES 93
Corollary 9.1.28 Suppose U , V , W , X are Euclidean vector spaces and D

U and
R : D ! V W and T : D ! W X . Dene R T : D ! V X by requiring
(R T )(~u) = R(~u) T (~u) for each ~u 2 D. Suppose ~u0 2 D and as ~u ! ~u0 we have
R(~u) ! R0 and T (~u) ! T0. Then (R T )(~u) ! R0 T0 .
Proof:
Choose " > 0. We must nd (") > 0 such that if ~u 2 D and k~u ; ~u0k < (")
then k(R T )(~u) ; R0 T0k < ". We note
(R T )(~u) ; R0 T0 = R(~u) T (~u) ; R0 T0

= R(~u) T (~u) ; R(~u) T0 + R(~u) T0 ; R0 T0
= R(~u) T (~u) ; T0] + R(~u) ; R0] T0:
Thus
k(R T )(~u) ; R0 T0k kR(~u) T (~u) ; T0 ] k + k R(~u) ; R0 ] T0 k:

The generalized Schwarz inequality, remark 7.3.36, gives
kR(~u) T (~u) ; T0] k kR(~u)kkT (~u) ; T0 k

k(R(~u) ; R0) T0 k kR(~u) ; R0 kkT0k
Thus if ~u 2 D
k(R T )(~u) ; R0 T0k kR(~u)kkT (~u) ; T0k + kR(~u) ; R0 kkT0k: (9.1.3)

Now if ~u 2 D and
8
>
> if k~u ; ~u0k < R (1) then kR(~u)k < 1 + kR0 k (see corollary 9.1.26)
>
>
< "
> if k~u ; ~u 0 k < T 2(1+kR0 k) then kT (~u) ; T0 k < 2(1+kR0 k)
"
>
>
: if k~u ; ~u0k < R 2(1+"kT k) then kR(~u) ; R0 k < 2(1+"kT k) :
>
0 0
(9.1.4)

Take (") = R (1) ^ T 2(1+k"R0 k) ^ R 2(1+"kT0 k) . Then if k~u ; ~u0k < ("),
we have all three of (9.1.4), so by (9.1.3),
k(R T )(~u) ; R0 T0k < (1 + kR0 k) 2(1 +"kR k) + 2(1k+T0kkT" k) < ":
0 0
QED.
Corollary 9.1.29 Suppose U and V are Euclidean vector spaces, and D

U , and
~u0 2 D and ~v0 2 V . Suppose f~ : D ! V is dened by f~(~u) = ~v0 for all ~u 2 D. Then
f~(~u) ! ~v0 as ~u ! ~u0.
Proof:
Obvious from denition 9.1.30.
Corollary 9.1.30 Suppose U and V are Euclidean vector spaces, and D

U , and
~u0 2 D and ~v0 2 V . Suppose f~ : D ! V .
i) If f~(~u) ! ~v0 as ~u ! ~u0, then ~bi f~(~u) ! ~bi ~v0 as ~u ! ~u0, for any basis (~b1 ~bn) of
V , with dual basis (~b1 ~bn).
ii) If there is one basis for V , (~b1 ~bn), such that ~bi f~(~u) ! ~bi ~v0 as ~u ! ~u0, then
f~(~u) ! ~v0 as ~u ! ~u0.
Proof:
Regard ~bi as a function whose domain is D and whose value is ~bi for each
~u 2 D. Then i) follows from corollaries 9.1.28 and 9.1.29. And ii) follows
from corollaries 9.1.29 , 9.1.28, and 9.1.27.
Notice that the ranges of our functions can lie in tensor spaces since these are Euclidean
vector spaces. The corollaries all apply verbatim. The dot products are, of course,
the generalized dot products used to make tensor spaces Euclidean. The only corollary
which perhaps deserves comment is 9.1.28. It now reads thus: Suppose U , V1 V
W1 Ws, X1 Xt are Euclidean vector spaces, and D
U and R : D ! V1
9.2. GRADIENTS: DEFINITION AND SIMPLE PROPERTIES 95
Vr W1 Ws and T : D ! W1 Ws X1 Xt. Dene RhsiT :

D ! V1 Vr X1 Xt by requiring (RhsiT )(~u) = R(~u)hsiT (~u) for each
~u 2 D. Suppose ~u0 2 D and as ~u ! ~u0 we have R(~u) ! R0 and T (~u) ! T0. Then
(RhsiT )(~u) ! R0 hsiT0.
9.2 Gradients: Denition and simple properties

Denition 9.2.33 We dene the \dot product" of two real numbers to be their ordinary
arithmetic product. With this denition, R is a one-dimensional Euclidean vector space,
and it has two orthonormal bases, f1g and f;1g, which we write as ^1 and ;^1 when
thinking of R as a Euclidean space. When we think of a real number as a vector, we
write it with an arrow, like ~2. Thus ~2 = 2^1, and 2 = ~2 ^1 = ^1 ~2.
Denition 9.2.34 Suppose U and V are Euclidean vector spaces, D is an open subset
of U , f~ : D ! V , and ~u 2 D. A linear mapping L : U ! V is a \gradient mapping for f~
at ~u " if there is a function R~ : U ! V (which may depend on f~ and ~u and L ) such that
a) lim R~ (~h) = ~0 and
~h!~0
b) f~(~u + ~h) = f~(~u) + L(~h) + k~hkR~ (~h) for any
~h 2 U such that ~u + ~h 2 D: (9.2.1)
Remark 9.2.42 f~ has at most one gradient mapping at ~u.
Proof:
If L1 and L2 are both gradient mappings for f~ at ~u then whenever ~u + ~h 2 D
we have
f~(~u + ~h) = f~(~u) + L1 (~h) + k~hkR~ 1(~h)
= f~(~u) + L2 (~h) + k~hkR~ 2(~h):
Therefore if ~u + ~h 2 D,
L1 (~h) + k~hkR~ 1 (~h) = L2 (~h) + k~hkR~ 2 (~h): (9.2.2)
Now D is open, so there is an " > 0 such that if k~hk < " then ~u + ~h 2 D.
Let ~k be any vector in U , and let t be any nonnegative real number. Then
kt~kk < " as long as 0 t < "=k~kk. Therefore, if t is in this range, 9:2:2 is
true for ~h = t~k. That is
L1 (t~k) + kt~kkR~ 1 (t~k) = L2 (t~k) + ktkkR2 (t~k):
But Li (t~k) = tLi (k) and kt~kk = tk~kk, so if t > 0
L1 (~k) + k~kkR~ 1 (t~k) = L2 (~k) + k~kkR~ 2(t~k): (9.2.3)
This is true for all t in 0 < t < "=k~kk. Let t ! 0, and both R~ 1(t~k) ! ~0 and
R~ 2 (t~k) ! ~0. Therefore L1 (~k) = L2 (~k). Since this is true for all k 2 U , we
have L1 = L2 . QED
Denition 9.2.35 In denition 9.2.34 if f~ : D ! V has a gradient mapping L at ~u,

then f~ is \dierentiable at ~u ", and R~ is the \remainder function for f~ at ~u ". The tensor
$
L2 U V is called the \gradient tensor of f at ~u " or the \gradient of f~ at ~u ". It is
written r~ f~(~u). Since L(~h) = ~h $L, we can rewrite 9.2.33 as
a) lim R~ (~h) = ~0 and

~h!~0
h~ ~ i ~ ~ ~
b) f~(~u + ~h) = f~(~u) + ~h r f (~u) + khkR(h) if ~u + ~h 2 D: (9.2.4)
Remark 9.2.43 Suppose U and V are Euclidean vector spaces, D is an open subset of
$
U , ~u 2 D, and f~ : D ! V . Suppose there is a tensor L2 U V and a function R~ : D ! V
with these properties:
a) lim R~ (~h) = ~0 and
~h!~0
b) f~(~u + ~h) = f~(~u) + ~h L + k~hkR~ (~h) if ~u + ~h 2 D: (9.2.5)
$
Then f~ is dierentiable at ~u, its gradient tensor at ~u is L, and its remainder function at
~u is R~ .
Proof:
~h 7! ~h $L is a linear mapping L, so (9.2.5) , (9.2.1). Therefore f~ is dier-

$
entiable. By Remark 9.2.42, L is the gradient mapping for f~ at ~u, so L is the
gradient tensor. Then the R~ 's in (9.2.1b) and (9.2.5b) must be the same.
Example 9.2.14 Suppose f~ : D ! V is constant. Then f~ is dierentiable at every
~ f~(~u) =$0 .
~u 2 D and r
Proof:
$ $ $
The hypotheses of remark 9.2.43 are satised with L= 0 , R (~h) = ~0:
Example 9.2.15 Suppose f~ : D ! U is the identity mapping on D, i.e. f~(~u) = ~u for
~ f~(~u) =$I U ,
all ~u 2 D. Then f~ is dierentiable everywhere in D, and for each ~u 2 D, r
~ ~u =$I U .)
the identity tensor on U . (This result is often abbreviated r
Proof:
$ $
The hypotheses of remark 9.2.43 are satised with L= I U , R~ (~h) = ~0.
Example 9.2.16 Suppose U and V are Euclidean spaces, D is an open subset of U and
$ $
T is a xed tensor in U V . Suppose f~ : D ! V is dened by f~(~u) = ~u T for every
~ f~(~u) =T$. (Often abbreviated
~u 2 D. Then at every ~u 2 D, f~ is dierentiable and r
r~ (~u T$) =T$.)
Proof:
$ $
The hypotheses of remark 9.2.43 are satised with L=T , R~ (~h) = ~0.
Example 9.2.17 Suppose that for i 2 f1 ng we have ai 2 R and f~i : D ! V .
Suppose all the f~i are dierentiable at ~u 2 D. Then so is ai f~i : D ! V , and r
~ (aif~i)(~u) =
~ f~i )(~u).
ai(r
Proof:
Each f~i satises equation (9.2.4), so the hypotheses of remark 9.2.43 are sat-
$ ~ f~i(~u)] and R~ (~h) = ai R~ i(~h).
ised for aif~i with L= ai r
Example 9.2.18 Suppose that D is an open subset of Euclidean space U and f : D ! R.

In elementary calculus classes, f is dened to be dierentiable at ~u 2 D if there is a vector
L~ 2 U and a function R : U ! R such that
a) lim R(~h) = 0 and

~h!~0
b) f (~u + ~h) = f (~u) + ~h L~ + k~hkR(~h) if ~u + ~h 2 D: (9.2.6)
The vector L~ is called the gradient of f at ~u, written r ~ f (~u). If we think of R as a one-
dimensional Euclidean space, then we can think of f as a vector-valued function f~ = f ^1
(the vector is one dimensional). The scalar valued function f is dierentiable in the sense
of equations (9:2:6) i f~ = f ^1 is dierentiable in the sense of equation (9.2.4), and then
r~ f~(~u) = r~ f (~u)^1 r~ f (~u) = r~ f~(~u) ^1: (9.2.7)
Proof:
To obtain (9.2.4) from (9.2.6), multiply all terms in (9.2.6) on the right by ^1.
To obtain (9.2.6) from (9.2.4) dot ^1 on the right in all terms in (9.2.4). Here
$
clearly L= L~ ^1 = r
~ f (~u)^1.
Example 9.2.19 Suppose D is an open subset of R, regarded as a one-dimensional

Euclidean space. Suppose f~ : D ! V has an ordinary derivative at u 2 D (we will write
this derivative as @u f~(u) rather than df~=du, for reasons made clear later). Then f~ is
dierentiable at ~u and
r~ f~(u) = ^1@uf~(u): (9.2.8)
Proof:
~
By hypothesis, limh!0 f (u+h);f~(u) = @u f~(u). Dene R~ (h) = 0 if h = 0 and
h
for h 6= 0 then
8 9
h < f~(u + h) ; f~(u) =
R~ (h) = jhj : ; @ ~
f u
h u ( ):
Then limh!0 R~ (h) = ~0, and
f~(u + h) = f~(u) + h@uf~(u) + jhjR~ (h): (9.2.9)
But h = ~h ^1 so h@uf~(~u) = ~h ^1@u f~(u). Also jhj = k~hk. Therefore (9.2.9) is

$
(9.2.5) with L= ^1@uf~(u).
Example 9.2.20 Suppose f : D ! R and ~g : D ! V are dierentiable at ~u 2 D. Then

so is the product function f~g : D ! V , and
h i h i
r~ (f~g)(~u) = r~ f (~u) ~g(~u) + f (~u) r~ ~g(~u) : (9.2.10)
Proof:
By hypothesis, if ~u + ~h 2 D then
f (~u + ~h) = f (~u) + ~h r

~ f (~u) + k~hkRf (~h
~g(~u + ~h) = ~g(~u) + ~h r
~ ~g(~u) + k~hkRg (~h):
Multiplying these two equations gives

h ~ i
f (~u + ~h)~g(~u + ~h) = f (~u)~g(~u) + ~h f (r ~ f )~g + k~hkR~ fg (~h) (9.2.11)
~g) + (r
where, by denition,
h i
R~ fg (~h) = Rf (~h) ~g(~u) + ~h r
~ ~g(~u)
h i
+R~ g (~h) f (~u) + ~h r
~ f (~u) + k~hkRf (~h)R~ g (~h)
h ~ i h~ ~ i ~
+ ~h r f (~u) h r~g(~u) =khk:
As ~h ! ~0, the three terms in R~ fg , which involve Rf or R~ g , obviously !

0. So does the last term, because by Schwarz's inequality its length is
k~hkkr~ f (~u)kkr~ ~g(~u)k. Therefore remark 9.2.43 can be applied to (9.2.11).
QED.
Example 9.2.21 The Chain Rule. Suppose U , V , W are Euclidean vector spaces Df
is an open subset of U , Dg is an open subset of V , and f : Df ! Dg and g : Dg ! W .
Suppose ~u 2 Df and ~v = f~(~u). Suppose f~ is dierentiable at ~u and ~g is dierentiable at
~v. Then their composition, ~g f~ : Df ! W , is dierentiable at ~u and
r~ (~g f~)(~u) = r~ f~(~u) r~ ~g(~v): (9.2.12)
Proof:
$ ~~ $ ~
Let Lf = r f (~u) and Lg = r ~g(~v). Let R~ f and R~ g be the remainder functions
for f~ at ~u and ~g at ~v. Then R~ f (~h) ! ~0 as ~h ! ~0, and R~ g (~k) ! ~0 as ~k ! ~0,
and
$
f~(~u + ~h) = f~(~u) + ~h Lf +k~hkR~ f (~h) if ~u + ~h 2 Df (9.2.13)
$
~g(~v + ~k) = ~g(~v) + ~k Lg +k~kkR~ g (~k) if ~v + ~k 2 Dg : (9.2.14)
We hope to nd R~ gf : U ! W such that R~ gf (~h) ! ~0 as ~h ! ~0 and
$ $
(~g f~ )(~u + ~h) = (~g f~ )(~u) + ~h Lf Lg + k~hkR~ gf (~h) whenever ~u + ~h 2 Df .
This equation is the same as
h i h i $ $
~g f~(~u) + ~h) = ~g f~(~u) + (~h Lf ) Lg +k~hkR~ gf (~h): (9.2.15)
To obtain (9.2.15), choose any ~h 2 U such that ~u + ~h 2 Df and dene

~k = f~(~u + ~h) ; f~(~u) = f~(~u + ~h) ; ~v: (9.2.16)
Then ~k 2 V and ~v + ~k = f~(~u + ~h) 2 Dg , so (9.2.14) holds for the ~k of (9.2.16).

Moreover, from (9.2.13)
~k = ~h $Lf +k~hkR~ f (~h): (9.2.17)
Substituting (9.2.17) in (9.2.14) gives

h ~ ~ i h ~ i ~ $ ~ ~ ~ $ ~ ~ ~
~g f (~u + h) = ~g f (~u) + h Lf +khkRf (h) Lg +kkkRg (k):
This is exactly (9.2.15) if we dene R~ gf (~0) = 0 and, for ~h 6= ~0, dene
$ ~
R~ gf (~h) = R~ f (~h) Lg + k~kk R~ g (~k): (9.2.18)
khk
Applying to (9.2.17) the triangle and Schwarz inequalities gives

k~kk k~hk k $Lf k + kR~ f (~h)k : (9.2.19)
Therefore, as ~h ! ~0, we have ~k ! ~0, and k~kk=k~hk remains bounded. Hence

R~ f g (~h) ! ~0 as h ! 0. QED.
Example 9.2.22 Suppose Df is an open subset of Euclidean space U , and Dg is an open

subset of R, and f : Df ! Dg and g : Dg ! R. Suppose f is dierentiable at ~u 2 Df
and that g has a derivative, @v g(v), at v = f (~u). Then g f : Df ! R is dierentiable at
~u ! and
r~ (g f )(~u) = @v g(v)] r~ f (~u) v = f (~u): (9.2.20)
Proof:
This fact is presumably well known to the reader. It is mentioned here only
to show that it follows from the chain rule, example (9.2.21). If we regard R
as a one-dimensional Euclidean space and consider f~ = f ^1 and ~g = g^1, then
f~ is dierentiable at ~u, ~g is dierentiable at ~v = v^1, so ~g f~ is dierentiable
at ~u and satises 9.2.12. But r ~ f~ = r~ f )^1, and r~ (~g f~) = r ~ (g f )^1, and
r~ ~g = ^1@v~g = ^1^1@v g. Thus 9.2.12 is r~ (g f )^1 = (r~ f^) ^1^1)@v g = (@v g)r~ f ^1.
Dot ^1 on the right to obtain 9.2.20.
Example 9.2.23 Suppose Df is an open subset of R, Dg is an open subset of V , and

f~ : Df ! Dg , ~g : Dg ! W . Suppose f~ has a derivative, @uf~(u), at u 2 Df , and suppose
~g is dierentiable at ~v = f~(u). Then ~g f~ has a derivative at u and
@u(~g f~)(u) = @uf~(u) r
~ ~g(~v) ~v = f~(u): (9.2.21)
Proof:
f~ is dierentiable at ~u = u^1, with r ~ f~(~u) = ^1@uf~(u). Therefore, by the chain

rule, ~g f~ is dierentiable. Therefore @u (~g f~) exists and r
~ (~g f~) = ^1@u (~g f~).
Substitute these expressions in (9.2.12) and dot 1^ on the left to obtain (9.2.21).
Example 9.2.24 Suppose f~ and ~g are inverse to one another, and f~ is dierentiable at
~u and ~g is dierentiable at ~v = f~(~u). Then r
~ f~(~u) and r
~ ~g(~v) are inverse to one another.
Proof:
Let Df be the domain of f~, an open subset of Euclidean space U . Let Dg be the
domain of ~g, an open subset of Euclidean space V . By hypothesis, f~ ~g = IDg
and ~g f~ = IDf . By the chain rule, r ~ f~(~u) r ~ IDf (~u) =$I U and
~ ~g(~v) = r
r~ ~g(~v) r~ f~(~u) = r~ IDg (~v) =$I V . QED.
9.3 Components of gradients

Throughout this chapter, U and V are Euclidean vector spaces, (~b1 ~bm) is a xed
basis for U with dual basis (~b1 ~bm), and (~1 ~n) is a xed basis for V , with dual
basis (~ 1 ~ n). Df is an open subset of U , and f~ : Df ! V .
Denition 9.3.36 The i'th covariant component function of f~ relative to ~1 ~n is
fi : Df ! R where, for every ~u 2 Df ,
h i
fi (~u) = f~(~u) i = f~(~u) ~i : (9.3.1)
The ith contravariant component function of f~ relative to ~1 ~n is the i'th covariant
component function of f~ relative to ~ 1 ~ n. That is, it is f i : Df ! R where, for any
~u 2 Df ,
h ii
f i(~u) = f~(~u) = f~(~u) ~ i:
Evidently
f~ = f i~i = fi~ i: (9.3.2)
9.3. COMPONENTS OF GRADIENTS 103
Theorem 9.3.18 Let ~1 ~n be any basis for V . Let Df be an open subset of U .
Then f~ : Df ! V is dierentiable at ~u 2 Df i all n covariant component functions
fi : Df ! R are dierentiable at ~u. If they are, then
h i
r~ fi (~u) = r~ f~(~u) i = r~ f~(~u) ~i (9.3.3)
h i
r~ f~(~u) = r~ f~(~u) i ~ i = r~ f~i(~u)~ i: (9.3.4)
Proof:
) Suppose f~ is dierentiable at ~u. Then it satises (9.2.4). Dotting ~i on the

right in each term of (9.2.4) produces
lim R (~h) = 0
~h!~0 i
h~ ~ ~ i ~ ~
fi(~u + ~h) = fi(~u) + ~h r f (~u) i + khkRi(h)
where Ri = R~ ~i. By remark 9.2.43, fi is dierentiable at ~u, and its gradient
is (9.3.3). Then (9.3.4) follows from (D-14) and (9.3.3).
( Suppose all the fi are dierentiable at ~u. We can regard ~ i as a constant
function on Df , so it is dierentiable at ~u. Then by example 9.2.20 the product
f(i) ~ (i) is dierentiable at ~u. By example 9.2.17 so is the sum fi~ i = f~. QED.
Denition 9.3.37 Let ~b1 ~bm be any basis for U . Let Df be an open subset of U
and suppose f~ : Df ! V . Then f~(uj~bj ) is a V -valued function of the real variables
u1 un. If the partial derivative @ f~(uj~bj )=@ui exists at ~u = uj~bj , we abbreviate it as
@ui f~(~u) or @i f~(~u) . Let ~b1 ~bm be the basis dual to ~b1 ~bm . If the partial derivative
@ f~(uj~bj )=@ui exists at ~u = uj~bj , abbreviate it as @ui f~(~u) or @ i f (~u) . In summary
~ ~ @ ~(uj~bj )
f
@if (~u) := @ui f (~u) := @ui (9.3.5)
~(uj~bj )
@ i f~(~u) := @ui f~(~u) := @ f @u : (9.3.6)
i
Theorem 9.3.19 Suppose ~b1 ~bm is any basis for U , and Df is an open subset of U ,
and f~ : Df ! V . If f~ is dierentiable at ~u 2 Df then the partial derivatives @if~(~u) and
@ i f~(~u) all exist, and
@if~(~u) = ~bi r ~ f~(~u) (9.3.7)

@ i f~(~u) = ~bi r
~ f~(~u) (9.3.8)
r~ f~(~u) = ~bi @i f~(~u) = ~bi @ i f~(~u): (9.3.9)
Proof:
By example 9.2.23, if f~ is dierentiable at ~u = uj~bj then the partial derivative

of f~(uj~bj ) with respect to ui exists (hold all uj xed except for ui) and is
h i ~~
equal to @i(uj~bj ) r f (~u). But obviously, by the denition of @i, @iuj = i j
so
@i (uj~bj ) = ~bi :
Thus we have (9.3.7). 9.3.8 is obtained similarly. To get (9.3.9) use the fact
$ ~ f~(~u) =$I U r
that I U = ~bi~bi = ~bi~bi. Then r ~ f~(~u) = ~bi~bi r
~ f~(~u) = ~bi @i f~(~u) and
r~ f~(~u) =$LU r~ f~(~u) = ~bi~bi r~ f~(~u) = ~bi @ i f~(~u).
Note: If dim U = 1, the converse of theorem 9.3.19 is true. See example 9.2.19.
However, if dim U 2, that converse is false. A famous example is this. Let dim U = 2,
V = R. Let x^, y^ be an orthonormal basis for U and dene f : U ! R by f (~0) = 0,
p
f (xx^ + yy^) = xy= x2 + y2 if x2 + y2 = 6 0. Then @xf (~0) = 0, @y f (~0) = 0, so if f is
dierentiable at ~0 then r ~ f (~0) = 0^x + 0^y = ~0. Then by example 9.2.23, @t f (tx^ + ty^) =
~ f (~0) = 0 at t = 0. But f (tx^ + ty^) = t, so @t f (tx^ + ty^) = 1 at t = 0. This
@t (tx^ + ty^)] r
contradiction shows that f is not dierentiable at ~0.
Theorem 9.3.20 Suppose (~b1 ~bm ) and (~1 ~n) are bases for U and V respect-
ively, with dual bases (~b1 ~bm) and (~ 1 ~ n). Suppose Df is an open subset of
U and f~ : Df ! V and ~u 2 Df . Suppose f is dierentiable at ~u. Then the partial
9.4. GRADIENTS OF DOT PRODUCTS 105
derivatives @if~(~u) and @ifj (~u) exist, and so do the gradients r

~ fj (~u). Moreover
h ~ i
@i f (~u) j = @ifj (~u) (9.3.10)
h~ i
rfj (~u) i = @ifj (~u) (9.3.11)
h~ ~ i
rf (~u) ij = @ifj (~u): (9.3.12)
Proof:
By theorem 9.3.18, fj is dierentiable at ~u so r ~ fj (~u) exists. By theorem
9.3.19, @if~(~u) and @ifj (~u) exist because f~ and fj are dierentiable at ~u. By
9.3.4,
h i
r~ f~(~u) = r~ fj (~u) ~ j : (9.3.13)
By (9.3.7), ~bi r
~ f~(~u) = @i f~(~u) and ~bi r
~ fj (~u) = @ifj (~u) . Therefore dotting
~bi on the left throughout (9.3.13) gives
@if~(~u) = @ifj (~u)~ j : (9.3.14)
This is equivalent to (9.3.10). Equation (9.3.9) applied to fj gives

r~ fj (~u) = ~bi @ifj (~u): (9.3.15)
This is equivalent to (9.3.11). Substituting it in (9.3.13) gives

r~ f~(~u) = ~bi @i fj (~u)~ j : (9.3.16)
This is equivalent to (9.3.12).
9.4 Gradients of dot products

In this chapter we suppose that U , V , W , X are Euclidean spaces, that D is an open
$ $ $ $
subset of U , and that f : D ! V W and g : D ! W X . We suppose that f and g
$ $
are dierentiable at ~u 2 D. We want to show that f g : D ! V X is dierentiable at
~u, and we want to calculate r~ ( $f $g )(~u).
Method 1: No Bases.
By hypothesis,
$ $ ~ $f (~u) + k~hk R
$ ~
f (~u + ~h) = f (~u) + ~h r f (h)
$g $ $ ~
~ $g (~u) + k~hk R
(~u + ~h) = g (~u) + ~h r g (h):
Dotting the rst equation into the second gives

$ $ $ $ $
~ $
( f g )(~u + ~h) = ( f g )(~u) + ~h r f (~u) g (~u)
$ h ~$ i ~ $ ~
+ f (~u) ~h r g (~u) + khk Rf g (h) (9.4.1)
where
$ ~ $ $ ~ ~ ~ $ h~ ~ $ i ~
Rf g (h) = f (~u) Rg (h) + h r f (~u) h r g (~u) =khk
$ $ ~ $ ~ $
~ ~
+ h r f (~u) Rg (h)+ Rf (h) g (~u)
$ h ~$ i ~ $ ~ $ ~
+ Rf (~h) ~h r g (~u) + khk Rf (h) Rg (h):
$ $
An application of Schwarz's inequality proves that Rf g (~h) ! 0 as ~h ! ~0. In (9.4.1) the
expression $
~ $
~h r $ h ~$ i
f (~u) g (~u)+ f (~u) ~h r g (~u) (9.4.2)
$ $ ~ ( $f $g
depends linearly on ~h, so (9.4.1) shows that f g is dierentiable at ~u and that r
)(~u) is that tensor in U V X such that ~h r ~ ( $f $g )(~u) is equal to (9.4.2) for all ~h 2 U .
But what is r ~ ( $f $g )(~u)? We need
Lemma 9.4.23 If P 2 V W , ~h 2 U , and Q 2 U W X then

h~ i ~ h i
P h Q = h (12) P (12)Q :
Proof:
Since both sides of this equation are linear in P and Q, it su#ces to prove
the equation when P and Q are polyads, say P = ~vw~ , Q = ~uw~ 0~x. Then
9.4. GRADIENTS OF DOT PRODUCTS 107
h i
P~ ~h Q = (~h ~u)(w~ w~ 0)~v~x , and
~h f(12) P (12)Q]g = ~h f(12) P w~ 0~u~x]g
= ~h f(12) ~v(w~ w~ 0)~u~x]g
= (w~ w~ 0)~h (12) ~v~u~x]
= (w~ w~ 0)~h ~u~v~x] = (w~ w~ 0)(~h ~u)~v~x:
From lemma (9.4.23) it follows that we can write (9.4.2) as
$ $ $g
~ f (~u) g (~u) + (12) $
~h r ~
f (~u) 12r (~u) :
Therefore
h ~ $ i
~r( $f $g )(~u) = r
~ $f (~u) $g (~u) + (12) $f (~u) (12)r g (~u) : (9.4.3)
Method 2:
Introduce bases in U , V , W , X and take components. This is the procedure likely to be
used in practical calculations, and the results are generally easier to use than (9.4.3).
$ $
Since f and g are dierentiable at ~u, so are their component functions fjk and gk l .
By example (9.2.20), so are the products of fj(k)g(k) l . By example (9.2.17) so are the
sums fjk gk l , and from examples 9.2.20 and 9.2.17
r~ (fjk gk l ) = (r~ fjk )gk l + fjk (r~ gk l ): (9.4.4)
Then (9.4.4) and (9.3.11) imply
@i (fjk gk l ) = (@ifjk )gk l + fjk (@i gk l ): (9.4.5)
$ $
Now fjk gk l = ( f g )jl and so (9.4.5) and (9.3.10) imply
$ $ $ h $ik
@i ( f g ) = @i f gk l + fjk @i g l
jl jk
therefore $ $ $ $ $ $
@i ( f g ) = @i f g + f @i g
jl jl jl
and
$ $ $ $ $ h $ i
@i( f g )(~u) = @i f (~u) g (~u)+ f (~u) @i g (~u) : (9.4.6)
If we multiply (9.4.6) on the right by ~bi, where ~b1 ~bn is the dual to the basis we have
introduced in U , we obtain

~r( $f $g ) = (r
~ $f ) $g +~bi $f (@i $g ) : (9.4.7)
The last terms in (9.4.3) and (9.4.7) can be shown to be equal by lemma 9.4.23. In fact,
neither (9.4.7) nor (9.4.3) is very useful. One usually works with (9.4.6) or (9.2.10).
The hoped for formula, r ~ ( $f $g ) = r
~ ( $f ) $g +( $f ) (r
~ $g ), is generally false. It is
~ or $
true if one of r f , is one-dimensional. If U is one dimensional, (9.4.6) reduces to
$ $ $ $ $ $
@u ( f g )(u) = @u f (u) g (u)+ f (u) @u g (u): (9.4.8)
$
If f is one dimensional, (9.2.10) is
r~ (f $g )(u) = r~ f (~u) $g (u) + f (u)r~ $g (~u): (9.4.9)
9.5 Curvilinear coordinates

The set Rn of real n-tuples ~u = (u1 un) is a vector space if, for ~u and ~v =
(v1 vn) 2 R we dene ~u + ~v = (u1 + v1 un + vn) and, for ~u 2 Rn and
a 2 R we dene a~u = (au1 aun). Rn becomes a Euclidean vector space if we dene
~u ~v = uivi. An orthonormal basis for Rn is e^1 = (1 0 0), e^2 = (0 1 0 0) e^n =
(0 0 1).
Denition 9.5.38 Suppopse DV is an open subset of Euclidean space V . A \coordinate

system" on DV is an open subset DU of Rn, together with an everywhere dierentiable
bijection V~ : DU ! DV whose inverse mapping C~ : DV ! DU is also everywhere
dierentiable. The real number i = ci(~v) = eî C~(~v) is the \value of the i'th coordinate
at the point ~v, and ~v is uniquely determined by the values of its n coordinates u1 un.
9.5. CURVILINEAR COORDINATES 109
We have
~v(u1 un) = V~ (uieî ) = V~ (~u)
ui = ci (~v) = eî C~(~v):
Denition 9.5.39 Suppose W is a Euclidean space and ~g : DU ! W is dierentiable.
Then we will write @i~g for the partial derivative with respect to ui. That is
@~
g ( u j e^ )
@i~g(~u) = @ui j : (9.5.1)
If f~ : DV ! W is dierentiable, then so is f~ V~ : DU ! W (by the chain rule). We will
abbreviate @i(f~ V ) as @if~. Thus
~~ 1
@if~(~v) = @ f V (u@u i u )]
n
(9.5.2)
if ~v = V~ (u1 un).
Note that by theorem 9.3.18, the coordinate functions ci : DV ! R are dierentiable
at every ~v 2 DV . And by theorem 9.3.19 the partial derivatives @i V~ exist at every ~u 2 DU .
The key to understanding vector and tensor elds in curvilinear coordinates is
Theorem 9.5.21 Suppose V~ : DU ! DV is a curvilinear coordinate system on open
subset DV of Euclidean vector space V . Suppose n = dim U is the number of coordinates.
Then dim V = n. For any ~v 2 DV , let ~u = C (~v). Then the two n-tuples of vectors in V ,
(@1 V~ )(~u) @nV~ (~u) and (r
~ c1 (~v) r
~ cn(~v)), are dual bases for V .
Proof:
By the denition of a coordinate system, C~ V~ = IU jDU . By the chain rule,
r~ (C~ V~ )(~u) = r~ V~ (~u) r~ C~(~v). By example 9.2.15, r~ (IU jDU ) =$I U . Hence,
r~ V~ (~u) r~ C~(~v) =$I U : (9.5.3)
Similarly, V~ C~ = IV jDV , so
r~ C~(~v) r~ V~ (~u) =$I V : (9.5.4)

Now r ~ V~ (~u) 2 U V so r~ V~ (~u) =$L for some L 2 L(U ! V ), and r

~ C~(~v) 2
$
~ C~(~v) =M
V U , so r for some M 2 L(V ! U ). According to (9.5.3) and
$ $ $
(7.4.20), L M = I U so
M L = IU : (9.5.5)
$ $ $
According to (9.5.4) and (7.4.20), M L= I V so
L M = IV : (9.5.6)
According to (D-1), (9.5.5) and (9.5.6) together imply that L and M are
bijections and M = L;1 . Therefore U and V are isomorphic. Hence they
have the same dimension.
Lemma 9.5.24 If U and V are nite dimensional vector spaces and L : U ! V is a
linear bijection, and ~u1 ~un is a basis for U , then L(~u1) L(~un) is a basis for V .
Proof of lemma:
Suppose ai L(~ui) = ~0 for a1 an 2 R. Then L(ai~ui) = ~0. Since L is a bijec-

tion, ai~ui = ~0. Since ~u1 ~un are linearly independent, ai = = an = 0. Hence
L(~u1) L(~un) are linearly independent. Next, let ~v 2 V . There is a ~u 2 U such that
~v = L(~u). There are a1 an 2 R such that ~u = ai~ui. Then ~v = L(~u) = L(ai~ui) =
aiL(~ui). Hence L(~u1) L(~un) span V .
Now by (9.3.8), eî r ~ V~ (~u) = @i V~ (~u). By (9.3.3) , r ~ C~(~v) e^j = r ~ cj (~v). And eî $I U
e^j = eî e^j = i j . Therefore if we dot eî on the left and e^j on the right on each side of
(9.5.3) we obtain
@i V~ (~u) r
~ cj (~v) = i j : (9.5.7)
Thus, the two n-tuples of vectors (@1 V~ (~u) @nV~ (~u)) and (r ~ c1(~v) r
~ cn(~v)) are dual
to one-another. Hence they are linearly independent. Since dim V = n, they span V .
Hence they are bases for V , and each is the basis dual to the other.1
A more intuitive way to put the proof of (9.5.7) is as follows. uj = cj (V~ (u1 un )) so i j = @i uj =
1
@i
cj (V~ (u1 un ))] = @i V~ r~ cj .
9.5. CURVILINEAR COORDINATES 111
Corollary 9.5.31 If f~ : DV ! W is dierentiable (W being a Euclidean space) then

r~ f~(~v) = r~ ci(~v)@if~(~v): (9.5.8)
Proof:
(9.5.8) is (9.3.9) with ~bi = r
~ ci(~v).
A function f~ : DV ! W is often called a vector eld on DV . If W is a tensor
product of other vector spaces, f~ is called a tensor eld. It is often convenient
to express f~ in terms of a basis for W which varies from point to point in DV .
Suppose that for i 2 f1 N g, i : DV ! W is dierentiable everywhere
in DV . Suppose also that at each ~v 2 DV , ~1 (~v) ~N (~v) is a basis for W ,
with dual basis ~ 1(~v) ~ N (~v). Then ~ i : DV ! W is also dierentiable in
DV . At each ~v 2 DV we can write
f~(~v) = f j (~v)~j (~v) = fj (~v)~ j (~v):
Then, by (9.5.8),
h i
r~ f~(~v) = (r~ ci)@i f j ~j
= (r~ ci)(@i f j )~j + f j (r
~ ci)(@i ~j ):
Now @i ~ j (~v) is a vector in W , so there are coe#cients ;i j k (~v) 2 R such that
@i ~k (~v) = ;i j k (~v)~ )j (~v): (9.5.9)
Then
h i
r~ f~(~v) = @i f j + ;i j k f k (r~ ci)~j (~v): (9.5.10)
Equation (9.5.9) is called the \connection formula" for the basis ~ 1(~v) ~ N (~v)
in the coordinate system V~ : DU ! V . The scalars ;i j k (~v) are the \Chris-
toel symbols" at ~v. The expression @i f j + ;i j k f k is often abbreviated Dif j
and, in the older literature, is called the covariant derivative of the vector eld
f~ : DV ! W .
If W = q V , then (~ 1 ~ N ) is often taken to be a q'th order polyad

basis constructed from (r ~ c1 r
~ cn) and (@1 V~ @nV~ ). For example, if
W = V V and f~ : DV ! V V , we might write
$ ij ~ ~
f = f @i V @j V : (9.5.11)
The Christoel symbols ;i j k for @i V~ @nV~ are dened by
@i (@k V~ ) = ;i j k (@j V~ ): (9.5.12)
If we use (@k V~ )(@l V~ ) as the basis ~1 ~N for V V , we have from (9.5.12)
h i
@i (@k V~ )(@l V~ ) = ;i j k (@j V~ )(@l V~ ) + ;i j l (@k V~ )(@j V~ ): (9.5.13)
This is the connection formula (9.5.9) for (@k V~ )(@l V~ ). It leads to

$
r~ f = (Dif jk )(r~ ci)(@j V~ )(@k V~ ) (9.5.14)
where
Dif jk := @i f jk + ;i j l f lk + ;i k l f jl: (9.5.15)
Note that (9.5.12) implies

;i j k = ;k j i : (9.5.16)
In general this will not be true for ;i j k in (9.5.9).

Instead of (9.5.11), we might prefer to write
$ ~ ci)(r
~ cj ):
f = fij (r (9.5.17)
Then we need the connection formula for (r ~ ck )(r

~ cl ) analogous to (9.5.13).
Therefore we need the analogue of (9.5.12) for r ~ ck . The Christoel symbols
introduced by that analogue will not be new. From (9.5.7), r ~ cj @k V~ = j k .
~ cj ) @k V~ + r
Then @i (r ~ cj @i (@k V~ ) = 0. From (9.5.12),
9.6. MULTIPLE GRADIENTS AND TAYLOR'S FORMULA 113
~ cj ) @k V~ = ;;i l k r
@i (r ~ cj @l V~ = ;;i l k j l = ;;i j k . Thus ;;i j k r
~ ck =
~ cj ) (@k V~ )(r
@i (r ~ cj ) $I V = @i (r
~ ck ) = @i (r ~ cj ). Hence,
~ cj ) = ;;i j k (r
@i (r ~ ck ): (9.5.18)
Therefore,
$
r~ f (~u) = (Difjk )(r~ ci)(r~ cj )(r~ ck ) (9.5.19)
where
Difjk = @ifjk ; ;i l j flk ; ;i l k fjl : (9.5.20)
9.6 Multiple gradients and Taylor's formula

Let U and V be Euclidean spaces with xed bases, (~b1 ~bm) and (~1 ~n) respect-
ively. Take all components with respect to these bases. Let D be an open subset of U
and suppose f~ : D ! V is dierentiable at each ~u 2 D. Then r ~ f~(~u) 2 U V for each
~u 2 U , so we can dene a function
r~ f~ : D ! U V: (9.6.1)
This function may itself be dierentiable everywhere in V , in which case we have another
function.
r~ r~ f~ : D ! U U V: (9.6.2)
The process can continue. If r~ pf~ : D ! (pU ) V exists, we say f~ is p times dieren-
tiable in D.
Now suppose f~ : D ! V is P times dierentiable in D. For any ~u 2 D write ~u = ui~bi .
Let @i = @=@ i . Then
r~ f~ = ~bi @i f~
h i h i
r~ r~ f~ = r~ ~bi @if~ = ~bj @j ~bi @if~
= ~bj~bi @j @i f~
...
r~ pf~ = ~bi1 ~bip @i1 @ip f~:
Thus, for any ~h 2 U , if we write

~hp = ~h~h ~h
(p factors ) we have
~hphpir
~ pf~ = hi1 hip @i1 @ip f~:
Fix ~h 2 U so that ~u + ~h 2 D. Let
~g(t) = f~(~u + th^ ) (9.6.3)
where
h^ = ~h=k~hk:
By the ordinary Taylor formula in one independent variable
XP tp
~g(t) = p ! @gp (0) + jtjP R~ P (T )
p=0
where R~ P (t) ! 0 as t ! 0. But
@t~g(t) = h^ r^ f~(~u + th^ ) = h^ i@i f~(~u + th^ )

h
~ ) h^ i@i f~(~u + th^ )
i
@t2~g(t) = (h^ r
h i
= h^ j @j ^hi@i f~(~u + th^ )
= h^ j h^ i@j @i f~(~u + th^ )
= (h^ )2h2ir ~ 2f~(~u + th^ ):
~ pf~(~u + th^ ) so
Similarly @tp~g(t) = (h^ )phpir
~ pf~(~u)
@tp~g(0) = (h^ )phpir
and
~ pf~(~u):
tp@tp~g(0) = (th^ )phpir
Thus,
XP 1
~ pf~(~u) + jtjpR~ p(t):
~g(t) = (th^ )phpir
p=0 p !
9.7. DIFFERENTIAL IDENTITIES 115
Setting t = k~hk in this formula gives

XP 1
f~(~u + ~h) = p ! (~h)phpi(r ~ )pf~(~u) + k~hkpR~ p(t)
p=0
XP 1
i1 hip @ @ f~(~u) + k~hkpR
~ p(~h)
= p ! h i1 ip (9.6.4)
p=0
with R~ p(~h) ! 0 as ~h ! ~0.
9.7 Dierential identities

Denition 9.7.40 Suppose U and V are Euclidean spaces, D is an open subset of U ,
$ ~ T$ (~u) 2 U U V . We dene
and T : D ! U V is dierentiable at ~u 2 D. Then r
$
the divergence of T at ~u to be
r~ T$ (~u) =$I U h2ir~ T$ (~u): (9.7.1)
Remark 9.7.44 Suppose ~b1 ~bm is a xed basis for U and ~1 ~n is a xed basis
$
for V . Write ~u = ui~bi , @i = @u@ i , T = T ik~bi ~k . Then
r~ T$ (~u) = @i T ik ~k or, equivalently, (9.7.2)

$ k
r~ T (~u) = @iT ik : (9.7.3)
Proof:
$
In theorem 9.3.20, replace V by U V and f~ : D ! V by T : D ! U V .
For U V use the basis ~bj ~k . Then by (9.3.16) r ~ T$ (~u)@iT jk~bi~bj ~k . Then
h i
~r T$ (~u) =$I U h2ir ~ T$ (~u) =$I U h2i @iT jk~bi~bj ~n = @i T jk $I U h2i~bi~bj ~k =
@i T jk(~bi ~bj )~k = @iT jk i j ~k = @i T ik ~k .
Corollary 9.7.32 Suppose f : D ! U and ~g : D ! V . Then

r~ (f~~g) = (r~ f~)~g + f~ (r~ ~g): (9.7.4)
^
z
^y
^
x
Figure 9.3:
Proof:
Use components. Then, because of (9.7.2), (9.7.4) is equivalent to @i (f igk ) =
(@if i)gk + f i(@i gk ). In this form it is obvious.
Denition 9.7.41 Suppose (U A) is an oriented three-dimensional Euclidean space and
$
V is another Euclidean space. Suppose D is an open subset of U and T : D ! U V
$ ~ A T$ (~u), or simply
is dierentiable at ~u 2 D. Then the A-curl of T at ~u, written r
r~ T$ (~u), is dened to be
r~ T$ (~u) = Ah2ir~ T$ (~u): (9.7.5)
Note 9.7.5 There are two curls for T$: D ! U V , one for each of the two unimodular
alternating tensors over U . We will always choose the right handed A dened on page 61
so Figure 9.3 is positively oriented. The other curl is the negative of the one we use,
because the two A's dier only in sign.
Remark 9.7.45 Suppose (~b1 ~bm) is a basis for U and (~1 ~n) is a basis for V
$
and T = Tkl~bk ~ l . Then
h i
r~ T$= Aijk @j Tkl ~bi~ l (9.7.6)
or equivalently, i
~r T$ l = Aijk @j Tkl: (9.7.7)
9.7. DIFFERENTIAL IDENTITIES 117
Proof:
~ T$)jkl = @j Tkl and (Ah2ir
(r ~ T$)i l = Aijk (r
~ T$)jkl.
Corollary 9.7.33 If f~ : D ! V is twice continuously dierentiable on D (i.e. r~ r~ f~ :

D ! U U V exists and is continuous at every ~u 2 D) then
r~ r~ f~ =$0 : (9.7.8)
Proof:
~ r
(r ~ f~)i l = Aijk @j (r
~ f~)kl = Aijk @j @k fl . Because of the continuity assump-
tion, @j @k = @k @j so Aijk @j @k fl = Aijk @k @j fl = Aikj @j @k fl = ;Aijk @j @k fl = 0:
Corollary 9.7.34 If T$: D ! U V is twice continuously dierentiable on D then

r~ (r~ T$) = 0: (9.7.9)
Proof:

r~ r~ T$ l = @i(r~ T$)i l = @i Aijk @j Tkl = Aijk @i @j Tkl.
Again this = 0 because @i@j = @j @i and Aijk = ;Aikj .
Corollary 9.7.35 If T$: D ! U V is twice continuously dierentiable then r~ (r~ T$)

=r ~ T$) ; r
~ (r ~ T$). (N.B. r
~ (r ~ T$) is often written r2 T$ :)
~ (r
Proof:
Let (~b1 ~b2 ~b3 ) be orthonormal and positively oriented, so (9.7.7) reads
~ T$)il = "ijk @j Tkl. Then
(r

r~ (r~ T$) il = "ijk @j (r~ T$)kl
= "ijk @j "kmn@m Tnl ]
= "ijk "kmn@j @m Tnl = (im jn ; injm) @j @m Tnl
= @j @i Tjl ; @j @j Til = @i(@j Tjl ) ; @j (@j Til )
~ T$)l ; @j (r
= @i (r ~ T$)jil
$ ~ ~ $
~ ~
= r(r T ) ; r (r T ) :
il il

Thus, r ~ T$) = r
~ (r ~ T$) ; r
~ (r ~ T$) :
~ (r QED.
il il
Chapter 10
Integral Calculus of Tensors
10.1 Denition of the Integral

10.1.1 Mass distributions or measures
Let D be any subset of Euclidean space U . A function m which assigns real numbers
to certain subsets of D is called a mass distribution, or measure, on D if it has these
properties: (if S is a subset of D to which m does assign a mass, that mass is written
m(S ), and S is called \measurable-m")
i) If S is measurable-m, then m(S ) 0,
ii) D and the empty set are measurable-m.
iii) If S1 S2 is any nite or innite sequence of sets which are measurable-m , then
S1 \ S2 , S1= S2 and S1 S2 are measurable-m and m(S1 S2 ) = P m(S )
if no Si and Sj have common points (i.e., if S1 S2 are mutually disjoint.)
The general theory of mass distributions is discussed in Halmos, \Measure Theory," Van
Nostrand, 1950. An example of a \mass distribution" is (dim U )- dimensional volume.
Some subsets of D are so irregular that a volume cannot be dened for them. All bounded
open sets D do have volumes. As with volume, any mass distribution can be extended
119
120 CHAPTER 10. INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF TENSORS
to permit innite masses. The reader will be presumed to be familiar with the following
mass distributions (but not perhaps with the general theory).
Example 10.1.25 D is an open subset of U . (~u) is the density of mass per unit of
(dim U )-dimensional volume at ~u, and the mass in any measurable set S is m(S ) =
R dV (~u)(~u) where dV (~u) is the innitesimal element of (dim U )-dimensional volume in
S
U.
Example 10.1.26 D is a (dim U ) ; 1 dimensional \surface" in U . (~u) is the density of

mass per unit of (dim U ) ; 1 dimensional \area" at ~u, dA(~u) is the innitesimal element
of such area at ~u, and the mass in any measurable set S is m(S ) = S dA(~u)(~u).
R
Example 10.1.27 D is a curve in U , and (~u) is the density of mass per unit of length
at ~u, while dl(~u) is the innitesimal element of such length at ~u. Then the mass in any
R
measurable subset S of D is m(S ) = S dl(~u) (~u).
Example 10.1.28 D is a nite set of points, ~u1 ~uN , and these points have masses
m1 mN . The mass of any subset S of D is the sum of the masses M for which
~u 2 S .
10.1.2 Integrals
Let F : D ! R be a real-valued function on D. The reader is presumed to know how to
calculate the integral of f on D with respect to a mass distribution m. We will denote
R
this integral by D dm(~u)f (~u). In the foregoing examples, this integral is as follows:
Example 10.1.25
Z Z
dm(~u)f (~u) = dV (~u)(~u)f (~u):
D D
Example 10.1.26
Z Z
dm(~u)f (~u) = dA(~u)(~u)f (~u):
D S
10.1. DEFINITION OF THE INTEGRAL 121
Example 10.1.27
Z Z
dm(~u)f (~u) = dl(~u) (~u)f (~u):
D C
Example 10.1.28
Z X
N
dm(~u)f (~u) = mv f (~uv ):
D v=1
It is possible to invent functions f : D ! R so discontinuous that D dm(~u)f (~u)

R
R
cannot be dened in examples 10.1.25 , 10.1.26, 10.1.27. (Clearly D dm(~u)f (~u) is always
dened in example 10.1.28.) If the integral can be dened, f is said to be integrable with
respect to the mass distribution m, or integrable-dm. We will not need the general theory
of mass distributions. All we need are the following properties of integrals:
Remark 10.1.46 Suppose D1 DN are subsets of U , with mass distributions m1 mN .
On D = D1 DN , dene a mass distribution m by m(S ) = PNv=1 mv (S \Dv ). Suppose
f : D ! R and for each v, f jDv is integrable-dmv . Then f is integrable-dm and
Z N Z
X
dm(~u)f (~u) = dmv (~u)(f jDv )(~u): (10.1.1)
D v=1 Dv
Remark 10.1.47 Suppose m is a mass distribution on D and for each v 2 f1 N g,
cv 2 R and fv : D ! R is measurable-m. Then cv fv : D ! R is integrable-dm and
Z Z
dm(~u)(cv fv )(~u) = cv dm(~u)fv (~u): (10.1.2)
D D
Remark 10.1.48 Suppose m is a mass distribution on D, and c 2 R, and S is an m-
measurable subset of D. Suppose f : D ! R is dened by f (~u) = c if ~u 2 S , f (~u) = 0 if
~u 62 S . Then f is integrable-dm and
Z
dm(~u)f (~u) = cm(S ): (10.1.3)
D
Remark 10.1.49 Suppose m is a mass distribution on D and f : D ! R and g : D ! R
are both integrable-dm and f (~u) g(~u) for every ~u 2 U . Then
Z Z
dm(~u)f (~u)) dm(~u)g(~u): (10.1.4)
D D
Remark 10.1.50 Suppose m is a mass distribution on D and f : D ! R is integrable-

dm. Then so is jf j : D ! R, and (by 10.1.4)
Z Z
dm(~u)f (~u) dm(~u) jf (~u)j : (10.1.5)
D D
Amended version of remark 10.1.50:
Remark 10.1.51 Suppose f : D ! R is measurable-m. Then so is jf j, and f is
integrable-dm i jf j is integrable-dm. If f is integrable-dm then
Z Z
dm(~u)f (~u) dm(~u) jf (~u)j :
D D
Remark 10.1.52 Suppose f : D ! R and g : D ! R are measurable-m, and g is
integrable-dm, and jf j g. Then f is integrable-dm.
Our goal is simply to extend the idea of integrating a function f with respect to
a mass distribution so that we can integrate vector-valued and tensor-valued function.
Since V1 Vq is a Euclidean vector space when V1 Vq are, it su#ces to consider
vector-valued functions.
Denition 10.1.42 Let U and V be Euclidean vector spaces. Let D be a subset of U ,
and let m be a mass distribution on D. Let f~ : D ! V . We say that f~ is integrable-dm
if for every xed ~v 2 V the function (~v f~) : D ! R is integrable-dm. (Obviously we
dene ~v f~ by requiring (~v f~)(~u) = ~v f~(~u) for all ~u 2 D.) We dene Imf~ : V ! R by
requiring for each ~v 2 V Z
Imf~(~v) = dm(~u)(~v f~)(~u): (10.1.6)
D
Corollary 10.1.36 If f~ : D ! V is integrable-dm, then Imf~ 2 L(V ! R).
Proof:
Suppose ~v1 ~vN 2 V and c1 cN 2 R. Then cv~vv 2 V , so (cv~vv ) f~ is
integrable-dm. Moreover, (cv~vv ) f~ = cv (~vv f~), so by remark (10.1.47)
Z h i
Imf~(cv~vv ) = dm(~u) (cv~vv ) f~ (~u)
ZD h i
= dm(~u) cv (~vv f~) (~u)
DZ
= cv dm(~u)(~vv f~ )(~u) = cv Imf~(~vv ):
D
10.2. INTEGRALS IN TERMS OF COMPONENTS 123
Corollary 10.1.37 If f~ : D ! V is integrable-dm, there is a unique vector V~ (m f~ ) 2 V

such that for all ~v 2 V , Imf~(~v) = ~v V~ (m f~ ).
Proof:
Immediate from theorem 10 and corollary 10.1.36.
Denition 10.1.43 If f~ : D ! V is integrable-dm, we denote the vector V~ (m f~ ) by

R dm(~u)f~(~u) and call it the integral of f~ with respect to m. From this denition and
D
(10.1.6), it follows that for every ~v 2 V
Z Z
dm(~u)f~(~u) ~v = dm(~u)(~v f~)(~u) (10.1.7)
D D
R
and that the vector dm(~u)f~(~u) is uniquely determined by the demand that (10.1.7)
D
hold for all ~v 2 V .
Note 10.1.6 If V = V1 Vq , then the dot product on V is the generalized dot

product hqi. Then T : D ! V1 Vq is integrable-dm if for every Q 2 V1 Vq ,
R
the function QhqiT : D ! R is integrable-dm. If it is, then D dm(~u)T (~u) is the unique
tensor in V1 Vq such that for every Q 2 V1 Vq
Z Z
dm(~u)T (~u) hqiQ = dm(~u)(QhqiT )(~u): (10.1.8)
D D
Here (QhqiT )(~u) := QhqiT (~u)]. If Q = ~v1~v2 ~vq then (QhqiT )(~u) = T (~u)]hqiQ =
T (~u)](~v1 ~vq ) so (10.1.8) implies the special case
Z Z
dm(~u)T (~u) (~v1 ~vq ) = dm(~u)f T (~u)] (~v1 ~vq )g (10.1.9)
D D
for any (~v1 ~vq ) 2 V1 Vq .
10.2 Integrals in terms of components

Remark 10.2.53 Suppose U and V are Euclidean spaces, D
U , and m is a mass
distribution on D. Suppose f~ : D ! V is integrable-dm. Suppose (~1 ~n) is a basis
for V , with dual basis (~ 1 ~ n). Dene f i := ~ i f~. Then f i : D ! R is integrable-dm
and Z i Z i
dm(~u)f~(~u) = dm(~u)f~ (~u): (10.2.1)
D D
Proof:
This is a special case of denitions (10.1.42, 10.1.43) with ~v = ~ i in (10.1.43).
Lemma 10.2.25 Suppose V1 Vq are Euclidean spaces and, for p 2 f1 qg, (~1(p) ~n(pp))
is a basis for Vp, with dual basis (~(1p) ~(npp)). Then the polyad bases f~i(1) ~i(qq)g and
1
f~(1)
i ~ iq g are dual to one another.
1
(q)
Proof:
~ (1) ~ (q) ~ j1 ~ jq
i1 iq hqi (1) (q) = i1 j1 iq jq .
Corollary 10.2.38 Suppose U , V1 Vq are Euclidean vector spaces, D, m is a mass

distribution on D, and T : D ! V1 Vq is integrable-dm. For p 2 f1 qg,
suppose (~1(p) ~n(pp)) is a basis for Vp, with dual basis (~(1p) ~(npp)). Suppose T i iq =
1
i ~ iq )hq iT . Then T i iq : D ! R is integrable-dm and

(~(1)1 1
(q )
Z Z i1 iq
dm(~u)T i1 iq (~u) = dm(~u)T (~u) : (10.2.2)
D D
Proof:
Immediate from lemma 10.2.25 and remark 10.2.53 by setting, in remark
10.2.53 , f~1 ~ng = f~i(1)
1
~i(1)q g and f~ 1 ~ ng = f~(1)
i1 ~ iq g.
(q)
Theorem 10.2.22 Suppose U and V are Euclidean vector spaces, D is a subset of U m

is a mass distribution on D, and f~ : D ! V . Suppose (~1 ~n) is a basis for V and
f i = ~ i f~. Suppose that for each i 2 f1 ng, f i : D ! R is integrable-dm. Then f~
is integrable-dm.
10.2. INTEGRALS IN TERMS OF COMPONENTS 125
Proof:
Let ~v 2 V , and vi = ~i ~v. Then ~v f~ = vif i. Each f i is integrable-dm, so vif i
is integrable-dm by remark 10.1.47. Thus, ~v f~ is integrable-dm. Since this is
true for any ~v 2 V , denition 10.1.42 is satised, and f~ is integrable-dm.
Corollary 10.2.39 Suppose U , V1 Vq are Euclidean spaces, D
U , m is a mass
distribution on D, and T : D ! V1 Vq . Suppose (~1(p) ~nq p ) is a basis for
Vp with dual basis ((1p) ~(npp) ). Suppose T i iq := ((1)
1 1i ~ iq )hq iT and that each
(q)
T i
1 iq : D ! R is integrable-dm. Then T is integrable-dm.
Proof:
Immediate from theorem 10.2.22 and lemma 10.2.25.
Now it becomes obvious that remarks 10.1.46, 10.1.47, 10.1.48 are true if f~ : D ! V
instead of f : D ! R, and if in remark 10.1.48, ~c 2 V . We simply apply those remarks to
the component functions of f~ relative to a basis for V . Remark 10.1.49 has no analogue
for vector-valued functions, because f~ < ~g is not dened for vectors. However, (10.1.5)
does have a vector analogue. Suppose f~ : D ! V , and suppose f~ and also kf~k : D ! R
are integrable-dm. Then
Z Z
k D dm(~u)f~(~u)k D dm(~u)kf~(~u)k: (10.2.3)
Proof:
For any xed ~v 2 V , ~v f~ is integrable-dm and so is k~vk kf~k. Also, j~v f~j
k~vk kf~k. Therefore, using (10.1.4),
Z Z Z
~v dm(~u)f~(~u) = dm(~u)(~v f~)(~u) dm(~u)k~vkkf~(~u)k
D DZ D
= k~vk dm(~u)kf~(~u)k:
D
R
If we set ~v = D dm(~u)f~(~u) in this inequality, we obtain
Z
k~vk2 k~vk D dm(~u) f~(~u) :
Cancelling one factor k~vk gives (10.2.3).
We also have from remark 10.2.53, and theorem 10.2.22,
Remark 10.2.54 Suppose U , V , W , X , Y are Euclidean spaces, D

U , and m is a
mass distribution on D. Suppose P 2 V V W , Q 2 X Y , and T : D ! W X is
integrable-dm. Then so are P T : D ! V X and T Q : D ! W Y . Moreover
Z Z
dm(~u)(P T )(~u) = P dm(~u)T (~u) (10.2.4)
D D
Z Z
dm(~u)(T Q)(~u) = dm(~u)T (~u) Q: (10.2.5)
D D
Proof:
We consider P T . The proof for T Q is similar. Choose bases for V , W , X , Y
and take components with respect to these bases. Then (P T )(~u) = P T (~u)]
so
(P T )ik (~u) = (P T )(~u)]ik = P T (~u)]ik = P i j T jk (~u):
By hypothesis, T is integrable-dm. Hence so is T jk. Hence so is P i j T jk .
Hence so is (P T )ik . Hence so is P T . And
Z ik Z
dm(~u)(P T )(~u) = dm(~u)(P T ik )(~u)
DZ DZ
= dm(~u)PjiT jk (~u) = P i j dm(~u)T jk (~u)
D
Z jk D Z ik
= P i j dm(~u)T (~u) = P dm(~u)T (~u) :
D D
Corollary 10.2.40 In remark 10.2.54, take W = W1 Wp and X = X1 Xq .

Then Z Z
dm(~u)(P hpiT )(~u) = P hpi dm(~u)T (~u) (10.2.6)
D D
Z Z
dm(~u)(T hqiQ)(~u) = dm(~u)T (~u) hqiQ: (10.2.7)
D D
Chapter 11
Integral Identities
11.1 Linear mapping of integrals

Remark 11.1.55 Suppose U , V , W are Euclidean spaces, D
U , m is a mass distri-
bution on D, L 2 L(V ! W ), and f~ : D ! V is integrable-dm. Then L f~ : D ! W is
integrable-dm and
Z Z
~ ~
dm(~u)(+L f )(~u) = L dm(~u)f (~u) : (11.1.1)
D D
R
In other words, L can be applied to D dm(~u)f~(~u) by applying it to the integrand.
Proof:
$
Let L2 V W be the tensor corresponding to L. Then (L f~)(~u) = Lf~(~u)] =
$ $ $
f~(~u) L= (f~ L)(~u) so L f~ = f~ L, and remark 10.2.54 says this is integrable
and that
Z Z $
dm(~u)(L f~)(~u) = dm(~u)(f~ L)(~u)
D ZD $
= dm(~u)f~(~u) L
Z
D
= L dm(~u)f~(~u) :
D
QED.
127
128 CHAPTER 11. INTEGRAL IDENTITIES
. u1
D
C
. u2
. v
u τ( u )
Figure 11.1:
Corollary 11.1.41 Suppose U , V , W , D, L and m as in remark 11.1.55. Suppose

T : D ! q V is integrable-dm. Then (q L) T : D ! q W is integral-dm and
Z Z
dm(~u) (q L) T ] (~u) = (q L) dm(~u)T (~u) : (11.1.2)
D D
Proof:
A special case of remark 11.1.55, with V , W , L replaced by q V , q W and

q L.
11.2 Line integral of a gradient

Theorem 11.2.23 Suppose U and V are Euclidean spaces, D is an open subset of U ,
and f~ : D ! V is continuously dierentiable at each ~u 2 D. Suppose C is a smooth
curve in D whose two endpoints are ~u1 and ~u2. Suppose dl(~u) is the innitesimal element
11.2. LINE INTEGRAL OF A GRADIENT 129
of arc length on C , and ^(~u) is the unit vector tangent to C at ~u and pointing along C in
the direction from ~u1 to ~u2. Then
Z
~ f~)(~u) = f~(~u2) ; f~(~u1):
dl(~u)(^ r (11.2.1)
C
Proof:
We assume that the reader knows this theorem when V = R, and f~ is a real-
valued function. Let (~1 ~n) be a basis for V , with dual basis (~ 1 ~ n),
and dene f i := ~ i f~. Since f~ is dierentiable at each ~u, so is f i. Thus r ~ f i(~u)
exists. Moreover, r ~ ~i =$0 , so by equation (9.4.9), r ~ (f~ ~i)(~u) =
~ f i(~u) = r
r~ f~(~u) ~i . Both r~ f~ and ~i are continuous, and then so is r~ f~ ~i. Thus
f i : D ! R is continously dierentiable. By the known scalar version of
(11.2.1),
Z
~ f i(~u) = f i(~u2) ; f i(~u1):
dl(~u)^ r
C
If we multiply this equation by ~i and sum over i we obtain
Z
f~(~u2) ; f~(~u1) = ~ f i(~u) ~i
dl(~u)^ r
ZC h i
= dl(~u) (^ r ~ f i)~i (~u) by 10.2.7 with q = 0
ZC
= dl(~u)(^ r ~ f~)(~u) because
Ch i
~ f i)~i = ^ (r
(^ r ~ f i )~i = ^ r ~ (f i~i) = ^ r
~ f~:
QED.
Corollary 11.2.42 Suppose D is open and arcwise connected (any two points in D can
be joined by a smooth curve lying wholly in D). Suppose f~ : D ! V is continuously
~ f~(~u) =$0 for all ~u 2 D. Then f~ is a constant function.
dierentiable and r
Proof:
For any ~u1 ~u2 2 D, f~(~u1) = f~(~u2) by theorem 11.2.23.

11.3 Gauss's theorem

Theorem 11.3.24 Suppose U and V are Euclidean spaces, D is an open subset of U , @D
is the boundary of D, and n^ (~u) is the unit outward normal at ~u 2 @D. Let D) = D @D =
$ $
closure of D. Suppose f : D) ! U V is continuous and f jD is continuously dierentiable
at each ~u 2 D. Let dV (~u) and dA(~u) be the innitesimal volume element in D and the
innitesimal surface area element on @D respectively ( dV (~u) has dimension dim U , and
dA(~u) has dimension one less). Then
Z $ Z $
dA(~u)(^n f )(~u) = dV (~u)(@~ f )(~u): (11.3.1)
@D D
Proof:
We assume that the reader knows the corresponding theorem for vector-valued
functions, f~ : D) ! U . Let (~1 ~n) be a basis for V , with dual basis
i i $ $
(~ 1 ~ n). Dene f~ : D) ! U by f~ := f ~ i, so f~i(~u) = f (~u)~ i. Note that
i i
f~ (~u) is not a component but a vector in U . By corollary 9.1.28, f~ : D) ! U
i
is continuous, and by section 9.4, f~ is dierentiable. By corollary 9.1.28,
i i i
@~f~ is continuous. Thus, f~ : D) ! U is continuous and f~ jD is continuously
i
dierentiable. Therefore, f~ obeys Gauss's theorem:
Z i Z
dA(~u)(^n f~ )(~u) = ~ f~ i)(~u):
dV (~u)(r
@D D
If we multiply on the right by ~i and sum over i, (10.2.7) with q = 0 gives
Z i Z
dA(~u) (^n f~ )~i (~u) = dV (~u) (r ~ f~ i)~i (~u): (11.3.2)
@D D
i $ $ $ $ $ i i
But f~ ~i = f (~ i~i) = f (~ i~i ) = ( f I V ) = f so (^nf~ )~i = n^ (f~ ~i) = n^ f~,
and by section 9.4
i
(r~ f~ i)~i = $I U h2ir ~ f~ i ~i =$I U h2i (r ~ f~ ~i )
$ h ~ ~i ~ i $ ~ $ ~ $
= I U h2i r (f i) = I U h2ir f = r f :
Substituting these expressions in (11.3.2) gives 11.3.1.
11.4. STOKES'S THEOREM 131
Figure 11.2:
11.4 Stokes's theorem

Theorem 11.4.25 Suppose (U A) is an oriented Euclidean 3-space, and A is used to
dene cross products and curls. Suppose D is an open subset of U , and S is a smooth
two-sided surface in D, with boundary curve @S . Suppose n^ : S ! U is one of the two
continuous functions such that n^(~u) is a unit vector in U perpendicular to S at ~u 2 S . If
~u 2 @S , let ^(~u) be the unit vector tangent to @S at ~u and pointing so that n^(~u) ^(~u)
$
points into S . Suppose that f : D ! U V is continuously dierentiable everywhere in
D. Suppose that dA(~u) is the element of area on S and dl(~u) is the element of arc length
on @S . Then
Z $ Z $
~
dl(~u)(^ f )(~u) = dA(~u) n^ (r f ) (~u): (11.4.1)
@S S
Proof:
Again, we assume the reader knows this theorem when V = R, i.e. for
vector elds f~ : D ! U . Let (~1 ~n) be a basis for V , with dual basis
i
(~ 1 ~ n), and dene f~i = f~ ~ i. Then we can use Stoke's theorem for f~ ,
$ i
i.e., replace f by f~ in (11.4.1). If we multiply both sides of the result on the
right by ~i, sum over i, and use (10.2.7) with q = 0, we get

Z i Z
dl(~u) (^ f~ )~i (~u) = dA(~u) n^ (r ~ f~ i) ~i (~u):
@S S
i $ i i $
As in the proof of Gauss's theorem, f~ ~i = f , so (^ f~ )~i = ^ (f~ ~i) = ^ f .
~ f~i)]~i = n^ (r
And ^n (r ~ f~ i)~i]. Finally

r~ f~ i ~i = Ah2ir~ f~ i ~i
i
= Ah2i (r ~ f~ )~i
i $
= Ah2i r ~ (f~ ~i ) = Ah2i r~ f
= r ~ $ f:
This nishes the proof.
11.5 Vanishing integral theorem

Lemma 11.5.26 Suppose D is an open subset of Euclidean space U , f : D ! R is
R
continuous, and D0 dV (~u)f (~u) = 0 for every open subset D0 of D. Here dV (~u) is the
volume element in U . Then f (~u) = 0 for all ~u 2 D.
Proof:
Suppose ~u0 2 D and f (~u0) 6= 0. If f satises the hypotheses so does ;f , so
if f (~u)0) < 0 we may replace f by ;f . Therefore, we may assume f (~u0) > 0.
Then there is a > 0 such that if j~u ; ~u0 j < then ~u 2 D and jf (~u) ; f (~u0 )j <
f (~u0)=2. But then ;f (~u0)=2 < f (~u) ; f (~u0) < f (~u0)=2, so f (~u) > f (~u0)=2 if
~u 2 B (~u0 ), the open ball of radius centered at ~u0. Then
Z Z
dV (~u)f (~u) > dV (~u) f (2~u0) = jB (u~0 )j f (2~u0)
B(~u0 ) B(~u0 )
where jB (~u0 )j = volume of B (~u0 ). But jB (~u0 )jf (~u0)=2 > 0, and
R
B (~u0 ) is an open subset of D, so we must have B(~u0 ) dV (~u)f (~u) = 0.
This contradiction shows f (~u0) = 0.
11.6. TIME DERIVATIVE OF AN INTEGRAL OVER A MOVING VOLUME 133
x
x
x Wδ t
x
x
{
V
u n
I II x III
x
x
x
∂K(t)
∂K(t+ δ t)
Figure 11.3:
Theorem 11.5.26 Suppose U and V are Euclidean spaces, D is an open subset of U ,

and f~ : D ! V is continuous. Suppose that for every open subset D0 of D, we have
R dV (~u)f~(~u) = ~0 . Then f~(~u) = ~0 for all ~u 2 D.
D0 V V
Proof:
Let (~1 ~n) be a basis for V , with dual basis (~ 1 ~ n). Let f i =
~ i f~. Then f i : D ! R is continuous, and for every open subset D0 of D,
R dV (~u)f i(~u) = 0. Hence, f i = 0 by lemma 11.5.26. Hence f~ = f i~ = ~0 .
D0 i V
11.6 Time derivative of an integral over a moving

volume
Suppose that for each instant t we are given an open set K (t) in Euclidean vector space
U , with boundary surface @K (t) and outward unit normal n^. Suppose that K (t) changes
with time su#ciently smoothly that its surface @K (t) has a well dened speed normal to
itself. At ~u 2 @K (t), this speed is W (~u t), and it is > 0 if @K (t) is moving outward from
K (t), < 0 if inward.
In gure 11.3, W > 0 on the part of @K (t) marked with x's and W < 0 on the part
of @K (t) marked with o's.
Suppose that all the sets K (t) are subsets (K (t) = K (t) @K (t) = closure of K (t)) of
an open set D, and f~ : D R ! V , where V is another Euclidean space. Thus for each
~u 2 D and t 2 R, f~(~u t) is a vector in V . We suppose this vector depends continuously
on ~u and is continuously dierentiable in t (i.e. f~( t) is continuous for each t 2 R, and
f~(~u ) is continuously dierentiable for each ~u 2 D ). Then
d Z dV (~u)f~(~u t) = Z dV (~u)@ f~(~u t)
t
dt K (t) KZ(t)
+ dA(~u)(W f~)(~u t): (11.6.1)
@K (t)
Here @t f~(~u t) stands for @ f~(~u )](t), or @ f~(~u t)=@t.

Proof:
Let @K (t)+ stand for the part of @K (t) marked with x's in gure 11.3, while
@K (t); stands for the part marked with o's. Let II be the set K (t) \ K (t + t),
while I is K (t)nK (t + t), and III is K (t + t)nK (t). See gure 11.3. Let
Z
F~ (t) = dV (~u)f~(~u t):
K (t)
Then Z Z
F~ (t) = dV (~u)f~(~u t) + dV (~u)f~(~u t):
Z I II
Z
~F (t + t) = dV (~u)f~(~u t + t) + dV (~u)f~(~u t + t):
II III
11.7. CHANGE OF VARIABLES OF INTEGRATION 135
Correct to rst order in t,

f~(~u t + t) = f~(~u t) + (t) @t f~(~u t) in D
dV (~u) = (t)W (~u t)dA(~u) in III where W > 0
dV (~u) = ;(t)W (~u t)dA(~u) in I where W < 0:
Thus, correct to rst order in t,
Z Z
dV (~u)f~(~u t) = ;(t) dA(~u)W f~(~u t)
Z I Z @K (t);
~
dV (~u)f (~u t) = (t) dA(~u)W f~(~u t):
III @K (t)+
Therefore,
Z Z Z
dV (~u)f~(~u t) ; dV (~u)f~(~u t) = (t) dA(~u)W f~(~u t): (11.6.2)
III I @K (t)
Also,
Z h i Z
dV (~u) f~(~u t + t) ; f~(~u t) = (t) dV (~u)@t f~(~u t)
II Z Z II
= (t) dV (~u)@t f~(~u t) ; (t) dV (~u)@t f~(~u t):
K (t) I
R R
But I dV (~u)@t f~ = ;(t) @K (t); dA(~u)W@tf , correct to rst order in t. There-
fore, correct to rst order in t,
Z h~ i Z
~
dV (~u) f (~u t + t) ; f (~u t) = (t) dV (~u)@t f~(~u t): (11.6.3)
II K (t)
Combining (11.6.2, 11.6.3), we have, correct to rst order in t,
"Z Z #
F~ (t + t) ; F~ (t) = t dA(~u)W f~(~u t) + dV (~u)@t f~(~u t) :
@K (t) K (t)
Dividing by t and letting t ! 0 gives (11.6.1).
11.7 Change of variables of integration

Suppose (U AU ) and (V AV ) are two oriented n-dimensional Euclidean spaces. Suppose
L 2 L(U ! V ). For any ~u1 ~un 2 U , dene A(~u1 ~un) = AV L(~u1) L(~un)].
Clearly A 2 nU , so there is a scalar kL such that A = kLAU . We denote this scalar by
det L and call it the determinant of L. Then
AV L(~u1 ) L(~un)] = (det L)AU (~u1 ~un) (11.7.1)
for all (~u1 ~un) 2 X nU . Note that det L changes sign if we replace either AU or AV by
its negative. Thus det L depends not only on L but on how U and V are oriented. For a
given L, det L can have two values, one the negative of the other, and which value it has
depends on which of the two unimodular alternating tensors AU and AV are used to
orient U and V .
$
If (^x1 x^n) is a pooob in U and (^y1 y^n) is a pooob in V and Lij = xî L y^j ,
then1 L(^xi ) = Lij y^j and so
det L = (det L)AU (^x1 x^n) = AV L(^x1 ) L(^xn )]
= AV Lij1 y^j1 Lnjn y^jn ] = L1j1 Lnjn AV (^yj1 y^jn ):
Therefore det L = L1j1 Lnjn "i1 in = det(Lij ): (11.7.2)
Now suppose H and K are open subsets of U and V respectively and ~r : H ! K is
a continuously dierentiable bijection of H onto K . For ~x 2 H write ~x = xi xî and dene
rj = y^j ~r . At any ~x 2 H we have @irj = (r ~ ~r )ij = xî r
~ ~r ] y^j so the determinent of
~ ~r (~x), as we see from (11.7.2).
the matrix @i rj (^x) is det r
Finally, suppose f : K ! R is integrable with respect to volume in V . Then f r :
H ! R is integrable with respect to volume in U and
Z Z
@ r
f (rj y^j )dr1 drn = f ~r (xk x^k )] det @x dx1 dxn:
j
(11.7.3)
K H i
The reader is presumed to know this formula for changing variables in a multiple integral.
The determinant det(@rj =@xi ) is the Jacobian of the coordinate transformation. We note
that @rj =@xi = @i rj , so by (11.7.2), at ~x 2 H

!
@r ~
@xi = det r ~r (~x):
j
det (11.7.4)
$ $
1 Proof: Lij y^j = xi L y^j y^j = xî L
11.7. CHANGE OF VARIABLES OF INTEGRATION 137
The local volume elements in U and V are dVU (~x) = dx1 dxn and dVV (~r) = dr1 drn,
so (11.7.3) can be written
Z Z
dVV (~r)f (~r) = dVU (~x) det r
~ ~r (~x) (f~ ~r )(~x): (11.7.5)
K H
Now suppose W is another Euclidean space, with basis (~1 ~p) and dual basis
(~ 1 ~ p). Suppose f~ : K ! W is integrable. Then so is fi = ~i f~, and (11.7.5) holds
for each fi. If we multiply the resulting equations by ~ i and sum over i we obtain
Z Z
dVV (~r)f~(~r) = dVU (~x) det r
~ ~r (~x) (f~ ~r )(~x): (11.7.6)
K H
Part II
Elementary Continuum Mechanics
139
Chapter 12
Eulerian and Lagrangian Descriptions
of a Continuum
12.1 Discrete systems
For some purposes, some physical systems (for example, the solar system) can be regarded
as consisting of a nite number N of mass points. A complete description of the motion
of such a system consists simply of N vector-valued functions of time the value of the
'th function at time t is the position of the 'th particle at time t. If the values of the
positions ~r1(t) ~rN (t) of all particles are known for all times, nothing more can be said
about the system.
To predict the motion of such a \discrete" system, one must usually add other prop-
erties to the model. In the case of the solar system, one ascribes to each particle a mass,
m being the mass of the 'th particle. Then, if all the velocities and positions are known
at some time t0, all the functions ~r (t) can be calculated from Newton's laws of motion
and gravitation.
If the system of particles is a classical (pre-quantum) atom, one needs not only their
masses but their charges in order to calculate their motion.
And, of course, for some purposes the discrete model of the solar system is too crude.
It cannot model or predict the angular acceleration of the earth's moon due to the tidal
141
142 CHAPTER 12. EULERIAN AND LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTIONS OF A CONTINUUM
bulges on the earth. A point mass has no tidal bulges. Nevertheless, the discrete model
of the solar system is very useful. No one would suggest abandoning it because the solar
system has properties not described by such a model.
12.2 Continua
A parcel of air, water or rock consists of such a large number of particles that a discrete
model for it would be hopelessly complicated. A dierent sort of model has been developed
over the last three centuries to describe such physical systems. This model, called a
\continuum", exploits the fact that in air, water and rock nearby particles behave similarly.
The continuum model for a lump of material regards it as consisting of innitely many
points, in fact too many to count by labeling them even with all the integers. (There are
too many real numbers between 0 and 1 to label them as x1 x2 . Any innite sequence
of real numbers between 0 and 1 will omit most of the numbers in that interval. This
theorem was proved by Georg Cantor in about 1880.) Nearby points are given nearby
labels. One way to label the points in the continuum is to give the Cartesian coordinates of
their positions at some particular instant t0 , relative to some Cartesian coordinate system.
Then each particle is a point to which is attached a number triple (x1 x2 x3 ) giving the
Cartesian coordinates of that particle at the \labelling time" t0 . This number triple is a
label which moves with the particle and remains attached to it. Nearby particles have
nearly equal labels, and particles with nearly equal labels are close to one another. The
collection of all particles required to describe the motion will usually ll up an open set
in ordinary real 3-space.
Of course there are many ways to label the particles in a continuum. The label attached
to a particle could be the number triple (r ) giving the values of its radius, colatitude
and longitude in a system of polar spherical coordinates at the labelling time t0.
Another label would be simply the position vector ~x at time t0 of the particle relative
to some xed origin and axes which are unaccelerated and non-rotating (so that Newton's
laws can be used). In fact, labelling by number triples can also be thought of as labelling
12.2. CONTINUA 143
by vectors, since a number triple is a vector in the Euclidean vector space R3 . (Rn is the
set of real n-tuples, with addition and multiplication by scalars dened coordinate-wise
and with the dot product of (u1 un) and (v1 vn) dened to be uivi.)
In order to leave ourselves freedom to choose dierent ways of labelling, we will not
specify one particular scheme. We will simply assume that there is a three-dimensional
oriented real Euclidean space, (L AL ), from which the labels are chosen. The labels
describing a continuum will be the vectors ~x in a certain open and subset H of label
space L. We will denote real physical space by P , and we will orient it in the usual way,
denoting the \right handed" unimodular alternating tensor by AP , or simply A. We use
this notation:
~r L(~x t) := position at time t of the particle labelled ~x: (12.2.1)
The label ~x is in the open subset H of label space L, and the particle position ~r L(~x t)
is in P . One special case which is easy to visualize is to take L = P , and to choose
some xed time t0, and to label the particles by their positions at t0 . With this labelling
scheme, called \t0 -position labelling," we have
r L(~x t0) = ~x for t0 -position labelling: (12.2.2)
The motion of a continuum is completely described by giving the position of every
particle at every instant, i.e. by giving ~r L(~x t) for all ~x 2 H and all t 2 R. This amounts
to knowing the function
r L : H R ! P: (12.2.3)
This function is called the Lagrangian description of the motion of the continuum.
We denote by K (t) the set in position space P occupied by the particles of the con-
tinuum at time t. We assume that particles neither ssion nor coalesce each particle
retains its identity for all time. Therefore we need never give two particles the same label
~x, and we do not do so. But then if ~r 2 K (t) there is exactly one particle at position ~r at
time t. We denote its label by ~x E (~r t). Thus
x E (~r t) := label of particle which is at position ~r at time t: (12.2.4)
From the denitions, it is clear that if ~r 2 K (t) and ~x 2 H then
~r = ~r L(~x t) , ~x = ~x E (~r t): (12.2.5)
But (12.2.5) says that ~r L( t) : H ! K (t) is a bijection, whose inverse is ~x E ( t) :
K (t) ! H . If we know the function ~x E ( t), we can nd the function ~r L( t). For
any ~x 2 H , ~r L (~x t) is the unique solution ~r of the equation ~x = ~x E (~r t). Therefore,
knowing the label function ~x E is equivalent to knowing ~r L. Either function is a complete
description of the motion of the continuum, and either can be found from the other. For
any xed t,
~r L( t);1 = ~x E ( t): (12.2.6)
In order to enforce that nearby particles have nearby labels we will assume not only
that ~r L and ~x E are continuous, but that they are continuously dierentiable as many
times as needed to make our arguments work. (Usually, twice continuously dierentiable
will su#ce.) Since (12.2.6) implies ~r L( t) ~x E ( t) = IP jK (t), the identity function
on P , restricted to K (t), and also ~x E ( t) ~r L( t) = ILjH , the identity function on
L, restricted to H , therefore the chain rule implies that if ~r = ~r L(~x t) or, equivalently,
~x = ~x E (~r t), then 8
>
> ~
r ~r ~
L (~x t) r x
~ E (~r t) = $
>
< IL
> (12.2.7)
>
> $
: r~ ~x E (~r t) r
~ ~r L(~x t) = I P :
12.3 Physical quantities

If the motion of a continuum is to be predicted from physical laws, more properties of
the continuum must be considered than simply the positions of its particles at various
times. Most of the useful properties are local, i.e. they have a value at each particle at
each instant. Examples are temperature, mass density, charge density, electric current
density, entropy density, magnetic polarization, the electrical conductivity tensor and, in
a uid, the pressure.
12.3. PHYSICAL QUANTITIES 145
A local physical property f can be described in two ways: at any instant t, we can
say what is the value of f at the particle labelled ~x, or we can say what is the value of f at
the particle whose position is ~r at time t. The two values are the same, but they are given
by dierent functions, which we denote by f L and f E . We call these the Lagrangian and
the Eulerian descriptions of f . They are dened thus:
f L(~x t) = value of physical quantity f at time t at the particle labelled ~x (12.3.1)
f E (~r t) = value of physical quantity

f at time t at the particle whose position is ~r at time t: (12.3.2)
The physical quantity f can be a scalar, vector or tensor. From the denitions, obviously
8
>
< if ~r = ~r (~x t) or ~x = ~x (~r t) then
> L E
>
> (12.3.3)
>
>
: f L(~x t) = f E (~r t):
This is equivalent to asserting
8 h i
>
> f L(~x t) = f E ~r L (~x t) t and
>
<
> (12.3.4)
>
> h i
: f E (~r t) = f L ~x E (~r t) t :
These two assertions are equivalent in turn to
8
>
< f ( t) = f ( t) ~r ( t)
> L E L
>
> (12.3.5)
>
> f E ( t) = f L( t) ~x E ( t):
:
If we have the Lagrangian description of the motion, the function ~r E , then we can nd
the labelling function ~x E . Then using (12.3.4) or (12.3.5), we can nd both f E and f L
if we know either one of them.
So far, our discussion of \physical quantities" has been somewhat intuitive. We have
found some mathematical rules which are satised by certain entities that we feel com-
fortable to call physical quantities. In the spirit of mathematical model building, it is
useful to give a precise denition to what will qualify as a \physical quantity". Because
of what we have learned above, we introduce
Denition 12.3.44 Given a continuum whose motion is described by ~r L : H R ! P ,

and whose labelling function is ~x E , with ~x E ( t) : K (t) ! H , a physical quantity f is
an ordered pair of functions (f L f E ) with these properties:
i) The domain of f L is H R
ii) The domain of f E is a subset of P R, and the domain of f E ( t) is K (t)
iii) If ~r L(~x t) = ~r , or ~x E (~r t) = ~x, then f L(~x t) = f E (~r t) .
The function f L is the Lagrangian description of the physical quantity f , and f E is the
Eulerian description of f . Property iii) is equivalent to
8 h i
>
> f L (~x t) = f E ~r L (~x t) t or to
>
<
> (12.3.6)
> f E (~r t) = f L h ~x E (~r t) ti for all t 2 R:
>
:
These in turn are equivalent to
8
>
< f ( t) = f ( t) r ( t) or to
>
>
L E L
> (12.3.7)
>
> f E ( t) = f L( t) ~x ( t) for all t 2 R:
:
Temperature, mass density, and the other items enumerated beginning on page 144
are physical quantities in the sense of denition 12.3.44. The advantage of having such
a formal denition is that it enables us to introduce new physical quantities to suit our
convenience. We can dene a new physical quantity f by giving either its Eulerian
description f E or its Lagrangian description f L. The missing description can be obtained
from (12.3.6) or (12.3.7), assuming that we have ~r L, the Lagrangian description of the
motion of the continuum. A somewhat trivial example is the f such that f L(~x t) = 7 for
all ~x t. Clearly f E (~r t) = 7, and we can regard 7 (or any other constant) as a physical
quantity.
12.4. DERIVATIVES OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES 147
A more interesting example is a physical quantity which we call \particle position",

and denote by ~r . It is dened by requiring that its Eulerian description be
~r E (~r t) = ~r for all t 2 R and ~r 2 K (r): (12.3.8)
From (12.3.6), its Lagrangian description is the ~r L of (12.2.1), the Lagrangian de-
scription of the motion.
Another interesting example is a physical quantity we call \particle label", and denote
by ~x . It is dened by requiring that its Lagrangian description be
~x L(~x t) = ~x for all (~x t) 2 H R: (12.3.9)
From (12.3.6), its Eulerian description is ~x E the label function. The fact that the physical
quantity ~x is conserved at each particle turns out to be very useful in some variational
formulations of the equations of motion of a uid, although at rst glance the fact seems
rather trivial.
12.4 Derivatives of physical quantities

It will be useful to introduce the following notation for the derivatives of a physical
quantity f = (f L f E ).
Dt f L(~x t) = lim f L(~x t + ) ; f L(~x t)
!0
= time derivative of f L(~x t) at the particle label ~x: (12.4.1)
~ L(~x t) = r
h i
~ f L( t) (~x) = gradient tensor of the function f L( t)
Df
at the particle label ~x: (12.4.2)
@t f E (~r t) = lim f E (~r t + ) ; f E (~r t)

!0
= time derivative of f E (~r t) at spatial position ~r: (12.4.3)
h i
@~f E (~r t) = r
~ f E ( t) (~r) = gradient tensor of the function f E ( t)
at the position ~r in P: (12.4.4)
From these denitions, (12.3.7), and the chain rule, it is clear that if ~r = ~r L(~x t) (or
~x = ~x E (~r t)) then
Df ~ r L(~x t) @~f E (~r t)
~ L(~x t) = D~ (12.4.5)
@~f E (~r t) = @~ ~x E (~r t) Df
~ L(~x t): (12.4.6)
It is also useful to relate Dtf L and @t f E . We will calculate the former from the latter.
We assume that ~r and ~x are chosen so
~r = ~r L(~x t):
Then we dene ~h( ) for any real by

~h( ) = ~r L(~x t + ) ; ~r L(~x t):
We have 8
> ~ ~
< h( ) = Dt ~r (~x t) + R1 ( ) where
> L
>
> (12.4.7)
>
>
: R~ 1 ( ) ! 0 as ! 0:
We also have
h i h i
f L(~x t + ) = f E ~r L(~x t + ) t + = f E ~r + ~h( ) t +
h i h i
= f E ~r + ~h( ) t + @t f E ~r + ~h( ) t + R2 ( )
where R2( ) ! 0 as ! 0. Dene

h i
R3 ( ) = R2 ( ) + @t f E ~r + ~h( ) t ; @t f E (~r t) :
Since ~h( ) ! ~0 as ! 0 therefore

8
>
> R3 ( ) ! 0 as ! 0 and
>
<
> (12.4.8)
>
> h i
: f L(~x t + ) = f E ~r + ~h( ) t + @t f E (~r t) + R3 ( ):
Also
8
> ~ ~ ~ E ~ ~
< f (~r + h t) = f (~r t) + h @ f (~r t) + khkR4(h)
>
>
E E
> (12.4.9)
>
>
: where R4 (~h) ! 0 as ~h ! ~0:
Substituting (12.4.7) in (12.4.9) gives
f E (~r + ~h t) = f E (~r t) + Dt ~r L(~x t) @~f E (~r t)

+R5 ( ) (12.4.10)
where
R5 ( ) = R~ 1 ( ) @~f E (~r t)
h i
+ Dt ~r L (~x t) + R~ 1 ( ) R4 ~h( ) :
Thus R5 ( ) ! 0 as ! 0. Moreover, f E (~r t) = f L(~x t), so substituting (12.4.10) in

(12.4.8) gives
h i
f L(~x t + ) = f L(~x t) + @t f E (~r t) + Dt ~r L(~x t) @~f E (~r t)
+ R3 ( ) + R5( )] (12.4.11)
where R3( ) + R5( ) ! 0 as ! 0. From 12.4.11 it follows immediately that

8
> ~ E
< Dt f (~x t) = @t f (~r t) + Dt ~r (~x t) @ f (~r t)
> L E L
>
> (12.4.12)
>
>
: where ~r = ~r L(~x t) ( or ~x = ~x E (~r t)):
The formal mathematical relationship between labels and positions is symmetrical.
That is, we can interpret ~r as label and ~x as position. Therefore, we can infer immediately
from (12.3.8) that
~ L(~x t)
@t f E (~r t) = Dt f L(~x t) + @t ~x E (~r t) Df
where r = ~r L(~x t) (or ~x = ~x E (~r t)): (12.4.13)
Alternatively, (12.4.13) can be computed in the same way as was (12.4.12). Note the
consequence of (12.4.12, 12.4.13) that for any physical quantity f ,
Dt ~r L(~x t) @~f E (~r t) + @t ~x E (~r t) Df

~ L(~x t) = 0: (12.4.14)
The notation has become somewhat cumbersome, and can be greatly simplied by
introducing some new physical quantities.
Denition 12.4.45 Let ~r be the physical quantity \particle position" (see bottom of
~ , @~f ,
page 146) and let f be any physical quantity. The physical quantities ~v, ~a , Df
Dt f , @t f are dened as follows:
~vL(~x t) = Dt ~r L (~x t) (12.4.15)

~aL (~x t) = Dt~vL(~x t) (12.4.16)
~ )L(~x t)
(Df ~ L(~x t)
= Df (12.4.17)
(@~f )E (~r t) = @~f E (~r t) (12.4.18)
(Dt f )L(~x t) = Dtf L(~x t) (12.4.19)
(@t f )E (~r t) = @t f E (~r t): (12.4.20)
The names of these physical quantities are as follows:
~v = particle velocity
~a = particle acceleration
~ = label gradient of f
Df
@~f = spatial gradient of f
Dtf = substantial time derivative of f = material time derivative of f = time derivative

moving with the material.
@t f = partial time derivative of f .

With these denitions, the relations among the derivatives of a physical quantity become
~v = Dt ~r (12.4.21)
~a = Dt~v (12.4.22)
~
Df ~ r @~f
= D~ (12.4.23)
Dt f = @t f + ~v @~f (12.4.24)
@~f = @~ ~x Df
~ (12.4.25)
@t f ~
= Dt f + @t ~x Df (12.4.26)
The function ~vE is called the Eulerian description of the motion of the continuum.1
If the Lagrangian description is known, the Eulerian description can be obtained from
(12.4.21). The converse is true, in the following sense.
Remark 12.4.56 Suppose the Eulerian description ~vE of a continuum is given. Suppose
that at one instant t0 , the function ~r L( t0) is known that is, for each ~x, the position
at time t0 of the particle labelled ~x is known. Then the Lagrangian description of the
motion can be calculated. That is, the position ~r L(~x t) of the particle labelled ~x can be
calculated for every time t.
Proof:
By denition of ~v, we have for ~r = ~r L(~x t) the relation Dt ~r L(~x t) = ~vE (~r t)
or
h i
Dt ~r L(~x t) = ~vE ~r L(~x t) t : (12.4.27)
But (12.4.27) is an ordinary dierential equation in t if ~x is xed. Therefore,
for any xed particle label ~x, we can solve (12.4.27) for ~r L(~x t) if we know
~r L(~x t0 ) for one t0 . QED
Corollary 12.4.43 If ~vE is known, then the Lagrangian description of the motion can
be calculated without further information if the particles are \t0 -position labelled", i.e. if
their labels are their positions at some tme t0 .
1 If @t~vE = ~0, the motion is called \steady".
Proof:
With t0-position labelling ~r L (~x t0) = ~x, so ~r L(~x t0) is known for all particle
labels ~x.
12.5 Rigid body motion

For this discussion we need a lemma about linearity:
Lemma 12.5.27 Suppose V and W are real vector spaces and f : V ! W . Suppose f
has the following properties, for any nonzero ~x ~y ~z 2 V :
i) f (~0) = ~0
ii) f (;~x) = ;f (~x)
iii) f (a~x) = af (~x) for any positive real a (i.e., a 2 R a > 0).
iv) If ~x + ~y + ~z = ~0 then f (~x) + f (~y) + f (~z) = ~0.

In that case, f is linear.
Proof:
a) For any c 2 R and ~v 2 V , f (c~v) = cf (~v)

a1) If c~v = ~0, either c = 0 or ~v = ~0, so f (c~v) = ~0 = cf (~v).
a2) If c~v 6= ~0 and c > 0, use iii) above.
a3) If c~v =6 ~0 and c < 0, then f ((;c)~v) = (;c)f (~v) by iii) above. But
f ((;c)~v) = f (;c~v) = ;f (c~v) by ii) above.
Hence ;f (c~v) = ;cf (~v).
b) For any ~u~v 2 V , f (~u + ~v) = f (~u) + f (~v).
b1) If ~u or ~v is ~0, one of f (~u) and f (~v) is ~0 by i) above. E.g., if ~u = ~0,
f (~u + ~v) = f (~v) = f (~u) + f (~v).
12.5. RIGID BODY MOTION 153
b2) If ~u and ~v are nonzero but ~u + ~v = ~0, then ~v = ;~u so f (~u + ~v) =
f (~0) = ~0 = f (~u) ; f (~u) = f (~u) + f (;~u) = f (~u) + f (~v).
b3) If ~u, ~v and ~u +~v are nonzero, let w~ = ~u +~v. Then ~u +~v +(;w~ ) = ~0 so
by iv), f (~u)+ f (~v)+ f (;w~ ) = ~0. By ii) this is f (~u)+ f (~v) ; f (w~ ) = ~0,
or f (w~ ) = f (~u) + f (~v).
QED
The motion of a continuum is called \rigid body motion" if the distance separating
every pair of particles in the continuum is independent of time. We want to study rigid
body motions.
Step 1: Choose one particular particle in the continuum, and call it the pivot particle.
Step 2: Choose t0 2 R. Choose a reference frame for real physical space P so that its
origin is at the position of the pivot particle at time t0 .
Step 3: Introduce t0 -position labelling to give the Lagrangian description of the motion,
~r L. Let H denote the open subset of L = P consisting of the particle labels. The
pivot particle is labelled ~0, so ~0 2 H , and
~r L(~x t0 ) = ~x for all ~x 2 H:
Step 4: For each t 2 R, dene a mapping ~rt : H ! P by

~rt (~x) = ~r L(~x t) ; ~r L(~0 t)
and dene R~ : R ! P as R~ (t) = ~r L (~0 t). Thus
~r L(~x t) = R~ (t) + ~rt (~x) (12.5.1)
for all ~x 2 H and t 2 R. Moreover, for any t 2 R and any particle labels ~x, ~y 2 H ,
~r L(~x t) ; ~r L(~y t) = ~rt (~x) ; ~rt(~y), so, by the denition of a rigid body,
k~rt (~x) ; ~rt(~y)k = k~x ; ~yk for all t 2 R and ~x ~y 2 H: (12.5.2)
Also, from the denition of R~ (t) and (12.5.1),
~rt (~0) = ~0 for all t 2 R: (12.5.3)
The main result implied by the above is contained in

Theorem 12.5.27 Suppose f : H ! P where H is an open subset of real Euclidean
vector space P . Suppose f (~0) = ~0 and for any ~x ~y 2 H , kf (~x) ; f (~y)k = k~x ; ~yk. Then
there is a unique L 2 $(P ) (i.e., L is linear and orthogonal) such that for all ~x 2 H
$
f (~x) = ~x L= L(~x): (12.5.4)
Proof:
Lemma 1: kf (~x)k = k~xk for any ~x 2 H .
Proof: kf (~x)k = kf (~x) ; ~0k = kf (~x) ; f (~0)k = k~x ; ~0k = k~xk .
Lemma 2: f (~x) f (~y) = ~x ~y for all ~x ~y 2 H .
Proof: kf (~x) ; f (~y)k2 = k~x ; ~yk2 so
kf (~x)k2 ; 2f (~x) f (~y) + kf (~y)k2 = k~xk2 ; 2~x ~y + k~yk2 :

But by lemma 1, kf (~x)k2 = k~xk2 and kf (~y)k2 = k~yk2 .
Lemma 3: Suppose a1 aN 2 R, ~x1 ~xN 2 H , and ai~xi 2 H . Then
f (ai~xi) = ai f (~xi).
Proof: kf (ai~xi);ai f (~xi)k2 = kf (ai~xi)k2;2aj f (~xj )f (ai~xi) +kaif (~xi)k2 =
kai~xi k2 ; 2aj f (~xj ) f (ai~xi)] +aiaj f (~xi) f (~xj ). By lemma 2, this
is kai~xi k2 ; 2aj xj (ai~xi )] + aiaj (~xi ~xj ) = kai~xi k2 ; aiaj ~xi ~xj = 0.
Lemma 4: Choose > 0 so small that if k~xk < then ~x 2 H . Dene
L : P ! P as follows:
i) L(~0) = ~0
ii) L(~x) = (k~xk=)f (~x=k~xk) if ~x 6= ~0.
Then L(~x) = f (~x) for all ~x 2 H , and L satises conditions i)-iv) of

lemma 12.5.27.
Proof: First, if ~x 2 H then in lemma 3 take N = 1, a0 = =k~xk, ~x1 = ~x.
Lemma 3 then implies f (~x=k~xk) = =k~xkf (~x), and from ii) above,
obviously L(~x) = f (~x). Now for i)-iv) of lemma 12.5.27.
i) is obvious
ii) L(;~x) = (k; ~xk=) f (;~x=k; ~xk) = (k~xk=)f (;~x=k~xk): In lemma
3 above, take N = 1, a0 = ;1, ~x1 = ~x=k~xk. Then f (;~x=k~xk) =
;f (~x=k~xk): Thus L(;~x) = ;L(~x).
iii) L(a~x) = (ka~xk=)f (a~x=ka~xk) = a(k~xk=)f (a~x=ak~xk)
= a(k~xk=)f (~x=k~xk) = aL(~x) if a > 0 and ~x = 6 ~0.
iv) Suppose ~x + ~y + ~z = ~0 and ~x ~y ~z nonzero. Choose so small
( 2 R > 0) that ~x + ~y + ~z 2 H . Then ~x + ~y + ~z = ~0, so,
using lemma 3 , ~0 = f (~0) = f (~x + ~y + ~z) = f (~x)+ f (~y)+ f (~z).
Since ~x 2 H , f (~x) = L(~x), and similarly for ~y ~z. Thus ~0 =
L(~x) + L(~y) + L(~z). By iii) above, L(~x) = L(~x), etc., so
~0 = L(~x) + L(~y) + L(~z)]. Thus L(~x) + L(~y) + L(~z) = ~0.
It follows from lemma 4 above and lemma 12.5.27 that L : P ! P is
linear. For any ~x 6= ~0 in P , choose so small ( 2 R, > 0) that
~x 2 H . Then (kL(~x)k ; k~xk) = kL(~x)k ; k~xk = kL(~x)k ; k~xk =
kf (~x)k ; k~xk = k~xk ; k~xk = 0.
Thus kL(~x)k = k~xk for all ~x 2 P . Therefore L 2 $(P ). QED
$
By theorem (12.5.27), for each t 2 R there is an orthogonal tensor L (t) 2 P P such
that in equation (12.5.1) we can write
$
~r L(~x t) = R~ (t) + ~x L (t) for all ~x 2 H: (12.5.5)
Then clearly
~ r L(~x t) =$L (t)
D~ for all ~x 2 H: (12.5.6)
We are assuming that D~ ~ r L(~x t) is continuous in ~x and t, so $L (t) is a continuous function

$
of t. At the labelling time we have R~ (t0 ) = ~r L(~0 t0) = ~0 and so ~x L (t0) = ~r L (~x t0) = ~x.
Thus
$ $
L (t0 ) = I P R~ (t0) = ~0 (12.5.7)
$
and det L (t0) = +1. But det L(t) depends continuously on t since L(t) does, and det L(t)
is always +1 or ;1 since L(t) is orthogonal. Therefore
det L(t) = +1 L(t) 2 $+(P ) for all t 2 R: (12.5.8)

Every rigid motion can be written as in (12.5.5) with (12.5.7) and (12.5.8).
Now let us nd the Eulerian description of the motion whose Lagrangian description
is (12.5.5). We have
$
~vL(~x t) = Dt ~r L (~x t) = t R~ (t) + ~x t L (t): (12.5.9)
$
Note: Since R~ and L are functions of t alone, we write their time derivatives as t R~ and
$
t L, so as not to confuse them with @t or Dt.]
To obtain the Eulerian description from (12.5.9) we must express ~x in terms of ~r,
where as usual
~r = ~r L(~x t) or
$
~r = R~ (t) + ~x L (t): (12.5.10)
$ $T $;1
Since L2 $+(P ), L =L . Therefore the solution of (12.5.10) is
h i $T
~x = ~r ; R~ (t) L : (12.5.11)
$
Note: It follows that x E (~r t) = ~r ; R~ (t)] L (t)T .] Substituting this (12.5.9) and using
~vL(~x t) = ~vE (~r t) gives
h i $ $
~vE (~r t) = t R~ (t) + ~r ; R~ (t) L (t)T t L (t):
We introduce these abbreviations:
V~ (t) = t R~ (t) (12.5.12)

$ $ $
, (t) =L (t)T t L (t): (12.5.13)
Then the Eulerian description of the motion is
h i $
~vE (~r t) = V~ (t) + ~r ; R~ (t) , (t): (12.5.14)
Remark 12.5.57 t $L (t)]T = t LT (t).
Proof:
$ $ $ $
For any ~x 2 P , ~x L (t) =LT (t) ~x, so ~x t L (t)] = t LT (t)] ~x. But
$ $ $ $
~x t L] = (t L)T ~x, so t L (t)]T ~x = t LT (t)] ~x for all ~x 2 P .
Hence, we have the remark
Remark 12.5.58 $, (t) = ; $, (t)T . I.e., $, (t) is antisymmetric.
Proof:
$ $ $ $ $ $ $
Since L (t) is orthogonal, LT (t) L (t) = I P for all t. Hence, (t LT ) L + LT
$ $
(t $L) = t $I P =$0 for all t. But $, = $L t $L and ,T = (t $L)T (LT )T =
T
$ $ $ $ $
(t LT ) (L). Thus ,T + ,= 0 . QED
Now dene
$ 1 $
, (t) = 2 Ah2i , (t) (12.5.15)
where A is the unimodular alternating tensor we have chosen to orient real physical space
P . By exercise 6,
$
, (t) = A ,~ (t): (12.5.16)
We claim that for any vector ~x 2 P we have
$
~x , (t) = ,~ (t) ~x: (12.5.17)
Proof:
Take components relative to a pooob. Then
$
~x , = ~x A ,~ j = xi "ijk,k
j
= "kij ,k xi = Ah2i,~ ~x j = ,~ ~x j :
Thus (12.5.14) can be written

h i ~
~vE (~r t) = V~ (t) + ,~ (t) ~r ; R~ (t) V = tR~ : (12.5.18)
The vector ,~ (t) is called the angular velocity of the motion relative to the pivot particle.
Obviously V~ (t) is the velocity of the pivot particle, and R~ (t) is its position.
An obvious question not answered by the foregoing discussion is this: if we are given
two arbitrary dierentiable functions R~ : R ! P , ,~ : R ! P , and dene V~ = t R~ , then
(12.5.18) gives the Eulerian description of a continuum motion. Is this always a rigid
body motion, or do rigid body motions produce particular kinds of functions R~ : R ! P
and ,~ : R ! P ?
In fact, any choice of R~ and ,~ will make (12.5.18) the Eulerian description of a
$ $
rigid body motion. To see this, use the given , (t) as in (12.5.16). , (t) is, of course,
$
antisymmetric. Now dene L (t) as follows:
$ $ $
t L=L , : (12.5.19)
$ $ $
(This is obtained from 12.5.13 as if LT =L;1, but we don't assume that.) We obtain L (t)
by solving (12.5.19) with the initial condition
$ $
L (t0 ) = I P : (12.5.20)
Remark 12.5.59 $L (t) obtained from (12.5.19,12.5.20) is proper orthogonal.
Proof:
$ $T $ $T $ $T
t L L = t L L + L t L
$ $ $T $ $ $T
= L,L +L L,
$ $ $T $ $T $T
= L,L +L, L
$ $ $T $T $ $ $T $
= L , + , L = L O L =O :
$ $ $
Thus, L (t) L (t)T is independent of t. At t = t0, it is I P , so it is always
$ $ $
I P . This proves L (t) 2 $(P ). And det L (t) is continuous in t and always
1 and +1 at t0, so it is always +1. Thus $L (t) 2 $+(P ) for all t. QED
12.6. RELATING CONTINUUM MODELS TO REAL MATERIALS 159
Now we can write (12.5.18) in the form (12.5.14). As we have seen in deriving (12.5.18),
the motion whose Lagrangian description is (12.5.5) then has Eulerian description (12.5.14)
or, equivalently (12.5.18). But as long as L(t) 2 $+(P ) for all t, (12.5.5) is a rigid-body
$
motion. Indeed, for any ~x and ~y 2 P , k ~r L(~x t) ; ~r L(~y t)k = k(~x ; ~y) L (t)k = k~x ; ~yk
if L(t) 2 $(P ).
12.6 Relating continuum models to real materials

In a rock there is some jumping of atoms out of lattice positions, i.e., \self-diusion",
but crystal structures stay mostly intact. In water and air, however, individual molecules
move at random. After t seconds, two water molecules which were initially neighbors
are separated, on average, by about (10;5t)1=2 cm and two air molecules at sea level
are separated by (0:2t)1=2 cm. What is the physical meaning of a \particle" in water or
air? We cannot mean a molecule, because then ~r L(~x t) would quickly become a very
discontinuous function of ~x.
In reality, continuum models are \two scale" approximations. To see what we mean, let
us examine how to make a continuum model of a gas in which the individual molecules
are moderately well modelled as randomly colliding very small hard spheres, with all
their mass at the center. Let B (~r ) be the open ball of radius with center at ~r. Let
Mt B (~r )] be the sum of the masses of all the molecules whose centers are in B (~r ) at
time t. Let jB (~r )j = 43=3 = volume of B (~r ). The average density in B (~r ) at
time t is
hi(~r t) = jB (~r1 )j Mt B (~r )] : (12.6.1)
To use a continuum model, we must be able to choose so large that the jumps in
hi(~r t) as a function of ~r and t, which occur when individual molecules enter or leave
B (~r ) as ~r and t vary, are very small fractions of hi(~r t). But at the same time,
must be so small that (12.6.1) does not sample very dierent physical conditions inside
B (~r ). That is, must be so small that k~rk can be many times and yet hi(~r + ~r t)
Figure 12.1:
will dier from hi(~r t) by only a very small fraction. Therefore, the average physical
conditions must not change appreciably over a length .
For example, if we want to use a continuum approximation to study sound waves
of wavelength in air, we must use << in (12.6.1), and yet we must have >>
average distance between nearest neighbors. Actually, to do all of continuum mechanics
accurately (including momentum and heat) we must have >> mean free path of air
molecules. We cannot nd such a to use in (12.6.1) unless >> mean free path of air
molecules. This mfp varies from 10;5 cm at sea level to 10 cm at 100 km altitude, and
determines the shortest sound wave treatable by continuum mechanics.
In the spirit of (9.2.3), we would dene the average momentum in B (~r ) at time t as
hp~i(~r t) = jB (~r1 )j P~t B (~r )] (12.6.2)
where P~t B (~r )] is the sum of the momenta m~v for all the molecules in B (~r ) at time
t. Then we dene the average velocity at ~r t to be
~
h~vi (~r t) = hhp~ii((~~rr tt)) = MPt BB((~r~r)])] : (12.6.3)
t
If is the shortest length scale in our gas over which occur appreciable fractional changes
in average physical properties, and if >> mean free path, we can choose any in
mfp << << , and model our gas as a continuum whose Eulerian velocity function is
~vE (~r t) = h~vi(~r t): (12.6.4)
12.6. RELATING CONTINUUM MODELS TO REAL MATERIALS 161
The Lagrangian description of this continuum is obtained by choosing a labelling scheme

and then integrating (12.4.27) with ~vE given by (12.6.4). Usually t0-position labelling is
convenient.
Evidently in a gas, the \particles" of the continuum model are ctitious. In a solid,
they can be thought of as individual molecules, at least for times short enough that self
diusion is unimportant. An example of the breakdown of the continuum model is a
shock wave in air. They are considerably less thick than one mean free path. In fact,
continuum models work better inside shocks than is at present understood.
Chapter 13
Conservation Laws in a Continuum
In this whole chapter we will use the following notation. (L AL) is oriented label space and
(P AP ) is oriented real physical space. H is the open subset of L consisting of the labels ~x
of all the particles making up the continuum and H 0 is any open subset of H with piecewise
smooth boundary @H 0 (i.e. @H 0 consists of a nite number of smooth pieces). The open
set in P occupied by the particles at time t will be written K (t), and the open subset of
K (t) consisting of the particles with labels in H 0 will be written K 0(t). As t varies, K (t)
and K 0 (t) will change position in P , but will always contain the same particles. The sets
K (t) and K 0 (t) are said to move with the material. The outward normal velocity W (~r t)
of @K 0 (t) at ~r 2 @K 0 (t), to be used in (11.6.1), is W (~r t) = n^P (~r t) ~vE (~r t), where ~v is
the particle velocity and n^ P (~r t) is the unit outward normal to @K 0 (t) at ~r 2 @K 0 (t).
We will use dVL(~x) to denote a very small open subset of H 0 containing the particle
label ~x. We will denote the positive numerical volume in L of this small set by the same
symbol, dVL(~x). We use dVP (~r) to denote a very small open subset of K 0(t) containing the
particle position ~r we also use dVP (~r) for the positive numerical volume of this small set
in P . We will always assume when using this notation for the sets that ~r = ~r L(~x t) and
dVP (~r) = ~r L( t)]dVL(~x)], so dVP (~r) consists of the positions at time t of the particles
whose labels are in dVL(~x). It follows that, for the numerical volumes,

dVP (~r) = det D~
~ r L(~x t) dVL(~x): (13.0.1)
163
164 CHAPTER 13. CONSERVATION LAWS IN A CONTINUUM
We assume that the reader knows this Jacobian formula from calculus. (We will acci-
dentally prove it later.) Note that L means Lagrangian description and L means label
space.
13.1 Mass conservation

13.1.1 Lagrangian form
The mass of the collection of particles with labels in dVL(~x) is
dm = E (~r t)dVP (~r) (13.1.1)
where E (~r t) is the mass per unit of volume in physical space. This is our mathematical
model of how mass is distributed in a continuum.
Because of (13.0.1), we can also write
dm = ~L(~x t)dVL(~x) (13.1.2)

~ r L (~x t)]. But E (~r t) = L (~x t) since we are assuming
if we set ~L(~x t) = E (~r t)j det D~
~r = ~r L(~x t). Therefore ~L (~x t) = L(~x t)j det D~~ r L(~x t)j = (j det D~~ r j)L(~x t), so
~ r j:
~ = j det D~ (13.1.3)
The physical quantity ~ is the mass per unit of volume in label space.
The material with labels in H 0 always consists of the same particles, so it cannot
change its mass. Therefore, dm in (13.1.2) must be independent of time. Since dVL(~x) is
dened in a way independent of time, it follows that ~L(~x t) must be independent of t.
Therefore, for all ~x 2 H and all t, t0 2 R,
~L (~x t) = ~L (~x t0 ): (13.1.4)
An equivalent equation is Dt ~L(~x t) = 0, or (Dt )L(~x t) = 0, so
Dt ~ = 0: (13.1.5)
13.1. MASS CONSERVATION 165
Either equation (13.1.4) or (13.1.5) expresses the content of a physical law, the law of
conservation of mass. The mathematical identity (13.1.3) makes this law useful. From
(13.1.3) and (13.1.4) we deduce

L (~x t) det D~
~ r L(~x t) = L(~x t0) det D~
~ r L (~x t0) (13.1.6)
for all ~x 2 H and all t, t0 2 R. If we use t0 -position labelling, then r~L(~x t0) = ~x,
~ r L(~x t0) = det I$p= det IP = 1. Thus, with t0-position
~ r L (~x t0) =$I P and det D~
so D~
labelling,

L(~x t) det D~
~ r L(~x t) = L (~x t0): (13.1.7)
13.1.2 Eulerian form of mass conservation

An informal physical argument like (13.1.1, 13.1.2) is possible here, but rather confusing.
The bookkeeping becomes clearer if we account for real, nite masses and volumes. The
total mass in the set K 0(t) in physical space P at time t is
Z
M E K 0 (t)] = dVP (~r)E (~r t): (13.1.8)
K 0 (t)
The physical law of mass conservation is
d M E K 0 (t)] = 0 (13.1.9)
dt
because K 0(t) always consists of the same material.
Using (11.6.1) with w = n^P ~vE (~r t) we have the mathematical identity
d M E K 0(t)] = Z dV (~r)@ E (~r t) + Z dAP (~r)^nP ~vPE (~r t)
P t
dt K 0 (t) @K 0 (t)
where n^ P is the unit outward normal to @K 0 (t). An application of Gauss's theorem to the
surface integral gives
d M E K 0(t)] = Z dV (~r) h@ + @~ (~v)iE (~r t): (13.1.10)
P t
dt K 0(t)
Comparing (13.1.9) and (13.1.10), we see that if K 0 = K 0 (t) then
Z h
dVP (~r ) @ t + ~ (~v)iE (~r t) = 0:
@ (13.1.11)
K 0
Now let K 0 be any open subset of K (t), with piecewise smooth boundary @K 0 . Let
H 0 be the set of labels belonging to particles which are in K 0 at time t. Then for this
set of particles, K 0(t) = K 0, so (13.1.11) holds. In other words, (13.1.11) holds for every
open subset K 0 of K (t), as long as @K 0 is piecewise smooth. Therefore, by the vanishing
integral theorem, @t + @~ (~v)]E (~r t) = 0 for all t 2 R and all ~r 2 K (t). Therefore
@t + @~ (~v) = 0: (13.1.12)
Equation (13.1.12) is the Eulerian form of the law of mass conservation. It is called the
\continuity equation".
Since @~ (~v) = (@~) ~v + (@~ ~v) and Dt = @t + ~v (@~), the continuity equation
can also be written
Dt + (@~ ~v) = 0: (13.1.13)
By the chain rule for ordinary dierentiation, Dt ln = Dt=, so
Dt (ln ) + @~ ~v = 0: (13.1.14)
A motion of a continuum is called incompressible if it makes L(~x t) independent

of t at each particle ~x. The density is constant at each particle, but can vary from
particle to particle. A material is incompressible if it is incapable of any motion except
incompressible motion. A motion is incompressible i Dt L(~x t) = 0 for all ~x 2 H and
t 2 R, i.e. i Dt = 0. Comparing (13.1.13), the motion is incompressible i
@~ ~v = 0: (13.1.15)
An extremely useful consequence of the continuity equation follows from

Lemma 13.1.28 Suppose U and V are Euclidean spaces, D is an open subset of U , and
f~ : D ! U and ~g : D ! V are dierentiable. Then
@~ (f~~g) = (@~ f~)~g + f~ (@~~g): (13.1.16)
13.1. MASS CONSERVATION 167
Proof:
Take components relative to orthonormal bases in U and V . Then (13.1.16)
is equivalent to @i (figj ) = (@i fi)gj + fi(@i gj ). But this is the elementary rule
for the partial derivative of a product.
Remark 13.1.60 Suppose f~ is any physical quantity taking values in a Euclidean space
V . Suppose K 0(t) is any open set moving with the material in a continuum (i.e., always
consisting of the same particles). Then
d Z dV (~r)(f~)E (~r t) = Z dV (~r)(D f~)E (~r t): (13.1.17)
dt K 0(t) P K 0 (t)
P t
Proof:
By (11.6.1), we have
d Z dV (~r) f~E (~r t) = Z dV (~r)@ (f~)E (~r t)
dt K 0(tZ) P K 0 (t)
p t
+ 0 dAP (~r)^nP (~vf~)E (~r t)

@K (t)
where n^P is the unit outward normal to @K 0 (t) and dAP is an element of area.
Applying Gauss's theorem to the surface integral gives
d Z dV (~r)(f~)E (~r t)
dt K 0(tZ) P
h iE
= 0 dVP (~r) @t (f~) + @~ ~vf~ (~r t):
K (t)
h i
The integrand is (@t )f~ + (@t f~) + @~ (~v) f~ + ~v (@~f~) because of lemma
(13.1.28). This integrand can therefore be written @t + @~ (~v)]f~ + @t f~ + ~v
(@~f~)]. From (12.4.21-12.4.26) and (13.1.12) this is 0f~ + Dt f~, which proves
(13.1.17).
An alternative proof of (13.1.17) may be physically more enlightening. We
use (13.0.1) to change the variable of integration in (13.1.17) to ~x instead of
~r. Then
Z
dVP (~r)E (~r t)f~E (~r t)
K 0 (t)
Z
= 0 dVL(~x) det D~
~ r L(~x t) L (~x t)f~L(~x t)
H
(use 13.1.3) Z
= dV (~x)~L(~x)f~L(~x t):
0 L H
Since H 0 and ~L(~x) do not vary with t, (dVL(~x)~L(~x) = dm)

d Z (t)dV (~r)(f~)E (~r t) = Z dV (~x)~L (~x)D f~L(~x t)
dt K 0 Z P H 0
L t
= 0 dVL(~x) det D~ ~ r L(~x t) L (~x t)(Dt f~)L (~x t)

Z H
= dVP (~r)E (~r t)(Dtf~)E (~r t):
K (t)
QED
13.2 Conservation of momentum

13.2.1 Eulerian form
We use the notation introduced on page 163. We denote by P~ E K 0 (t)] the total momentum
at time t of the material in subset K 0(t) of P at time t. This material consists of the
particles whose labels are in H 0 and whose positions at time t are in K 0 (t). The law of
conservation of momentum is
d P~ E K 0(t)] = F~ E K 0(t)] (13.2.1)
dt
where F~ E K 0 (t)] is the total force at time t on the material in K 0 (t). As it stands, (13.2.1)
is essentially a denition of F~ E K 0(t)], and our task is to calculate this force and then to
extract from (13.2.1) a local form of the law of conservation of momentum in the same
way that (13.1.12) was extracted from (13.1.9). To do this, we also need an expression
for P~ E K 0(t)], but this is simple. The mass in dVP (~r) is dVP (~r)E (~r t) at time t, so its
momentum is dVP (~r)E (~r t)~vE (~r t). Summing over all the volume elements dVP (~r) in
K 0(t) gives
Z
P~ E K 0 (t)] = 0 dVP (~r)(~v)E (~r t) (13.2.2)
K (t)
13.2. CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 169
If we apply to this equation both (13.1.17) and (12.4.21-12.4.26) we obtain the identity
d P~ E K 0(t)] = Z dV (~r)(~a)E (~r t) (13.2.3)
P
dt K 0(t)
where ~a = Dt~v = @t~v + ~v @~~v = particle acceleration.

Finding F~ E K 0(t)] is less simple. The expression for it is one of the major eighteenth
century advances in mechanics. If - is the gravitation potential, so that ~g = ;@~- is the
local acceleration of gravity, then the gravitational force on the matter in dVP (~r) at time
t is dVP (~r)E (~r t)~gE (~r t). If E~ and B~ are the electric and magnetic elds, and Q and J~
are the electric charge density and electric current density then the electromagnetic force
on the matter in dVP (~r) at time t is dVP (~r)(QE~ + J~ B~ )E (~r t). The total gravitational
plus electromagnetic force on the matter in dVP (~r) is
dF~B (~r) = dVP (~r)f~E (~r t) (13.2.4)
where
f~ = ~g + QE~ + J~ B:
~ (13.2.5)
The total gravitational plus electromagnetic force on the matter in K 0 (t) is
Z
F~BE K 0 (t)] = K 0 (t)
dVP (~r)f~E (~r t): (13.2.6)
This is called the \body force" on K 0(t), and f~ is the body force density per unit of
physical volume, the physical density of body force.
If we accept F~BE as a good model for F~ E , the only force acting on a cubic centimeter
of ocean or rock is ~g (assuming E~ = B~ = ~0), and yet neither is observed to fall at
981cm2=sec. Something important is still missing in our model of F~ E .
The physical origin of our di#culty is clear. The forces in (13.2.5) are calculated from
the average distribution of molecules and charge carriers, as in Figure 12.1. In addition
to these long range average forces, we expect that the molecules just outside @K 0 (t), will
exert forces on the molecules just inside @K 0 (t), and these contribute to F~ E K 0(t)]. Also,
in gases and, to some extent, in liquids, individual molecules will cross @K 0 (t), and the
entering molecules may have, on average, dierent momenta from the exiting molecules.
^
r nP ( r )
Fr
o
nt
Ba
dAP ( r )
ck
Figure 13.1:
This will result in a net contribution to the rate of change of the total momentum in
K 0(t). Therefore, it is part of dP~ K 0 (t)]=dt and hence, by (13.2.1), part of F~ E K 0 (t)].
Both the intermolecular force and the momentum transfer by molecular motion can be
modelled as follows: Fix time t and choose a xed ~r 2 K (t). Choose a very small nearby
plane surface S in K (t) such that S passes through ~r. Choose an even smaller surface
dAP (~r) which passes through ~r and lies in S . Arbitrarily designate one side of S as its
\front", and let n^P (~r) be the unit normal to S extending in front of S . Assume that S
is so small that the molecular statistics do not change appreciably across S , but that S is
considerably larger in diameter than the intermolecular distance or the mean free path.
Then the total force exerted by the molecules just in front of dAP (~r) on the molecules
just behind dAP (~r) will be proportional1 to the area of dAP (~r). We write this area as
dAP (~r). The proportionality constant is a vector, which we write S~force. It depends on ~r
and t, and it may also depend on the orientation of the surface S , i.e. on the unit normal
n^P (~r). If the material is a gas or liquid, there will also be a net transfer of momentum
from front to back across dAP (~r) because molecules cross dAP (~r) and collide just after
crossing, and the population of molecules one mean free path in front of dAP (~r) may be
1 if the linear dimension of dA is >> distance between molecules
^n
P
dAP (r )
K’
( t)
Figure 13.2:
statistically dierent from the population one mean free path behind dAP (~r). The net
rate of momentum transfer from just in front of dA(~r) to just behind dAP (~r) will produce
a time rate of change of momentum of the material just behind dAP (~r) that is, it will
exert a net force on that material. This force will also be proportional to dAP (~r), and
the proportionality constant is another vector, which we write S~mfp. This vector also
depends on ~r,t and n^P (~r). The sum S~ (~r t n^P ) = S~force(~r t n^P ) + S~mfp (~r t n^P ) is called
the stress on the surface (S n^P ). The total force exerted by the material just in front of
dAP (~r) on the material just behind dAP (~r) is
dF~S (~r) = dAP (~r)S~ (~r t n^ P ): (13.2.7)
This is called the surface force on dAP (~r). Summing (13.2.7) over all the elements of area
dAP (~r) on @K 0 (t) gives
Z
F~SE K 0(t)] = @K 0(t)
dAP (~r)S~ ~r t n^ P (~r t)] (13.2.8)
where n^P (~r t) is the unit outward normal to @K 0 (t) at ~r 2 @K 0 (t). The expression
(13.2.8) is called the surface force on K 0 (t). It is the total force exerted on the material
just inside @K 0 (t) by the material just outside @K 0 (t). The total force on K 0(t) is the sum
of the body and surface forces, F~ E K 0(t)] = F~BE K 0(t)] + F~SE K 0(t)], so
Z Z
F~ E K 0 (t)] = K 0 (t)
dVP (~r)f~E (~r t) +
@K 0(t)
dAP (~r)S~ ~r t n^ P (~r t)] : (13.2.9)
Combining the physical law (13.2.1) with the mathematical expressions (13.2.3) and
(13.2.9) gives
Z Z
dV (~r)(~a ; f~)E (~r t) =
0 P
dAP (~r)S~ ~r t n^ P (~r)] : (13.2.10)
K @K 0
where K 0 = K 0 (t) and n^P (~r) is the unit outward normal to @K 0 at ~r 2 @K 0 .

As with (13.1.11), (13.2.10) must hold for every open subset K 0 of K (t), as long as
@K 0 is piecewise smooth. This conclusion is forced on us if we accept the mathematical
models (13.2.9) for F~ E K 0(t)] and (13.2.2) for P E K 0(t)].
To convert (13.2.10) to a local equation, valid for all ~r 2 K (t) at all times t, (i.e., to
\remove the integral signs") we would like to invoke the vanishing integral theorem, as we
did in going from (13.1.11) to (13.1.12). The surface integral in (13.2.10) prevents this.
Even worse, (13.2.10) makes our model look mathematically self-contradictory, or
internally inconsistent. Suppose that K 0 shrinks to a point while preserving its shape.
Let be a typical linear dimension of K 0 . Then the left side of (13.2.10) seems to go to
zero like 3, while the right side goes to zero like 2. How can they be equal for all > 0?
Cauchy resolved the apparent contradiction in 1827. He argued that the right side
of (13.2.10) can be expanded in a power series in , and the validity of (13.2.10) for all
shows that the rst term in this power series, the 2 term, must vanish. In modern
language, Cauchy showed that this can happened i at every instant t, at every ~r 2 K (t),
$E
there is a unique tensor S (~r t) 2 P P such that for each unit vector n^ 2 P ,
$E
S~ (~r t n^) = n^ S (~r t): (13.2.11)
If equation (13.2.11) is true, we can substitute it in the surface integral in (13.2.10) and
use Gauss's theorem to write
Z $E Z
dA P (~r n
)^ P (~
r ) S (~r t) = dV P (~r ) ~ $
@ S
E
(~r t):
@K 0 K0
Then (13.2.10) becomes

Z $E
~ ~
dV (~r) ~a ; f ; @ S (~r t) = 0:
K0
Since this is true for all open subsets K 0 of K (t) with piecewise smooth boundaries @K 0 ,
the vanishing integral theorem implies that the integrand vanishes for all ~r 2 K (t) if, as
we shall assume, it is continuous. Therefore
$
~a = @~ S +f~: (13.2.12)
$E
This is the Eulerian form of the momentum equation. The tensor S (~r t) called the
$
Cauchy stress tensor at (~r t). The physical quantity S is also called the Cauchy stress
tensor.
The argument which led Cauchy from (13.2.10) to (13.2.11) is fundamental to con-
tinuum mechanics, so we examine it in detail. In (13.2.10), t appears only as a parameter,
so we will ignore it. Then (13.2.10) implies (13.2.11) because of
Theorem 13.2.28 (Cauchy's Theorem) Suppose U and V are Euclidean spaces, K

is an open subset of U , NU = set of all unit vectors n^ 2 U , f~ : K ! V is continuous,
and S~ : K NU ! V is continuous. Suppose that for any open subset K 0 of K whose
boundary @K 0 is piecewise smooth, we have
Z Z
dV (~r)f~(~r) =
0 U
dAU (~r)S~ ~r nÛ (~r)] (13.2.13)
K @K 0
where nÛ (~r) is the unit outward normal to @K 0 at ~r 2 @K 0 . Then for each ~r 2 K there
$
is a unique S (~r) 2 U V such that for all n^ 2 NU ,
$
S~ (~r n^ ) = n^ S (~r): (13.2.14)
This theorem is true for any value of dim U 2. We give the proof only for dim U = 3,
the case of interest to us. For other values of dim U , a proof can be given in exactly the
same way except that ~u1 ~u2 must be replaced by the vector in Exercise 7.]
Proof:
Figure 13.3:
Two lemmas are required.
Lemma 13.2.29 Suppose f~ and S~ satisfy the hypotheses of theorem 13.2.28. Let ~r0
be any point in K and let K 0 be any open bounded (i.e., there is a real M such that
~r 2 K 0 ) k~rk M ) subset of U , with piecewise smooth boundary @K 0 . We don't need
K 0
K . Then
Z
0
dAU (~r)S~ ~r0 n^ U (~r)] = ~0V (13.2.15)
@K
if nÛ (~r) is the unit outward normal to @K 0 at ~r 2 @K 0 and dAU (~r) is the element of area
on @K 0 .
Proof of Lemma 13.2.29: For any real in 0 < < 1, dene ~r : U ! U by

~r (~r) = ~r0 + (~r ; ~r0 ) for all ~r 2 U . Since ~r (~r) ; ~r0 = (~r ; ~r0 ), ~r shrinks U
uniformly toward ~r0 by the factor . The diagram above is for 1=2. Dene
K0 = ~r (K 0) so @K0 = ~r (@K 0 ). Choose ~r 2 @K 0 and let ~r = ~r (~r). Let dA(~r)
denote a small nearly plane patch of surface in @K 0 , with ~r 2 dA(~r), and use dA(~r)
both as the name of this set and as the numerical value of its area. Let the set
dA(~r) be dened as ~r dA(~r)], and denote its area also by dA(~r). Then by
geometric similarity
dA(~r ) = 2dA(~r): (13.2.16)
Let n^(~r) be the unit outward normal to @K 0 at ~r, and let n^ (~r) be the unit outward
normal to @K0 at ~r. By similarity, n^(~r) and n^(~r ) point in the same direction.
Being unit vectors, they are equal:
n^ (~r) = n^(~r): (13.2.17)
Since ~r0 is xed, it follows that

Z Z
~ ^ (~r)] = 2 dA(~r)S~ ~r0 n^ (~r)] :
@K 0 dA (~r )S ~r0 n @K 0
(13.2.18)
If is small enough, K0
K . Then, by hypothesis, we have (13.2.13) with K 0 and
@K 0 replaced by K0 and @K0 . Therefore
Z Z n~ o
~ ; ~ ~r0 n^ (~r)]
0 dV (~r)f (~r) =
K K0
dA (~r ) S ~
r n
^ (~r )] S
Z
+ 0 dA(~r)S~ ~r0 n^ (~r )] :
@K
From (13.2.18) it follows that
Z Z
dA(~r )S~ ~r0 n^ (~r)] = 12 dV (~r)f~(~r)
@K 0 K0
Z
+ 12 0 dA(~r )
@K
~S ~r0 n^ (~r)] ; S~ ~r n^ (~r)] : (13.2.19)
Let mS~ () = maximum value of kS~ (~r0 n^) ; S~ (~r n^)k for all ~r 2 @K0 and all n^ 2 NU .
Let mf~() = maximum value of jf~(~r)j for all ~r 2 K0 .
Let j@K0 j = area of @K0 , j@K 0 j = area of @K 0 .
Let jK0 j = volume of K0 , jK 0j = volume of K 0.
Then j@K0 j = 2j@K 0 j and jK0 j = 3jK 0 j, so (10.2.3) and (13.2.19) imply
Z
dA(~r)S~ ~r0 n^(~r)] jK 0jmf~() + j@K 0 jmS~ (): (13.2.20)
@K 0
As ! 0, mf~() remains bounded (in fact ! kf (~r0)k) and mS~ () ! 0 because

S~ : K NU ! V is continuous. Therefore, as ! 0, the right side of (13.2.20)
! 0. Inequality (13.2.20) is true for all su#ciently small > 0, and the left side is
non-negative and independent of . Therefore the left side must be 0. This proves
(13.2.15) and hence proves lemma 13.2.29.
We also need
Lemma 13.2.30 Suppose S~ : NU ! V . Suppose that for any open set K 0 with piecewise
smooth boundary @K 0 , S~ satises
Z
dA(~r)S~ ^n(~r)] = ~0V (13.2.21)
@K 0
where n^ (~r) is the unit outward normal to @K 0 as ~r 2 @K 0 . Suppose F : U ! V is dened

as follows: !
F (0U ) = 0V and if ~u 6= 0U F (~u) = k~ukS k~~uuk :
~ ~ ~ ~ (13.2.22)
Then F is linear.
Proof of Lemma 13.2.30: a) F (;~u) = ;F (~u) for all ~u 2 U . To prove this, it su#ces
to prove
S~ (;n^ ) = ;S~ (^n) for all n^ 2 NU : (13.2.23)
Let K 0 be the at rectangular box shown at upper right. For this box, (13.2.21)
gives
h i
L2 S~ (^n) + L2S~ (;n^ ) + "L S~ (^n1) + S~ (;n^1 ) + S~ (^n2 ) + S~ (;n^2 ) = ~0V :
Hold L xed and let " ! 0. Then divide by L2 and (13.2.23) is the result.
b) If c 2 R and ~u 2 U , F (c~u) = cF (~u).
i) If c = 0 or ~u = ~0U , this is obvious from F (~0U ) = ~0V .
ii) If c > 0 and ~u 6= ~0U , F (c~u) = kc~ukkS~ (c~u=kc~uk) = ck~ukS~ (c~u=ck~uk) =
ck~ukS~ (~u=k~uk) = cF (~u) .
L
^
n2
^
-n1
^
-n ^
n
^
n
1
^
-n2
Figure 13.4:
iii) If c < 0, F (c~u) = ;F (;c~u) by a) above. But ;c > 0 so F (;c~u) =

(;c)F (~u) by ii). Then F (c~u) = ;(;c)F (~u) = cF (~u).
c) F (~u1 + ~u2) = F (~u1) + F (~u2) for all ~u1, ~u2 2 U .
i) If ~u1 = ~0U , F (~u1 + ~u2) = F (~u2) = ~0V + F (~u2) = F (~u1) + F (~u2).
ii) If ~u1 6= ~0U and ~u2 = c~u1 then F (~u1 + ~u2) = F (1 + c)~u1] = (1 + c)F (~u1) =
F (~u1) + cF (~u1) = F (~u1) + F (c~u1) = F (~u1) + F (~u2).
iii) If f~u1 ~u2g is linearly independent, let ~u3 = ;~u1 ; ~u2. We want to prove
F (;~u3) = F (~u1) + F (~u2), or ;F (~u3) = F (~u1) + F (~u2), or
F (~u1) + F (~u2) + F (~u3) = ~0V : (13.2.24)
To prove (13.2.24) note that since ~u1 , ~u2 are linearly independent, we can dene the unit
vector ^ = (~u1 ~u2)=k~u1 ~u2k. We place the plane of this paper so that it contains ~u1
and ~u2, and ^ points out of the paper. The vectors ~u1, ~u2, ~u3 form the three sides of a
nondegenerate triangle in the plane of the paper. ^ ~ui is obtained by rotating ~ui 90
counterclockwise. If we rotate the triangle with sides ~u1 , ~u2, ~u3 90 counterclockwise,
we obtain a triangle with sides ^ ~u1, ^ ~u2, ^ ~u3. The length of side ^ ~ui is
k^ ~uik = k~uik, and ~ui is perpendicular to that side and points out of the triangle. Let
K 0 be the right cylinder whose base is the triangle with sides ^ ~ui and whose generators
perpendicular to the base have length L. The base and top of the cylinder have area
A = k~u1 ~u2k=2 and their unit outward normals are ~ and ;~ . The three rectangular
faces of K 0 have areas Lk~uik and unit outward normals ~u(i) =k~u(i)k. Applying (13.2.21) to
this K 0 gives
X
3
AS~ (^ ) + AS~ (;^) + Lk~uikS~ (~ui=k~uik) = ~0V :
i=1
But S~ (^ ) = ;S~ (;^) so dividing by L and using (13.2.22) gives (13.2.23).
Corollary 13.2.44 (to Lemma 13.2.30.) Under the hypotheses of lemma 13.2.30, there
$
is a unique S 2 U V such that for all n^ 2 NU
$
S~ (^n) = n^ S : (13.2.25)
u3
u1
^ν x
u3
u1
.
ν^ x
ν^
u2
^ν x
u2
L
−ν^
^ν x u 3
1
u
ν^ x
^ν
ν^ x u
2
Figure 13.5:
Proof:
Existence. Take $S =F$, the tensor in U V corresponding to the F 2 L(U !
$ $
V ) dened by 13.2.22. Then n^ S = n^ F = F (^n) = S~ (^n).
Uniqueness. If n^ $S 1= n^ $S 2 for all n^ 2 NU then(cn^ ) S$1 = (cn^) $S 2 for all
n^ 2 NU and c 2 R. But every ~ 2 U is cn^ for some c 2 R and n^ 2 NU , so
$ $ $
~u S 2 for all ~u 2 U . Hence S 1=S 2 .
Now we return to the proof of Cauchy's theorem (theorem 13.2.28). If ~r0 is
any xed point in K1 then by lemma 13.2.29, the function S~ (~r0 ) : NU ! V
satises the hypothesis of lemma 13.2.30. Therefore by corollary 13.2.44 there
$
is a unique S (~r0 ) 2 U V such that for any unit vector n^ 2 U , S~ (~r0 )](^n) =
$
n^ S (~r0). But S~ (~r0 )](^n) = S~ (~r0 n^ ) so we have (13.2.14).
Having completed the proof of Cauchy's theorem, we have proved that if
$E
(13.2.10) holds for all K 0 then Cauchy's stress tensor S (~r t) exists and
satises (13.2.11). And as we have seen, (13.2.11) leads automatically to the
Eulerian momentum equation (13.2.12). It is important to have a clear phys-
$E
ical picture of what the existence of a Cauchy stress tensor S (~r t) means.
If dAP is any small nearly plane surface in the material in physical space P
at time t, and if ~r 2 dAP , choose one side of dAP to be its front, and let n^P
be the unit normal extending in front of dAP . Then the force dF~S exerted by
the material just in front of dA on the material just behind dA is, at time t,
$E
dF~S = dAP n^P S (~r t): (13.2.26)
The stress, or force per unit area, exerted on the material just behind dA by
the material just in front is
$E
S~ (~r t n^ P ) = n^P S (~r t): (13.2.27)
If K 0 is any open subset of K (t), with piecewise smooth boundary @K 0 , then

at time t the total surface force on the matter in K 0 is, according to (13.2.8),
^n
P
r . front
dAP
back
Figure 13.6:
and (13.2.27), Z $E
F~SE K 0] = 0
dA P ( r
~ n
)^ P (~r ) S (~r t): (13.2.28)
@K
Using Gauss's theorem, we can write this as
Z
F~SE K 0 ] = dV P (~r ) ~ $
@ S
E
(~r t): (13.2.29)
K 0
The total force on the matter in K 0 is, according to (13.2.9) and (13.2.29),
Z E
~F E K 0] = dVP (~r) f~ + @~ $S (~r t): (13.2.30)
0 K
If the particles are all motionless, ~r L(~x t) is independent of time, so

~vL(~x t) = Dt ~r L(~x t) = ~0, and ~aL(~x t) = Dt~vL(~x t) = ~0, and the momentum
equation (13.2.12) reduces to
~0 = @~ S$ +f~ (13.2.31)
the \static equilibrium equation." In this case, we see from (13.2.30) that the
surface force on the matter in K 0 exactly balances the body force, for every
open subset K 0 of K (t).
If we have both ~a = ~0 and f~ = ~0, then
$
@~ S = ~0: (13.2.32)
$
The physical quantity S is called a \static stress eld" if it satises (13.2.32).
An example is an iron doughnut in orbit around the sun (to cancel gravity).
Figure 13.7:
Cut out a slice, close the gap by pressure, weld, and remove the pressure,
as in gure 13.7 The resulting doughnut will contain a nonzero static stress
eld. The net force on every lump of iron in the doughnut vanishes because
the body force vanishes and the surface force sums to ~0.
13.2.2 Shear stress, pressure and the stress deviator

We want to discuss some of the elementary properties of stress and the Cauchy stress
tensor. In gure (13.6), choosing which side of dA is the \front" is called \orienting dA",
and the pair (dA n^) is an oriented surface. Two oriented surfaces can be produced from
dA, namely (dA n^ ), and (dA ;n^ ) depending on which side of dA we call the front.
We want to study the state of stress at one instant t at one position ~r 2 K (t), so we
will omit ~r t and also the superscript E . We will work only with Eulerian descriptions
at the single point ~r and time t. Thus the stress S~ (~r t n^ ) on small nearly plane oriented
$E $
area (dA n^) will be written S~ (^n), and S (~r t) will be written S .
Denition 13.2.46
$
Sn(^n) := n^ S~ (^n) = n^ S n^ (13.2.33)
$ $
S~S (^n) := S~ (^n) ; n^Sn(^n) = n^ S ;n^ n^ S n^ (13.2.34)
$
pn(^n) := ;Sn (^n) = ;n^ S n^: (13.2.35)
The vector n^Sn(^n) is called the normal stress acting on the oriented surface (dA n^), the
vector S~S (^n) is called the tangential or shear stress acting on (dA n^), and pn(^n) is the
pressure acting on (dA n^ ).
Corollary 13.2.45
n^ S~S (^n) = 0 (13.2.36)
S~ (^n) = n^Sn(^n) + S~S (^n) = ;n^ pn(^n) + S~S (^n): (13.2.37)
The shear stress is always perpendicular to n^, parallel to dA. The normal stress acts
oppositely to n^ if pn(^n) > 0.
To visualize S~ as a function of n^, note that the set NP of unit vectors n^ 2 P is precisely
@B (~0 1), the spherical surface of radius 1 centered on ~0 in P . Thus S~ attaches to each n^
on the unit sphere NP a vector S~ (^n) whose radial part is n^SN (^n) and whose tangential
part is S~S (^n). This suggests
Denition 13.2.47 The average value of pn(^n) for all n^ 2 NP is called the average or
mean pressure at ~r t. It is written hpni(~r t). We do not write the (~r t) in this chapter.
Thus Z
1
hpni = 4 N dA(^n)pn(^n) (13.2.38)
P
where dA(^n) is the element of area on NP .
Remark 13.2.61 hpni = ;1=3 tr S$

Proof:
Let y^1 y^2, y^3 be an orthonormal basis for P , and take components relative to
this basis. Then
$
pn(^n) = ;n^ S n^ = ;niSij nj = ;Sij ninj :
By the symmetry of NP ,
Z
dA(^n)ni nj = 0 if i 6= j and
NP
Z Z Z Z 2 2 2
dA(^n)n21 = dA(^n)n22 = dA(^n)n23 = dA(^n) (n1 + n32 + n3) = 43 :
NP NP NP NP
Therefore, Z
dA(^n)ni nj = 43 ij and
NP
Z
hpni = ; 41 Sij N dA(^n)ni nj = ; 13 ij Sij
P
$
= ; Sii = ; 1 tr S :
1
3 3
$
Only part of S produces the shear stress S~S (^n). To see this we need a brief discussion
of tensors in U U , where U is any Euclidean space.
Lemma 13.2.31 tr $I U = dim U .

Proof:
$ $
Let y^1 y^n be an orthonormal basis for U . Then I U = yîyî and tr I U =
yî yî = n = dim U .
Lemma 13.2.32 If $S 2 U U , tr $S =$I U h2i S$.

Proof:
$ $ $ $
With yî as above, tr S = Sii = ij Sij = ( I U )ij Sij = I U h2i S .
Denition 13.2.48 $S 2 U U is \traceless", or a \deviator" if tr $S = 0.

Corollary 13.2.46 S$ is a deviator , S$ is orthogronal to all isotropic tensors in U U .
Proof:
$ $
The isotropic tensors are the scalar multiples of I U . But S is orthogonal to
$ $ $ ^
I U ,S h2i I U = 0. Now use lemma 13.2.32.
Remark 13.2.62 If S$2 U U , there is exactly one isotropic tensor $I U and one
$
deviator S D such that
$ $ $
S= I U + SD : (13.2.39)
Proof:
Uniqueness. Since tr $S D = 0, (13.2.39) implies tr $S = tr $I U = (dim U ).
$
Thus is uniquely determined by S . Then, from (13.2.39), the same is true
$
of S D .
$
Existence. Choose = (tr $S )= dim U and dene SD by (13.2.39). Then
$ $ $ $ $ $
tr S = (tr I U ) + tr S D = tr S +tr S D so tr S D = 0.
Denition 13.2.49 In (13.2.39), $I U is the isotropic part of S$, and $S D is the deviatoric
$ $ $
part of S . If U = P and S is a Cauchy stress tensor, S D is the stress deviator.
Remark 13.2.63 Suppose $I P and S$D are the isotropic and deviatoric parts of Cauchy
$
stress tensor S . Then
i) hpni = ;
$ $ $ $ $
ii) If S = I P (i.e., S D = 0 ) then pn(^n) = ; for all n^ and S S (^n) = ~0 for all n^
$ $
iii) S and S D produce the same shear stress for all n^ (i.e., the shear stress is due entirely
$
to the deviatoric part of S ).
Proof:
$ $
i) By (13.2.39) tr S = 3. By remark (13.2.61), tr S = ;3hpni.
$ $
ii) Substitute I P for S in (13.2.35) and (13.2.34).
$
iii) From (13.2.34), if n^ is xed, S~S (^n) depends linearly on S . By (13.2.39),
$ $
S~S (^n) is the sum of a contribution from I P and one from S D . By ii)
$
above, the contribution from I P vanishes.
Remark 13.2.64 If a Cauchy stress tensor produces no shear stress for any n^ , it is
isotropic.
Proof:
$
The hypothesis is, from (13.2.34), that n^ S = n^ Sn(^n) for all unit vectors n^.
Let y^1, y^2, y^3 be an orthonormal basis for P . Then setting n^ = yî gives
$ $ $ $ $ $
yî S = y^(i) Sn(^y(i)). But S = I P S = (^yiyî) S = yî(^yi S ) = P yîyîSn(^yi).
That is
$ X 3
S = yîyîSn(^yi):
i=1
$T $ $ $
But then S =S , so n^ S yî = yî S n^, and thus n^Sn(^n) yî = yîSn(^yi) n^ , or
Sn(^n)(^n yî) = Sn(^yi)(^n yî). This is true for any n^ , so we may choose an n^
with n^ yî 6= 0 for all of i = 1 2 3. Then Sn(^n) = Sn(^y1) = Sn(^y2) = Sn(^y3),
$ $
so S = Sn(^n)^yiyî = Sn(^n) I P . QED
Fluid Motion:
As an application of Cauchy stress tensors and the momentum equation, we consider
certain elementary uid problems.
Denition 13.2.50 A uid is a material which cannot support shear stresses when it
is in static equilibrium. A non-viscous uid is a material which can never support shear
stresses.
Corollary 13.2.47 In a non-viscous uid, or in a uid in static equilibrium, the Cauchy

$E $
stress tensor is isotropic, and S (~r t) = ;hpni(~r t) I P .
Proof:
$E $
From remark (13.2.64), S (~r t) = (~r t) I P . From remark 13.2.63, i),
= ;hpni.
Denition 13.2.51 In a non-viscous uid, or in a uid in static equilibrium, hpni is

called simply \the" pressure, written p. Thus
$ $
S = ;p I P : (13.2.40)
Remark 13.2.65 @~ (p $I ) = @~p.

Proof:
$ $ $ $ $ $
By exercise 11a, @~ (p I P ) = @~p I P +p@~ I P . But @~ I P = I P h2i@~ I P = 0
$ $ $
because I P is constant and @~ I P = 0. Also @~p I P = @~p. QED.
Therefore, the Eulerian momentum equation in a non-viscous uid is
~a = ;@~p + f~: (13.2.41)
Since ~a = Dt~u = @t~u + ~u @~~u, this is often written

@t~u + ~u @~~u = ;@~p + f~: (13.2.42)
In a uid in static equilibrium, ~a = ~0, so
@~p = f~: (13.2.43)
Therefore, @~ f~ = ~0. We have
Remark 13.2.66 Static equilibrium in a uid subjected to body force f~ is impossible

unless @~ f~ = ~0.
Remark 13.2.67 If a uid is in static equilibrium in a gravitational eld, then the pres-
sure and density of the uid are constant on gravitational equipotential surfaces which
are arcwise connected.
Proof:
Let - be the gravitational potential. Then f~ = ;@~-, so (13.2.43) shows

that @~p is a scalar multiple of @~-. And @~ f~ = ;@~ @~-. Since @~ f~ = ~0,
@~ is also a scalar multiple of @~-. Therefore, if C is any curve lying in a
gravitational equipotential surface, and if ^(~r) is the unit tangent vector to C
at ~r, then ~ (~r) @~(~r) = ^(~r) @~p(~r) = 0. Therefore, by theorem 11.2.23,
and p are the same at both ends of C .
13.3 Lagrangian form of conservation of momentum

We use the notation introduced on page 163. If ~x is a point in label space L, we use
dVL(~x) to stand for a small set containing ~x and also for the volume of that set. The
mass per unit volume in label space is ~L(~x), independent of time, so the total mass of the
particles whose labels are in dVL(~x) is ~L(~x)dVL(~x). Their velocity at time t is ~vL(~x t),
so their momentum is dVL(~x)~L(~x)~vL(~x t). The total momentum of the particles whose
labels are in open subset H 0 of H is, at time t,
Z Z
P~tL H 0] = dVL (~x)~L(~x)~vL(~x t) = dVL(~x)(~~v)L(~x t):
H0 H0
Let F~tLH 0] denote the total force exerted on those particles at time t. Then the law of
conservation of momentum requires
d P~ L H 0] = F~ L H 0] : (13.3.1)
dt t t
Since the set H 0 does not vary with time, we also have the mathematical identity
d P~ L H 0] = Z dV (~x)~L(~x)D ~vL(~x t)
L t
dt t H0
or
d P~ L H 0] = Z dV (~x) (~~a)L (~x t) : (13.3.2)
L
dt t H0
The particles whose labels are in H 0 occupy the set K 0 (t) in physical space P at time
t. Therefore P~tLH 0] = P~ E K 0 (t)], and (13.3.2) should agree with (13.2.3). That it does
can be seen by changing the variables of integration from ~r to ~x in (13.2.3) by means of
(11.7.6) and then using (13.1.3).
L H 0 ] denote the total body force on the particle with labels in H 0 . Then
Let F~Bt
L H 0 ] = F
F~Bt ~BE K 0(t)]. By changing the variables of integration in (13.2.6) from ~r to ~x
via (11.7.6), we nd
Z det D~
L H 0 ] =
F~Bt dV L (~x ) ~ r L(~x t) f~L(~x t)
H 0
or Z
L H 0 ] =
F~Bt dV L (~
x )~f~L (~x t) (13.3.3)
H 0
13.3. LAGRANGIAN FORM OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 189
^n
L
x
. front
dAL ( x )
back
Figure 13.8:
where
~f~ = det D~
~ r f~: (13.3.4)
The vector ~f~ is the body force density per unit of label-space volume. Formula (13.3.4)
can be seen physically as follows. The body force on the particles in the small set dVP (~r)
is dVP (~r)f~E (~r t) at time t. But these are the particles whose labels are in dVL(~x), so by
L
(13.0.1) this force is dVL(~x)~f~ (~x t) with ~f~ given by (13.3.4).
The surface force at time t exerted by the particles whose labels are just outside @H 0
on the particles whose labels are just inside @H 0 we will denote by F~St L H 0 ]. The particles
with labels just outside (inside) @H 0 are those whose positions at time t are just outside
(inside) @K 0 (t), so
F~StL H 0] = F~SE K 0 (t)] : (13.3.5)
Then F~tL H 0] = F~Bt
L H 0 ] + F L H 0 ]. It remains to study the surface force F
~St L H 0 ].
~St
Let dAL(~x) be any small nearly plane patch of surface in label space L containing the
label ~x 2 H . Choose one side of dAL to be the front, and let n^L be the unit normal to
dAL(~x) on its front side. Figure 13.8 is the same as gure (13.6) except for the labelling.
Now, however, the picture is of a small patch of surface in label space, not physical space.
The force dF~S exerted by the particles with labels just in front of dAL on the particles
with labels just behind dAL is proportional to dAL, as long as the orientation of that small
surface does not change, i.e., as long as n^ L is xed. We denote the vector \constant" of
proportionality by S~~. Then dF~SL = SdA
~~ L. The vector S~~ will change if n^L changes, and it
^n ( x )
L
.
x
∂H ′ H′
Figure 13.9:
also will depend on ~x and t, so at time t at label ~x

dF~SL = ~S~(~x t n^ L)dAL(~x): (13.3.6)
(Compare (13.2.7.) The vector S~~ we call the \label stress". The total surface force on
the particles in H 0 is then
Z
L H 0 ] =
~FSt
0
dAL(~x)S~~ ~x t n^ L(~x)] (13.3.7)
@H
where n^L(~x) is the unit outward normal to @H 0 at ~x 2 @H 0 . Now we can combine (13.3.3)
and (13.3.7) to obtain
Z Z
F~tL H 0] = dV (~x)f~L(~x t) +
0 L
dAL(~x)S~~ ~x t n^L(~x)] : (13.3.8)
H @H 0
Inserting this and (13.3.2) in (13.3.1) gives
Z ~
L Z
dV
0 L
(~x ) ~~
a ; ~
f (~x t ) = dAL(~x)S~~ ~x t n^L(~x)] : (13.3.9)
H @H 0
Equation (13.3.9) is true for every open subset H 0 of H for which @H 0 is piecewise smooth.
It is mathematically of the same form as (13.2.10) and the same application of Cauchy's
$L
theorem (13.2.28) shows that there is a unique tensor S~ (~x t) 2 L P such that for every
unit vector n^L 2 L,
~S~(~x t n^ L) = n^L S$L (~x t): (13.3.10)
$L
The tensor S~ (~x t) is the Piola-Kircho or body stress tensor. We would prefer to call
it the label stress tensor, but history prevents us. Proceeding in the way which led from
(13.2.10) to (13.2.12) we note that by Gauss's theorem

Z $L Z
dA L (~x n
)^ L S (~x t) = dV L (~x) ~ S$L (~x t)
D
0@H 0
H
so
Z ~ $!L
~ ~
dVL(~x) ~~a ; f ; D S~ (~x t) = 0:
H0
Since this is true for all open H 0
H with @H 0 piecewise smooth, the vanishing integral
theorem gives
$
~~a = ~f~ + D~ S:
~ (13.3.11)
This is the Lagrangian form of the momentum equation. Equation (13.3.6) can now be
written
$L
~
dFS = dAL(~x)^nL S~ (~x t)
L (13.3.12)
where dF~SL, dAL(~x) and n^L refer to gure 13.8.
Equations (13.3.11) and (13.2.12) refer to the same motion. The relation between ~
and is (13.1.3). The relation between ~f~ and f~ is (13.3.4), which can also be written
~f~ f~
~ = (13.3.13)
both sides of this equation being the force per unit mass on the material. But what is the
$ $
relation between S~ and S ?
Suppose that dAL(~x) is a small nearly plane surface in label space L, and that we
have chosen one of its sides as the front. Let n^ L be the unit normal to dAL(~x) on its
front side. At time t, let ~r = ~r L(~x t). Let dAP (~r) be the small nearly plane surface
in physical space P consisting of all positions at time t of particles whose labels are in
dAL(~x). Let dAL(~x) and dAP (~r) denote both the sets of points which make up the small
surfaces and also the areas of those sets. Choose the front side of dAP (~r) so that particles
are just in front of dAP (~r) if their labels are just in front of dAL (~x). Let n^ P be the unit
normal to dAP (~r) on its front side. Then the force exerted on the particles just behind
$E
dAP (~r) by the particles just in front can be written either as dAP (~r)^nP S (~r t) or as
$L
dAL(~x)^nL S~ (~x t). Therefore, these two expressions must be equal:
$E $L
dAP (~r)^nP S (~r t) = dAL(~x)^nL S~ (~x t) (13.3.14)
^n ^n P
L
front
x . front
. r
dAP ( r )
dAL ( x )
back back
Figure 13.10:
if
~r = ~r L(~x t) (13.3.15)
and
h i
dAP (~r) = ~r L ( t) dAL(~x)] : (13.3.16)
Notice that in (13.3.14), dAP and dAL are positive real numbers, areas, while in (13.3.16)
they stand for sets, the small surfaces whose areas appear in (13.3.14).
Our program is to express dAP (~r)^nP in terms of dAL(^x)^nL in (13.3.14), to cancel
$ $
dAL(^x)^nL , and thus to obtain the relation between S and S~. Equation 13.3.14 holds,
whatever the shape of dAL(~x). It is convenient to take it to be a small parallelogram
whose vertices are ~x, ~x + ~1, ~x + ~2, ~x + ~1 + ~2. Then dAP (~r) will be a very slightly
distorted parallelogram with vertices
~r = ~r L(~x t)
~r + ~1 = ~r L(~x + ~1 t)
~r + ~2 = ~r L(~x + ~2 t)
~r + ~1 + ~2 = ~r L(~x + ~1 + ~2 t):
Correct to rst order in the small length k~ik, we have
~r + ~i = ~r L(~x t) + ~i D~
~ r L(~x t)
so
~i = ~i D~
~ r L(~x t): (13.3.17)
^n
P
^n
front
L
x +ξ
2
.
x +ξ +ξ
1 2
r . r+ ρ
2
ξ2
dA L ( x ) ρ1 dAP ( r )
x . ξ1
back
r+ ρ . r+ ρ +ρ
1 2
x +ξ
1
1
Figure 13.11:
We naturally take ~1 and ~2 in dierent directions, so k~1 ~2 k 6= 0 (recall that L and P are
oriented 3-spaces, so cross products are dened). We number ~1 and ~2 in the order which
ensures that ~1 ~2 points into the region in front of dAL(~x), so ~1 ~2 = k~1 ~2kn^L.
But k~1 ~2k = dAL(~x), so
dAL(~x)^nL = ~1 ~2: (13.3.18)
Also, clearly, k~1 ~2 k = dAP (~r), and ~1 ~2 is perpendicular to dAP (~r), so ~1 ~2 =
k~1 ~2 kn^P . Thus
dAP (~r)^nP = ~1 ~2: (13.3.19)
But which sign is correct? We have to work out which is the front side of dAP (~r), because
that is where we put n^ P . If ~3 2 L is small, ~x + ~3 is in front of dAL(~x) , ~3 n^L > 0,
and hence ,

~3 ~1 ~2 > 0: (13.3.20)
The particle with label ~x + ~3 has position ~r + ~3 , with ~3 given by (13.3.17). Then
8
>
> ~3 (~1 ~2 ) = AP (~3 ~1 ~2) = AP (~1 ~2 ~3 )
>
>
>
>
< ~ ~ L ~ ~ L ~ ~ L
> = A P 1 D~r 2 D~r 3 D~r (13.3.21)
>
>
>
>
> h ~ L i ~ ~ ~ h ~ L i ~ ~ ~
: = det D~ r (~x t) AL 1 2 3 = det D~r (~x t) 3 1 2 :
Thus the position ~r + ~3 is in front of dAP (~r) , ~3 (~1 ~2) has the same sign as
~ r L(~x t). Let sgn c stand for the sign of the real number c. That is, sgn c = +1 if
det D~
c > 0, = ;1 if c < 0, and = 0 if c = 0. Then position ~r + ~3 is in front of dAP (~r) ,
~ r L(~x t):
sgn ~3 (~1 ~2) = sgn det D~ (13.3.22)
We have chosen the front of dAP (~r), and the direction of n^ P , so that ~r + "n^P is in front
~ r L (~x t). Thus
of dAP (~r) when " > 0. Therefore sgn n^P (~1 ~2 ) = sgn det D~
~ r L(~x t)
~1 ~2 = k~1 ~2 kn^P sgn det D~
and
~ r L(~x t):
dAP (~r)^nP = (~ ~2) sgn det D~ (13.3.23)
Using (13.3.18) and (13.3.23), we hope to relate to dAP n^P and dALn^L , so we try to
relate ~1 ~2 and ~1 ~2. The two ends of (13.3.21) give
~
~3 (~1 ~2) = ~3 ~1 ~2 det D~
r L(~x t) (13.3.24)
for any ~1, ~2, ~3 2 L, if ~1 , ~2 , ~3 are given by (13.3.17).
Substituting (13.3.18) and (13.3.23) in (13.3.24) and using c sgn c = jcj, we nd

~3 dAP (~r)^nP ] = ~3 dAL(~x)^nL ] det D~
~ r L(~x t) :
But ~3 = ~3 D~

~ r L(~x t), so

~ r L(~x t) dAP (~r)^nP ] = ~3 dAL(~x)^nL] det D~
~3 D~ ~ r L(~x t) :
Since this is true for any ~3 2 L, we must have

~ r :(~x t) dAP (~r)^nP ] = dAL(~x)^nL det D~
D~ ~ r L(~x t)
or, letting T stand for transpose,

h ~ L iT
dAP (~r)^nP D~r (~x t) = dAL(~x)^nL det D~
~ r L(~x t) : (13.3.25)
$L
If we dot S~ (~x t) on the right of each side of (13.3.25), we obtain
$L
~ r L(~x t)T S~ (~x t)
dAP (~r)^nP D~
$L
= dAL(~x)^nL S~ (~x t) det D~
~ r L(~x t) : (13.3.26)
But (see 13.3.14)

$L $E
~
dFS = dAL(~x)^nL S~ (~x t) = dAP (~r)^nP S (~r t)
where ~r = ~r L (~x t). Thus
$L $L
dAL(~x)^nL S~ (~x t) = dAP (~r)^nP S (~x t):
Substituting this on the right side of (13.3.26) gives
" $L #
~ ~
dAP (~r)^nP ] D~r (~x t) S (~x t)
L T
$L

~
= dAP (~r)^nP ] S (~x t) det D~r (~x t) :
L (13.3.27)
We have proved (13.3.27) when dAP is a small parallelogram, as in Figure (13.3.14). But
~1 and ~2 can be arbitrary as long as they are small. Hence so can dAP (~r)^nP = ~1 ~2 .
Thus (13.3.27) is true when dAP (~r)^nP is any small vector in P . Since (13.3.27) is linear
in dAP (~r)^nP , it is true whatever the size of that vector. Therefore (13.3.27) implies
$L
~ r L(~x t)T S~ (~x t) = S$L(~x t) det D~
D~ ~ r L (~x t)
or
~ T $~ $ ~
D~r S = S det D~r : (13.3.28)
$ $
This gives S in terms of S~. By (12.2.7, 13.3.24), D~ ~ r L (~x t) has an inverse, @~ ~x E (~r t),
~ r L(~x t)T has the inverse @~ ~x E (~r t)T . Dotting this on the left
where ~r = ~r L (~x t), so D~
in (13.3.28) gives
$ T $ ;1
S~ = @~ ~x S det @~ ~x (13.3.29)
where we use det(D~ ~ r );1 = (det D~~ r);1 .
By appealing to (13.3.1), we can write (13.3.28) and (13.3.29) as

0 $1 0$1
S~ C
@ S A = D~~ r T B@
~ A (13.3.30)
0$1 0 $1
B@ S~ CA = @~ ~x T @ S A : (13.3.31)
~
13.4 Conservation of angular momentum

13.4.1 Eulerian version
Refer again to the notation on page 163. All torques and angular momenta are calculated
relative to the origin O~ P in physical space P . Let L~E K 0 (t)] denote the total angular
momentum of the particles in K 0 (t), while M ~ E K 0(t)] denotes the total torque on them.
The law of conservation of angular momentum is
d L~E K 0 (t)] = M~ E K 0 (t)] : (13.4.1)
dt
Our problem is to express this law locally.
The momentum of the particles in dVP (~r) is dVP (~r)E (~r t)~vE (~r t) and this produces,
relative to O~ P , the angular momentum
h i
~r dVP (~r)(~v)E (~r t) = dVP (~r)(~r ~v)E (~r t):
It is possible that the individual atoms in dVP (~r) might have angular momentum this
might be from the orbits of electrons not in closed shells, from the spins of unpaired elec-
trons, or from nuclear spin. Orbital angular momentum is quantized in integer multiples
of h) , while spin angular momentum is in units of h) =2. Here h) = h=2 and h is Planck's
constant, so h) = 1:0544 1;34 joule sec. If the atoms are not randomly aligned, there
may be an intrinsic atomic angular momentum of ~lE (~r t) per kilogram at position ~r at
time t. Then the intrinsic angular momentum in dVP (~r) is dVP (~r)(~l)E (~r t), and the total
angular momentum in dVP (~r) is
h iE
dL~E = dVP (~r) ~r ~v + ~l (~r t):
13.4. CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM 197
Figure 13.12:
The total angular momentum in K 0(t) is

Z h iE
LE K 0(t)] = K 0 (t)
dVP (~r) ~r ~v + ~l (~r t):
From (13.1.12),
d LE K 0(t)] = Z dV (~r) hD ~r ~v + ~liE (~r t):
P t
dt K 0(t)
Now
Dt(~r ~v) = (Dt~r) ~v + ~r Dt~v = ~v ~v + ~r ~a = ~r ~a
so
d LE K 0 (t)] = Z dV (~r) h ~r ~a + D ~l iE (~r t): (13.4.2)
P t
dt K 0 (t)
To calculate the torque on the particles in K 0(t) we note that the torque exerted by the
body force dVP (~r)f~E (~r t) is ~rdVP (~r)f~E (~r t), or dVP (~r)(~rf~)E (~r t). The torque exerted
$E
by the surface force dAP (~r)S~ (~r t n^ P ) is ~r dAP (~r)S~ = ;dAP (~r)S~ ~r = ;dAP (~r)^n S
$ $ $ $
(~r t)] ~r. If Q2 P P is a polyad, (^n Q) ~r = n^ Q ~r], so this is true for all Q.
$ $
(Exercise 11b gives a denition of ~r Q, and Q ~r is dened similarly.) Thus
$ E
~
~r dAP (~r)S (~r t n^P ) = ;dAP (~r)^nP S ~r (~r t):
front
^n
P
r
back
.
dAP ( r )
Figure 13.13:
Therefore, the torque about O~ P which is exerted on the particles in K 0 (t) by the body
and surface force acting on them is
Z E Z $ E
~
dVP (~r) vecr f (~r t) ; 0 dAP (~r)^nP S ~r (~r t):
K 0(t) @K (t)
By applying Gauss's theorem to the surface integral, we can write this torque as
Z $ E
~ ~
dVP (~r) ~r f ; @ S ~r (~r t): (13.4.3)
K 0 (t)
In addition to this torque, there may be a torque acting on each atom in dVP (~r).
This would be true, for example, if the material were a solid bar of magnetized iron
placed in a magnetic eld B~ . If the magnetization density was M~ , there would be a
torque dVP (~r)M~ B~ acting on dVP (~r) and not included in (13.4.3). In general, we might
want to allow for an intrinsic body torque of m ~ joules/meter3, so that (13.4.3) must be
supplemented by a term Z
~ E (~r t):
dVP (~r)m
K 0 (t)
Finally, in a magnetized iron bar, atoms just outside @K 0 (t) exert a torque on atoms
just inside @K 0 (t), so there is a \torque stress" acting on @K 0 (t). The torque exerted on
the material just behind dAP (~r) by the material just in front is proportional to dAP as
long as the orientation of that small patch of surface, i.e., its unit normal, stays xed.
We write the proportionality constant as M~ (~r t n^ P ). The torque exerted on the material
$E
just behind dAP by the material just in front, other than that due to n^P S (~r t), is
M~ (~r t n^P )dAP (~r), so we must also supplement (13.4.3) by a term

Z
0
dAP (~r)M~ (~r t n^ P (~r t))
@K (t)
where n^ P is the outward unit normal to @K 0 (t). Thus we nally have
Z E
M~ E K 0 (t)] = 0 dVP (~r) ~r f~ ; @~ S$ ~r + m~ (~r t)
KZ(t)
+ dAP (~r)M~ ~r t n^ P (~r t)] : (13.4.4)
@K 0(t)
If we substitute (13.4.2) and (13.4.4) in (13.4.1), we obtain
R dV (~r) ~r ~a + D ~l ; ~r f~ + @~ $ ~r ; m E
~ (~r t)
K 0(t) P t S
R
= @K 0(t) dAP (~r)M~ ~r t n^ P (~r t)] : (13.4.5)
This equation has the same mathematical form as (13.2.10), and leads via Cauchy's the-
$
orem to the same conclusion. At ~r t there is a unique tensor M E (~r t) 2 P P , which
we call the (Cauchy) torque-stress tensor, such that for every unit vector n^P 2 P we have
$
M~ (~r t n^P ) = n^P M E (~r t ): (13.4.6)
Substituting this on the right in (13.4.5), applying Gauss's theorem to the surface integral,
and the vanishing integral theorem to the volume integral, gives
$
~r ~a + Dt~l ; ~r f~ + @~ S ~r ; m~ = @~ M:
~ (13.4.7)
Before we accept this as the Eulerian angular momentum equation, we note that it can be
greatly simplied by using the momentum equation (13.2.12). We have (~r ~a) = ~r f~
$
= ~r ~a ; f~ = ~r (@~ S ), so (13.4.7) is
$ $ $
~ ~ ~ ~ + @~ M :
Dt l + ~r @ S + @ S ~r = m (13.4.8)
This can be still further simplied. Let y^1 , y^2, y^3 be a poob in P , (^x1 x^2 x^3) a pooob in
L, and take components relative to these bases. Then
$ $
~r (@ S ) = "ijk rj (@~ S )k = "ijk rj @l Slk :
~
i
Also, for ~u , ~v, w~ 2 P , (~u~v) w~ = ~u(~v w~ ) (this is how we use the lifting theorem to
$ $
dene Q w~ for Q2 P P and w~ 2 P ) so
(~u~v) w~ ]ij = ~u (~v w~ )]ij = ui (~v w~ )j

= ui"jklk wl
= (~u~v)ik "jklw:
$
Therefore for any Q2 P P ,
$
Q w~ = Qik "jklwl :
ij
Therefore
$
S ~r li = Slk "ikj rj
$ $
@~ S ~r = @l S ~r = @l Slk "ikj rj ]
i li
= "ikj @l (Slk rj )
= "ikj (@l Slk ) rj + Slk @l rj ] :
Referring to page 199 and using "ijk + "ijk = 0, we get

$
~ ~ ~
~r @ S + @ S ~r = "ikj Slk @l rj :
i
$
But @l rj = lj , so this is "ikj Sjk = ;ijk Sjk = ; AP h2i S . Thus
i
$ $ $
~r @~ S + @~ S ~r = ;AP h2i S : (13.4.9)
Thus (13.4.8) is
$ $
Dt~l = AP h2i S +m
~ + @~ M : (13.4.10)
This is the Eulerian form of the angular momentum equation. In non-magnetic materials
$
it is believed that ~l, m
~ are M and all negligible, and that the essential content of (13.4.10)
is
$
AP h2i S = ~0: (13.4.11)
That is, "ijk Sjk = 0. Multiply by "ilm and sum on i, and this becomes (see page D-9)
(jlkm ; jmkl) Sjk = 0
or
Slm ; Sml = 0
or
$ $
S T =S : (13.4.12)
The conservation of angular momentum requires that the Cauchy stress tensor be sym-
metric, if intrinsic angular momentum, body torque and torque stress are all negligible.
$
13.4.2 Consequences of S T =S$
In the absence of intrinsic angular momentum, torque and torque stress, the Cauchy stress
tensor is symmetric. This greatly simplies visualizing the stress at a point ~r at time t.
$E $
We will abbreviate S (~r t) as S in this chapter, because we are looking at one time t and
one position ~r in physical space. We denote by S~ (^n) the stress on the oriented small area
(dA n^ ) at ~r t (i.e. we write S~ (~r t n^ P ) as S~ (^n), and n^P as n^, dAP as dA). We denote by
$
S the linear operator on P corresponding to the tensor S . Then for any unit vector n^ ,
$
S~ (^n) = n^ S = S (^n): (13.4.13)
Since S : P ! P is a symmetric operator, P has an orthonormal basis x^ y^ z^ consisting

of eigenvectors of S . That is, there are scalars a, b, c such that
S (^x) = ax^ S (^y) = by^ S (^z ) = cz^: (13.4.14)

$ $ $
Then x^ S = ax^, y^ S = by^, z^ S = cz^ so
$ $ $ $
S = I P S = (^xx^ + y^y^ + z^z^) S = x^ (ax^) + y^ (by^) + z^ (cz^)
so
$
S = ax^x^ + by^y^ + cz^z^: (13.4.15)
The unit vectors x^, y^, z^ are called \principal axes of stress" and a, b, c are \principal
stresses." By relabelling, if necessary, we can always assume that a b c. Also if we
change the sign of any of x^ y^ z^ both (13.4.14) and (13.4.15) remain unchanged. Therefore
we may assume that (^x y^ z^) is positively oriented.
For any vector ~n 2 P we write
~n = xx^ + yy^ + zz^: (13.4.16)
The unit sphere NP consists of those ~n 2 P for which
x2 + y2 + z2 = 1: (13.4.17)
$
The pressure pn(^n) acting on (dA n^) is pn(^n) = ;n^ S n^ = ;(ax2 + by2 + cz2 ). It can be
thought of as a function of position n^ = xx^ + yy^ + zz^ on the spherical surface (13.4.17).
In the earth, pn > 0, so it is convenient to introduce the principal pressures A, B , C ,
dened by
A = ;a B = ;b C = ;c: (13.4.18)
Then A B C . The cases where equality occurs are special and are left to the reader.
We will examine the usual case,
A < B < C: (13.4.19)
We want to try to visualize pn(^n) and the shear stress S~S (^n) acting on (dA n^ ) as func-
tioning of n^ , i.e., as functions on the spherical surface (13.4.17).
We have
pn(^n) = Ax2 + By2 + Cz2 (13.4.20)
S~ (^n) = S~S (^n) ; pn(^n)^n (13.4.21)
$
and, since S~ (^n) = n^ S ,
S~ (^n) = ;Axx^ ; Byy^ ; Czz^: (13.4.22)
First consider pn. Its value is unchanged if we replace any of x y z by its negative
in (13.4.16). Therefore pn is symmetric under reections in the coordinate planes x = 0,
y = 0, z = 0. Therefore it su#ces to study pn(^n) when n^ is in the rst octant of (13.4.17),

i.e., when
x 0 y 0 z 0: (13.4.23)
If p is any constant, then the level line pn(^n) = p on Np satises
Ax2 + By2 + Cz2 = p (13.4.24)
x2 + y2 + z2 = 1: (13.4.25)
Hence, it satises
(A ; p) x2 + (B ; p) y2 + (C ; p) z2 = 0: (13.4.26)
This equation and (13.4.17) have no real solutions (x y z) unless
A p C (13.4.27)
so the values of pn(^n) all lie in the interval (13.4.27). The value p = A requires y = z = 0,
x = 1, so pn(^n) = A only for n^ = x^. The value p = C requires x = y = 0, so pn(^n) = C
p
only for n^ = z^. The value of p = B makes (13.4.25) into x B ; A = z C ; B ,
p
and these two planes intersect the sphere (13.4.17) in great circles, one of which lies in
(13.4.23). For any value of p in A < p < C , (13.4.25) and (13.4.26) imply all three of the
following: 8
>
> (C ; A) x2 + (C ; B ) y2 = C ; p
>
<
> (B ; A) x2 ; (C ; B ) z2 = B ; p (13.4.28)
>
>
: (B ; A) y2 + (C ; A) z2 = p ; A:
Therefore the projection of the level curve (13.4.25), (13.4.17) onto the xy or yz plane is
part or all of an ellipse, and its projection on the xz plane is part of a hyperbola with
p p
asymptotes x B ; A = z C ; B . The level lines pn(^n) = B on Np, with p = B ,
p p
are the great circles where Np intersects the planes x B ; A = z C ; B . The level
lines of pn on NP are the dashed curves in gure 13.14. Next, consider the shear stress
S~S (^n). At any n^ 2 NP , this is a vector tangent to NP . It is dened by (13.4.21), and
from (13.4.22) S~ (^n) = ;1=2 @~pn(^n) where pn is to be considered as a function dened
for all ~n 2 P by (13.4.20), even when k~nk 6= 1. At a point n^ 2 NP , let ^(^n) be the unit
^z
pn = C
pn = B
^y
pn = B
^x pn = A
Figure 13.14:
vector tangent to the level curve of pn passing through n^ . Then n^ ^(^n) = 0, and since
^(^n) is tangent to a curve lying in the level surface pn(~n) = constant in P , it follows that
^(^n) @~pn(^n) = 0. Therefore, from (13.4.29), we have
^(^n) S~ (^n) = 0
and
^(^n) n^ = 0:
Then from (13.4.21), ^(^n) S~S (^n) = 0. Thus the shear stress S~S (^n) at n^ 2 NP is
perpendicular to the level line of pn which passes through n^. The \lines of force" of the
shear stress on NP are the curves which are everywhere tangent to S~S (^n). They are the
solid curves in gure 13.14, and are everywhere perpendicular to the level lines of pn.
These \lines of force" give the direction of S~S (^n) everywhere on NP .
Finally, we would like to nd kS~S (^n)k on NP , which we abbreviate as
(^n) = kS~S (^n)k: (13.4.29)
Again we consider only the rst octant, x 0, y 0, z 0. The other octants are
obtained by reection in the three coordinate planes x = 0, y = 0, z = 0. First consider
the edges of the rst octant, where x = 0 or y = 0 or z = 0. On the quarter circle
n^ = x^ cos + y^ sin , 0 =2, subjecting (13.4.20) and (13.4.21), (13.4.22) to a little
algebra yields
S~S (^n) = sin cos (^x cos ; y^ sin ) on n^ = x^ cos + y^ sin : (13.4.30)
Therefore, from (13.4.29),
(^n) = 12 (B ; A) sin 2 if n^ = x^ cos + y^ sin : (13.4.31)
This reaches a maximum value of (B ; A)=2 at = =4, half way between x^ and y^ on
the quarter circle. And (^x) = (^y) = 0. Similarly
(^n) = 1=2(C ; A) sin 2 if n^ = x^ cos + z^ sin (13.4.32)
(^n) = 1=2(C ; B ) sin 2 if n^ = y^ cos + z^ sin : (13.4.33)
To see what happens to (^n) when x > 0, y > 0, z > 0, we appeal to
Lemma 13.4.33 On any level line of pn in the rst octant on NP , (^n) decreases mono-
tonically as y increases.
Proof:
From (13.4.21), kS~ (^n)k2 = (^n)2 + pn(^n)2 so
(^n)2 = kS~ (^n)k2 ; pn(^n)2: (13.4.34)
We can parametrize the level curve pn(^n) = p on NP by the value of y at n^,

namely y^ n^ = y. We want to show that
d (^n) < 0 on the curve p (^n) = p on N 0 rst octant: (13.4.35)
n P s
dy
On that level curve, of course pn(^n) is constant, so (13.4.34) shows that
(13.4.35) is equivalent to
d kS~ (^n)k2 < 0 on the curve p (^n) = p on N 0 rst octant: (13.4.36)
n p s
dy
The vector dn^=dy on pn(^n) = p is tangent to that level curve. Hence n^
dn^=dy = 0 and @~p(^n) dn^=dy = 0, so S~ (^n) dn^=dy = 0. Hence, for some
dn^ = n^ S~ (^n):
dy
Now dn^=dy = x^(dx=dy) + y^ + z^(dz=dy) on the level curve. Hence
y^ ddyn^ = 1 so 1 = y^ n^ S~ (^n):
But n^ = x^x + y^y + z^z, ;S~ (^n)Axx^ + Byy^ + Czz^, so

0 1 0

;y^ n^ S~ (^n) = x y z = ;xz(C ; A):

Ax By Cz
Thus = 1=xz(C ; A), and
dn^ = 1 ~
dy xz(C ; A) n^ S (^n): (13.4.37)
By the chain rule, dyd kS~ (^n)k2 = ddyn^ @~kS~ (^n)k2 . From (13.4.22),
kS~ (~n)k2 = A2 x2 + B 2y2 + C 2z2 so

@~kS~ (~n)k2 = 2A2xx^ + 2B 2 yy^ + 2C 2zz^:
Therefore
d kS~ (^n)k2 = 2 h ~ i 2
dy xz(C ; A) n
^ S n
(^ ) A xx^ + B 2 y y^ + C 2 z z^

x y z
1 1 1
= xz(C2; A) ;Ax ;By ;Cz = ; (C 2;y A) A B C
2 2 2 2
A x B 2 y C 2z A B C
= ;2y(C ; B )(B ; A) < 0:
This proves lemma 13.4.30 .

QED.
From (13.4.31, 13.4.32, 13.4.33) and lemma 13.4.33, we infer that the largest value of
p
(^n), the magnitude of the shear stress, is (C ; A)=2, and this occurs at n^ = (x^ z^)= 2,
and for no other n^.
It is of some interest to see which pairs (pn(^n) (^n)) are possible on NP . On the three
quarter-circles in (13.4.31, 13.4.32, 13.4.33) we have
0 1 0 1
p (^n ) A+B ; B;A cos 2
B
@ n CA = B@ 2 B;A 2 CA if n^ = x^ cos + y^ sin (z = 0) (13.4.38)
n(^n) 2 sin 2
0 1 0 1
B p (^n) A + C C ;
; cos 2 C if n^ = x^ cos + z^ sin (y = 0)
A
@ n CA = B@ 2 C ;A 2 A (13.4.39)
n (^n) 2 sin 2
0 1 0 1
B p (^n) B + C C ;
; cos 2 C if n^ = y^ cos + z^ sin : (x = 0)
B
@ n CA = B@ 2 C ;B 2 A (13.4.40)
n(^n) 2 sin 2
For z = 0, the possible pairs (pn(^n) (^n)) are given by (13.4.38) and trace out the
seimicircle marked z = 0 in Figure 13.15. For y = 0, the possible pairs are given by
MOHR
σ( ^n )
MOHR y=0
start .
stop . z=0
x=0
p n ( ^n )
A p B C
θ increases in the direction of the arrows.
Figure 13.15:
(13.4.39) and trace out the semicircle marked y = 0 in Figure 13.15. For x = 0, use the
third semicircle in Figure 13.4.38.
In gure 13.14, suppose we start at a point with y = 0 and move along the level line
of pn till we hit either x = 0 or z = 0. Then in the ( pn) plane we will start at the point
marked \start" in Figure 13.15, and we will remain on the vertical dashed line pn = p.
According to lemma 13.4.33, as we increase y on the level curve pn ; p in Figure (13.14),
we will decrease (^n), so we move down the dashed line in Figure 13.15 until we strike
the point marked \stop." Therefore, the possible pairs (pn(^n) (^n)) which can occur on
NP are precisely the points in the shaded region in Figure 13.15.
Coulomb suggested that a rock will break when the maximum value of (^n) exceeds
a critical value characteristic of that rock. Navier pointed out that when two plates are
pressed together, the greater this pressure the harder it is to slide one over the other.
Navier suggested that the fracture criterion is that there be an orientation n^ for which
(^n) > c +pn(^n), where c and are constants characteristic of the rock (when p(^n) = 0,
Navier's fracture criterion reduces to Coulomb's). The constant is a sort of internal
coe#cient of friction. Mohr suggested that Coulomb and Navier had over-simplied the
problem, and that the true fracture criterion is (n) > f p(^n)], where f is a function
characteristic of the rock, which must be measured empirically, and about which one can
say in advance only that
f (p) > 0 df=dp > 0: (13.4.41)
Even with such a general criterion, much can be said. The curve = f (p) is marked
\MOHR" in Figure 13.15. If A, B , C are moved so as to produce an overlap of the
shaded region with the Mohr curve, the rock will break at rst contact of the curve and
the shaded region. This rst contact will always occur on the plane y = 0, at a value of
in 13.4.32 which is between 0 and =4, so the normal to the plane of fracture will lie in
the xz plane, closer to x^ than to z^. The circles in Figure 13.15 are called Mohr circles.
13.5 Lagrangian Form of Angular Momentum

Conservation
Refer again to the notation introduced on page 163. If L~Lt(H 0) is the angular momentum
of the collection of particles with labels in H 0, and M
~ Lt(H 0) is the total torque on them,
the law of conservation of angular momentum is
d L~L(H 0) = ML(H 0): (13.5.1)
dt t t
Using the notation introduced on page 195 and page 164,

Z h i
~LLt(H 0) = dVL(~x) ~~l + ~~r ~v L (~x t)
0 H
so
d L~L (H 0) = Z dV (~x) h~ D ~l + ~r ~aiL (~x t) : (13.5.2)
L t
dt t H0
Moreover,
Z ~ L
MLt (H 0) = H0
dV L (~x ) ~r f~ + m
~ (~x t)
Z " $L! #
~
+ 0 dAL (~x) ~r n^L S~ + M~ (~x t n^ L (~x))
H
where n^L (~x) is the unit outward normal to @H 0 at ~x 2 @H 0 , m ~ is body torque per unit
of volume in label space, and M ~~ (~x t n^L(~x))dAL is the force exerted by the material with
labels just in front of (dAL n^ L) on the material with labels just behind (dAL n^ L). Again
$ $ $
we have ~r (^nL S ) = ;(^nL S ) ~r = ;n^L (S~ ~r), so using Gauss's theorem,
~ ~
Z " $ !#L
0 ~
Mt (H ) = H 0 dVL (~x) ~r f~ + m~ ; D~ S~ ~r (~x t)
L (13.5.3)
Z ~~ ~x t n^ L(~x)] :
+ dAL (~x) M (13.5.4)
H0
Therefore
" $ !#
R dV (~x) ~ D ~l + ~r ~a ; ~r ~f~ ; m ~ + D~ S~ ~r
H0 L t
R
= 0 dAL (~x) M ~~ ~x t n^ L(~x)] : (13.5.5)
@H
13.6. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 211
Applying Cauchy's theorem to (13.5.5) shows that for each (~x t) there is a unique
$
M~ L (~x t) 2 L P such that for any unit vector n^ 2 L,
$ $L
M~ ~x t n^] = n^ M~ (~x t) : (13.5.6)
If we substitute this on the right in (13.5.5) and use Gauss's theorem and the vanishing
integral theorem, we obtain
$ ! $
~ ~
~Dtl + ~~r ~a ; ~r f ; m~ + D S~ ~r = D~ M:
~ ~ ~ ~
Using the Lagrangian momentum equation (13.3.11), we can write this as

$! $ ! $
~ ~ ~ ~
~Dtl + ~r D S + D S ~r = D M~ + m:
~ ~ ~
Finally, by the sort of argument which led to (13.4.9), we can show
$! $ ! " T $#
~ ~ ~ ~
~r D S + D S ~r = ;AP h2i D~ ~ r S~
so the Lagrangian form of the angular momentum equation is

$ $ " T $#
~Dt~l = D~ M~ + m~ + AP h2i D~
~ r S~ : (13.5.7)
$ $ $ $
The relation between M~ and M~ is the same as that between S~ and S . If the intrinsic
$
angular momentum ~l, body torque m~ , and torque stress M~ are all negligible, (13.5.7)
reduces to " $#
AP h2i D~~ r T S~ = 0: (13.5.8)
A glance at (13.3.30) shows that (13.5.8) is the same as (13.4.11), so we learn nothing
new from (13.5.7) in this case.
13.6 Conservation of Energy

13.6.1 Eulerian form
The velocity ~vE (~r t) imparts to the matter in dVP (~r) a kinetic energy dVP (~r)E (~r t) 12 k
~vE (~r t)k2. In addition, that material has kinetic energy of molecular motion, and the
potential energy of the intermolecular forces. The sum of these latter is called the internal
energy. We denote by U E (~r t) the internal energy per kilogram in the matter at ~r t. Then
the total energy in dVP is
1 E
2
dVP (~r) 2 v + U (~r t) :
The total energy in K 0(t) is
Z 1 E
E E K 0 (t)] = K 0 (t)
2
dVP (~r) 2 v + U (~r t) : (13.6.1)
The law of conservation of energy is

d E E K 0(t)] = W E K 0(t)] (13.6.2)
dt
where W E K 0 (t)] is the rate at which energy is being added to the matter in K 0(t), i.e.,
the rate at which work is being done on that matter.
The body force f~ does work on dVP (~r) at the rate of dVP (~r)(~v f~)E (~r t) watts. If
$E
~r 2 @K 0 (t) then the surface stress n^P S (~r t) does work on the particles just inside
$E
@K 0 (t) at the rate of dAP (~r)^nP S (~r t) ~vE (~r t) watts. Thus the purely mechanical
component of W E K 0(t)] is
Z ~E Z $ E
0
dVP (~r) ~v f (~r t) + 0 dAP (~r)^nP S ~v (~r t) :
K (t) @K (t)
Using Gauss's theorem, this can be written
Z $ E
dVP (~r) ~v f~ + @~ S ~v (~r t) : (13.6.3)
K 0 (t)
In addition to this mechanical method of adding energy to K 0 (t) there are non-
mechanical methods. Examples are
i) ohmic \heating" at a rate of dVP (~r)kJ~k2= watts, where J~ = electric current density
and = electrical conductivity.
ii) \heating" by absorption of light (e.g., sunlight in muddy water).
iii) radioactive \heating".
front
^n
P
r
back
.
dAP ( r )
Figure 13.16:
All these \heating" mechanisms together will add energy to dVP (~r) at a total rate of
dVP (~r)hE (~r t), where hE is the sum of the heating rates per unit volume. The resulting
contribution to W E K 0(t)] is
Z
dVP (~r) hE (~r t) watts: (13.6.4)
K 0 (t)
Finally, energy can leak into K 0(t) through the boundary, @K 0 (t). The physical mech-
anisms for this are molecular collision and diusion, but that does not concern us. We are
interested only in the possibility that if dAP (~r) is a small nearly plane surface containing
~r, with a designated front to which a unit normal n^P is attached, the energy can leak
across dAP (~r) from front to back at a rate proportional to dAP as long as the orientation
of dAP is not varied, i.e., as long as n^P is xed. We write the constant of proportionality
as ;H (~r t n^ P ), so that energy ows from front to back across dA(~r) at a net rate of
;H (~r t n^ P )dAP (~r) watts. This \heat ow" contributes to W E K 0 (t)] the term
Z
; @K 0 (t)
dAP (~r) H (~r t n^ P ) watts:
The minus sign in the denition of the proportionality constant is a convention established
for two centuries, and we must accept it. Indeed, there is aesthetic reason to put a minus
$ $
sign in the denition of S~ , to avoid the ;p I term. Our choice of signs for S~ and S was
also dictated by history, and it is unfortunate that the same choice was not made in both
cases.
The sum of all the foregoing rates at which energy is added to the matter in K 0 (t)
gives
Z $ E
W E K 0(t)] ~ ~
= 0 dVP (~r) ~v f + @ S ~v + h (~r t)
KZ(t)
(13.6.5)
; @K 0(t) dAP (~r) H (~r t n^P ) : (13.6.6)
From (13.6.1) and (13.1.12),

" #
dE E K 0 (t)] = Z dV (~r) D 1 v2 + U E (~r t) : (13.6.7)
P t
dt K 0 (t) 2
Substituting (13.6.6) and (13.6.7) in (13.6.2) gives
Z 1 $ E
dV (~
r ) D v 2 + U ; ~v f~ ; @~ S ~v ; h (~r t) (13.6.8)
P t
K 0 (t) Z 2
= ; 0 dA (~r) H (~r t n^ ) : (13.6.9)
@K (t)
Applying Cauchy's theorem 13.2.28 to (13.6.9) shows that at each (~r t) there is a
unique vector H~ E (~r t) 2 P such that for all unit vectors n^ 2 P
H (~r t n^ ) = n^ H~ E (~r t) : (13.6.10)
The vector H~ E (~r t) is called the heat-ow vector. Heat ows from front to back across
(dAP n^P ) at the rate of ;dAP (~r)^nP H~ E (~r t) watts. Inserting (13.6.10) in (13.6.9) and
applying Gauss's theorem converts (13.6.9) to
Z 1 $ E
0= dV (~
r ) D v 2 + U ; ~v f~ ; @~ S ~v ; h + ~
@ ~
H (~r t) : (13.6.11)
P t
K 0 (t) 2
Since K 0 (t) can be any open subset of K (t) with piecewise smooth boundary, the vanishing
integral theorem gives
$
Dt 12 v2 + U + @~ H~ = h + ~v f~ + @~ S ~v : (13.6.12)
This equation can be simplied. We have

Dt v2 = Dt (~v ~v) = 2~v Dt~v = 2~v ~a:
Also, taking components relative to an orthonormal basis,

~@ $
S ~v = @i (Sij vj ) = (@i Sij ) vj + Sij @i vj (13.6.13)
$ $
= @~ S ~v+ S h2i@~~v: (13.6.14)
Therefore (13.6.12) is
$ $
~a ~v + Dt U + @~ H~ = h + f~ ~v + @~ S ~v+ S h2i@~~v:
$
But the momentum equation says ~a = f~ + @~ S , so those terms cancel, leaving only
$
Dt U + @~ H~ = h+ S h2i@~~v: (13.6.15)
This is the Eulerian form of the internal energy equation, or heat equation.
13.6.2 Lagrangian form of energy conservation

The argument should be familiar by now. The total energy of the material with labels in
H 0 is, at time t, Z L
EtL H 0] = 0 dVL (~x) ~ 12 v2 + U (~x t) :
H
(13.6.16)
The rate at which energy is added is
Z " $ ! #L
WtL H 0] ~
= 0 dVL (~x) f~ ~v + D~ S~ ~v + h) (~x t) (13.6.17)
H
Z
; @H 0 dAL (~x) 6 H (~x t n^ L(~x)) : (13.6.18)
The law of conservation of energy is
d E L H 0] = W L H 0] (13.6.19)
dt t t
and from (13.6.16) we have the identity

d E L H 0] = Z dV (~x) ~D 1 v2 + U L (~x t): (13.6.20)
L t
dt t H0 2
Substituting (13.6.18) and (13.6.20) in (13.6.19) gives
Z " ~ $ ! #L
1
dVL (~x) ~Dt 2 v + U ; f~ ~v ; D~ S~ ~v ; h) (~x t)
2
H0
Z
= ; 0 dAL(~x) 6 H (~x t n^ L(~x)) : (13.6.21)
@H
At any (~x t), Cauchy's theorem 13.2.28 assures us of the existence of a unique vector
6 H~ L(~x t) 2 L such that for any unit vector n^ 2 L, 6 H (~x t n^) = n^ 6 H^ L(~x t). Substituting
this on the right in (13.6.21), and applying Gauss's theorem and the vanishing integral
theorem gives
1 ~ $
~Dt 2 v + U ; f ~v ; D S ~v h) = ;D~ 6 H:
2 ~ ~ ~
But Dt v2 = 2~v Dt~v = @~v ~a, and
$ ! $! $
D~ S~ ~v = D~ S~ ~v + S~h2iD~
~v
so $!
~ $ ~
~~a ~v + ~Dt U = f~ ~v ; D~ S~ ~v; S h2iD~
v ; h) = ;D~ 6 H:
~
$
The Lagrangian momentum equation, ~~a ; ~f~ ; D~ S~ = ~0, permits some cancellation and
leaves us with
$
~Dt U + D~ 6 H~ = h) + S~h2iD~~ v: (13.6.22)
This is the Lagrangian form of the internal energy equation.
Using (13.3.25) and the identity
dAP n^ H~ = dALn^ L 6 H
~
one proves
H~ = D~
~ r T 6 H~ (13.6.23)
~
in the same manner as (13.3.30) was proved.
13.7 Stu
Mass, momentum, angular momentum and energy are all examples of a general math-
ematical object which we call a \stu." The idea has produced some confusion, so we
discuss it here.
13.7. STUFF 217
$E
Denition 13.7.52 A \stu" is an ordered pair of functions ( ~ E F ) with these prop-
erties: V is a Euclidean space, and for each t 2 R, K (t) is an open subset of physical
space P and
E
~ ( t) : K (t) ! V (13.7.1)
$E
F ( t) : K (t) ! P V: (13.7.2)
E $E
The function ~ is called the spatial density of the stu F is the spatial current density
or spatial ux density of the stu. And ~ E , the creation rate of the stu, is dened to be
E $E
~ E = @t ~ + @~ F : (13.7.3)
Denition 13.7.53 Suppose t 2 R, ~r 2 K (t), and dV (~r) is a small open subset of K (t)
containing ~r dV (~r) will also denote the volume of that subset. Suppose dA(~r t) is a small
nearly plane oriented surface containing ~r, and n^ is the unit normal on the front side of
dA(~r t). We also use dA(~r t) to denote the area of the small surface. Suppose dA(~r t)
moves with speed W normal to itself, with W > 0 when the motion is in the direction of
n^. Then
E
i) dV (~r) ~ (~r t) is called the amount of stu in dV (~r) at time t
$E E
ii) dA(~r t)^n F (~r t) ; W ~ (~r t)] is called the rate at which the stu ows across
dA(~r t) n^] from back to front.
iii) dV (~r)~ E (~r t) is called the rate at which stu is created in dV (~r) at time t.
Denition 13.7.54 Let K 0 (t) be any open subset of K (t), with piecewise continuous
boundary @K 0 (t) and unit outward normal n^(~r) at ~r 2 @K 0 (t). Suppose K 0(t) moves so
that the outward velocity of @K 0 (t) normal to itself at ~r 2 @K 0 (t) is W (~r t). Then
R ~ E
(~r t) is called the amount of stu in K 0 (t) at time t. Denote if by
i) K 0 (t) dV (~r)
.~ K 0 (t)]
" $E #
R E
ii) @K 0(t) dA(~r) n^ (~r) F (~r t) ; W (~r t) ~ (~r t) is called the rate at which stu ows
out of K 0(t) across @K 0 (t) at time t. Denote it by F~ K 0 (t)].
R is called the rate at which the stu is created in K 0 (t) at time t.
K 0 (t) dV (~r)~
iii) E (~r t)
Denote it by ~;K 0(t)].

Remark 13.7.68 d=dt .~ K 0(t)] = ~;K 0 (t)] ; F~ K 0 (t)] for any open subset K 0(t) of K (t),
moving in any way whatever.
Proof:
d .~ K 0 (t)] = Z dV (~r)@ ~ E (~r t) + Z dA (~r ) W ~ E (~r t)

t
dt K 0 (t) @K 0(t)
Z $E Z
F~ K 0(t)] = dV (~r)@~ F (~r t) ;
K 0 (t)
E
dA(~r)W ~ (~r t):
@K 0 (t)
Therefore,
!
d .~ K 0(t)] + F~ K 0(t)] = Z dV (~r) @ ~ E + @~ $ F
E
t
dt ZK 0 (t)
= 0 dV (~r)~ E (~r t) = ~; K 0(t)] :
K (t)
Denition 13.7.55 Suppose the K (t) in denition 13.7.52 is the set of positions occu-
pied by the particles of a certain continuum at time t. Suppose and ~v are the density
of mass and the particle velocity in the contiuum. Then dene
E
i) ~E (~r t) = ~ (~r t)=E (~r t)
$E $E E
ii) F (~r t) = F (~r t) ; ~vE (~r t) ~ (~r t).
$ $
Let ~, ~ , F , F be, respectively the physical quantities whose Eulerian descriptions
E $E $ E $E
are ~E , ~ , F , F . Then the denitions of ~ E and F imply
~ = ~ = or ~ = ~ (13.7.4)
$ $ $
~ = F ;~v ~ or F =F +~v~: (13.7.5)
The physical quantity ~ is called the density of stu per unit mass of continuum material
(\material density of the stu," for short), while ~ is the density of stu per unit volume
$
of physical space. The physical quantity F is the ux density of the stu relative to the
$
material in the continuum, or the material ux density, while F is the ux density of the
stu in space.
13.7. STUFF 219
$
Remark 13.7.69 Suppose the two pairs of functions ( ~ F ) and ( F~ ) are related by
(13.7.4). Then
$ $
@t ~ + @~ F = Dt ~ + @~ F (13.7.6)
$
so the creation rate of the stu ( ~ F ) is
$
~ = Dt ~ + @~ F : (13.7.7)
Proof:

@t ~ = (@t ) ~ + @t ~
$ h i
@~ F~ = @~ F + @~ (~v) ~ + (~v) @~~
h i h i $
@t + @~ F~ = @t + @~ (~v) ~ + @t ~ + ~v @~~ + @~ F
$
= 0~ + Dt ~ + @~ F :
QED.
Stus can be added if their densities and uxes have the same domain and same range.
We have
$
Denition 13.7.56 Suppose ( ~ F ) for each v = 1 N is a stu, and that all
these stus have the same K (t) and V in denition (13.7.1). Suppose c1 cN 2 R.
$ $
Then PN=1 c ( ~ F ) stands for the stu (PN=1 c ~ ) (PN=1 c F ).
$
Corollary 13.7.48 The stu PN=1 c ( ~ F ) has creation rate PN=1 c .
Proof:
Obvious from (13.7.3).
Corollary 13.7.49 In a continuum with particle velocity ~v and density , the material
density and material ux density of the stu PN=1 c ( F~ ) are, respectively PN=1 c
and PN=1 c F~ v.
Proof:
Obvious from (13.7.4) and (13.7.5).
Now we consider a number of stus which arise out of the conservation laws. The
name of each stu is capitalized and underlined, and then its spatial density ~ , spatial
$ $
ux F , material density ~, material ux F , and creation rate ~ are given. The stu is
$ $
not dened by ~ or ~ alone. Both ~ and F , or both ~ and F must be given. Then
$
is calculated from (13.7.3). The choice of F is dictated by convenience in applications.
Mass: = , F~ = ~v, = 1, F~ = ~0, = @t + @~ F~ = @t + @~ (~v) = 0. Mass is
not created, and its material ux is zero.
$
Momentum: ~ = ~v, F = ~v~v; $S , ~ = ~v, F$= ; $S , ~ = Dt +@~ F~ = Dt~v ;@~ S$= f~
.
$
Intrinsic Angular Momentum: ~ = ~l , F = ~v~l; M$ , ~ = ~l, F$= ; M$ , so =
$ $
Dt~l ; @~ M = m
~ + AP h2i S .
Kinetic Angular Momentum:
$ $
~ = ( ~r ~v) F = ~v( ~r + ~v)+ S ~r
$ $
~ = ~r ~v F =S ~r
$ $ $
~ = Dt ( ~r ~v) + @~ S ~r = ~r ~a ; ~r @~ S ; AP h2i S
$
~ = ~r f~ ; AP h2i S :
Total Angular Momentum:
$ $ $
~ = ~l + ~r ~v F = ~v ~l + ~r ~v ; M + S ~r
$ $ $
= ~l + ~r ~v F = ; M + S ~r :
Since total angular momentum is the sum of intrinsic and kinetic angular momentum
in the sense of denition (13.7.4), its creation rate is the sum of their creation rates,
by corollary (13.7.48). Thus
~ = m~ + ~r f~:
13.7. STUFF 221
Internal Energy:
= U F~ = ~vU + H~
= U F~ = H~
= Dt U + @~ H~
so
$
= h+ S h2i@~~v:
An alternative denition of internal energy suggests itself if h is entirely hnuc, the
radioactive heating rate. Let nuc L (~x t) be the nuclear energy in joules per kilo-
gram of mass near particle ~x. As the radioactive nuclei near ~x decay, they emit
-rays and massive particles. We will assume that these lose most of their energy
by collision with molecules so close to ~x that the macroscopic properties of the
continuum are nearly constant over the region where the collisions occur. Then
kinetic energy of molecular motion is added to the material near ~x at the rate
;Dt Lnuc(~x t) watts/kg. To convert to watts/meter 3 , we must multiply by the
density, so hLnuc(~x t) = ;L (~x t)Dt Lnuc(~x t) or
hnuc = ;Dt nuc: (13.7.8)
We can regard U + nuc as total internal energy density, and dene a stu called
TOTAL INTERNAL ENERGY with
= (U + nuc) F~ = ~v (U + nuc) + H~
= U + nuc F~ = H:
~
The creation rate of this energy is = Dt + @~ F~ = Dt U + @~ H~ + Dt nuc
$ $
= h+ S h2i@~~v ; hnuc. If h = hnuc, then =S h2i@~~v.
This \total internal energy" is not very useful when the value of nuc is unaected
by what happens to the material. That is the situation at the low temperatures and
pressures inside the earth (with one possible small exception see Stacey, Physics of
the Earth, p. 28). In such situations, hnuc= is a property of the material which is
known at any particle ~x at any time t, independent of the motion of the continuum.
By contrast, the molecular U is not known at ~x t until we have solved the problem
of nding how the continuum moves. In the deep interiors of stars, pressures and
temperatures are high enough to aect nuclear reaction rates, so it is useful to
include nuc with U .
Kinetic Energy:

= 12 v2 ~F = ~v 1 v2 ; S$ ~v
2
$
= 12 v2 F~ = ; S ~v
1 $
= ~ ~
Dt + @ F = 2 Dt v ; @ S ~v
2 ~
= ~v Dt~v ; @i (Sij vj ) relative to an orthonormal basis for P
= ~v ~a ; (@i Sij ) vj ; Sij @ivj
$ $
= ~a ; @~ S ~v; S h2i@~~v
$
= f~ ~v; S h2i@~~v:
IK Energy: (Internal plus Kinetic Energy).
This is the sum of internal energy and kinetic energy in the sense of denition
13.7.56, so it has
$
= 12 v2 + U F~ = ~v 12 v2 + U + H~ ; S ~v
$
= 21 v2 + U F~ = H~ ; S ~v
= h + f~ ~v:
Potential Energy: Suppose the body force density f~ is given by f~ = ;@~ where
the potential function E (~r t) is independent of time, i.e., @t = 0. Then Dt =
@t + ~v @~ = ~v @~ so Dt = ;f~ ~v.
Then the stu \potential energy" is dened by
= F~ = ~0
= F~ = ~v
13.7. STUFF 223
so its creation rate is = Dt = ;f~ ~v .

IKP Energy: (Internal plus kinetic plus potential energy).
If f~ = ;@~ with @t = 0, then we dene the stu \IKP energy" as the sum of
internal, kinetic and potential energies in the sense of denition (13.7.56). Then
$
= 12 v2 + U + F~ = H~ ; S ~v
1 1 $
= 2 v + U + F = ~v 2 v + U + + H~ ; S ~v:
2 ~ 2
By corollary 13.7.48, is the sum of the three 's for kinetic, internal and potential
energy, so = h. If we include nuclear potential energy in U and neglect other
sources of h (e.g. solar heating), then = 0. Usually, this is not done, and IKP
energy is called \total energy."
13.7.1 Boundary conditions

So far we have dealt only with physical quantities which were continuously dierentiable
to the extent needed to justify using Gauss's theorem and the vanishing integral the-
orem. Now we analyze what happens when there is a surface S in the continuum, across
which physical quantities may have jump discontinuities. That is, lim E (~r t) exists as ~r
approaches ~r0 2 S from either side of S , but the two limits are dierent.
Examples of such surfaces are the interface between the ocean and atmosphere, the
ocean bottom, the core-mantle boundary, and a shock wave in air, water or rock. (Shock
waves in rock are excited only by nuclear blasts and meteor impacts. Earthquakes are
too weak to excite them.)
We will assume that it is possible to choose a front side of S (M/obius strips are
excluded) and that we have done so. We will denote the unit normal to S on its front, or
positive, side by ^, and we will call its back side the negative side. S is a large surface,
not nearly plane, but piecewise smooth, so ^ can vary with position ~r 2 S . Moreover,
we will permit S to move, so that S (t) may vary with time t. Then so will ^(~r t), the
normal to S (t) at ~r 2 S (t). We will write W (~r t) for the velocity with which S (t) moves
^ r)
ν(
r . +
front
back
Figure 13.17:
normal to itself at point ~r 2 S (t), and we take W > 0 if the motion is in the direction of
^, W < 0 if opposite.
If the surface is given in physical space P , we write it as S E (t). If it is given in label
space L, we write it as S L(t). If is any physical quantity with a jump discontinuity
across S (t), we write E (~r0 t)+ for the limiting value of E (~r t) as ~r ! ~ro 2 S E (t) from
in front of S E (t). We write E (~r0 t); for the limit of E (~r t) as ~r ! ~r0 from behind
S E (t). And we dene
h i+
E (~r0 t) ; = E (~r0 t)+ ; E (~r0 t);: (13.7.9)
This quantity is called the jump in E across S E (t). We introduce a similar notation for
label space, with
hL i+
(~x0 t) ; = L (~x0 t)+ ; L (~x0 t); :
We will need the surface version of the vanishing integral theorem. This says that if
V is a Euclidean vector space, S is a surface in P or L, and f~ : S ! V is continuous, and
R dA(~r)f~(~r) = O~ for every open patch S 0 on S , then f~(~r) = O~ for all ~r 2 S . Here an
S0 V V
\open patch" on S is any set S 0 = K 0 \ S , where K 0 is an open subset of P or L. The
13.7. STUFF 225
proof of the surface version of the vanishing integral theorem is essentially the same as
the proof of the original theorem 11.5.26, so we omit it.
We will consider only the Eulerian forms of the conservation laws, so we will omit the
superscript E . The reader can easily work out the Lagrangian forms of the law.
We use the notation introduced on page 163, but now we assume that the surface S (t)
passes through K 0 (t). Therefore, we must augment the notation. We use K 0 (t)+ for the
part (excluding S (t)) of K 0(t) which is in front of S (t), @ + K 0(t) for the part of @K 0 (t) in
front of S (t), and @K 0 (t)+ for the whole boundary of K 0 (t)+, including K 0(t) \ S (t). If
is a function dened and continuous on the closed set K 0 (t) = K 0 (t) @K 0 (t), except for a
jump discontinuity on S (t), we write + for the continuous function on K 0(t)+ dened as
except on K 0(t) \ S (t), where its value is the + of equation (13.7.9). We label objects
behind S (t) in the same way, except that + is replaced by ;. The unit outward normal to
@K 0 (t)+ will be written n^+ . The unit outward normal to @K 0 (t); will be written n^ ;. The
unit outward normal to @K 0 (t) will be written n^ . Then n^+ = n^ on @ + K 0(t) and n^ + = ;^
on K 0 (t) \ S (t). And n^; = n^ on @ ; K 0(t), while n^; = ^ on K 0 (t) \ S (t). As on page 163,
we choose K 0(t) so that it always consists of the same particles. Then the outward normal
velocity of @K 0 (t)+ relative to itself is n^ ~ on @ + K 0(t) and ;W on K 0(t) \ S (t). Here ~v is
the particle velocity in the continuum. The outward normal velocity of @K 0 (t); relative
to itself is n^ ~v on @ ; K 0 (t) and W on K 0(t) \ S (t).
13.7.2 Mass conservation

Let M K 0 (t)] denote the mass of the material in K 0(t). Since K 0(t) always consists of the
same particles, the physical law of mass conservation is
d M K 0(t)] = 0: (13.7.10)
dt
We need a mathematical identity like (13.1.9). We begin with
Z
0
M K (t)] = dV (~r) (~r t) : (13.7.11)
K 0 (t)
This looks obvious until we recognize that there are physical situations which we might
want to model by placing a mass per unit area on S (t), which would have to be added
Figure 13.18:
13.7. STUFF 227
to (13.7.11). Examples are S (t) = the soap lm in a soap bubble in air, or S (t) = the ice
pack on a polar sea. We ignore these possibilities and assume
mass on S (t) = 0: (13.7.12)
Next, we try to dierentiate (13.7.10) using (11.6.1). The jump discontinuity on
S (t) \ K 0(t) prevents this, so we break (13.7.11) into
h i h i
M K 0(t)] = M K 0 (t)+ + M K 0(t); with (13.7.13)
h i Z
M K 0(t)+ = 0 + dV (~r)+(~r t) (13.7.14)
K (t)
h 0 ;i Z
M K (t) = 0 ; dV (~r); (~r t): (13.7.15)
K (t)
The two integrands in (13.7.14) and (13.7.15) are continuous, so we can apply (11.6.1) to
obtain
d M hK 0 (t)+i = Z dV (~r ) @ ++
Z
dA n
^ ~
v ++ ;
Z
dA W+: (13.7.16)
t
dt K 0 (t)+ @ + K 0 (t) K 0 (t)\S (t)
We would like to use Gauss's theorem on the right in (13.7.16), but @ + K 0 (t) is not a
closed surface.
To close it we must add K 0(t) \ S (t). Then
Z Z Z
dAn^ (~v)+ = dA n^ + (~v)+ ; dA n^ + (~v)+
@ + K 0(t) Z@K 0(t)+ Z K 0 (t)\S (t)
= dV @~ (~v)+ + dA ^ (~v)+
K 0 (t)
+ K 0(t)\S (t)
Using this in (13.7.16) gives
d M hK 0 (t)+i = Z dV
h
@ + ~
@ ( ~
v )
i+ Z
+ 0 dA (^ v^ ; W )]+ :
t
dt K 0 (t)+ K (t)\S (t)
But @t + @~ (~v)]+ in K 0(t)+ is just the value of @t + @~ (~v) there, so it vanishes, and
d M hK 0 (t)+i = Z dA (^ ~v ; W )]+ : (13.7.17)
dt K (t)\S (t)
0
By an exactly similar argument,

d M hK 0 (t);i = Z dA (^ ~v ; W )]; : (13.7.18)
dt K 0 (t)\S (t)
Therefore,
d M K 0(t)] = Z dA (^ ~v ; W )]+; : (13.7.19)
dt K 0(t)\S (t)
Combining (13.7.10) and (13.7.19) gives for K 0 = K 0(t)
Z
dA (^ ~v ; W )]+; = 0: (13.7.20)
K 0 (t)\S (t)
Since K 0 can be any open subset of K (t), K 0 \ S (t) can be any open patch on S (t).
Therefore, by the surface version of the vanishing integral theorem
(^ ~v ; W )]+; = 0 on S (t): (13.7.21)
By analogy with denition 13.7.53 ii), we call either (^ ~v ; W )]+ or (^ ~v ; W )];
the ux of mass across S (t), and write it m(~r t) since it depends on ~r and t. Thus
m = (^~v ; W )]+ = (^~v ; W )]; : (13.7.22)
If m = 0, S (t) is a boundary between materials. It is then called a contact surface. It is

not crossed by particles. Then
^ v~ + = ^ ^; = W: (13.7.23)
If m 6= 0, S (t) is a shock wave or shock front.
13.7.3 Momentum conservation

Again refer to gure 13.18. Let P~ K 0(t)] be the momentum in K 0 (t), while F~ K 0(t)] is
the force on that material. Then mometum conservation requires
d P~ K 0 (t)] = F~ K 0 (t)] : (13.7.24)
dt
We must nd mathematical identities for the two sides of (13.7.24). Because of (13.7.12),
we have
Z
P~ K 0(t)] = 0 dV ~v: (13.7.25)
K (t)
13.7. STUFF 229
Again we cannot appeal directly to (11.6.1) to dierentiate (13.7.25), because of the

jump discontinuity on S (t). Therefore we imitate the procedure beginning on page 224.
We have
h i h i
P~ K 0 (t)] = P~ K 0 (t)+ + P~ K 0 (t); (13.7.26)
where
h i Z
~P K 0 (t)+ = dV (~v)+ (13.7.27)
K 0 (t)+
h i Z
P~ K 0(t); = 0 ; dV (~v);: (13.7.28)
K (t)
Then, appealing to (11.6.1), we have
d P~ hK 0 (t)+i = Z dV @t (~v)+
dt KZ0 (t)+
+ + 0 dA n^ (~v~v )+
Z@ K (t)
; K 0(t)\S(t) dA W (~v)+
and
Z Z
dA n^ (~v~v)+ = dA n^ + (~v~v)+
@ K 0 (t)
+ @K 0 (t)+
Z
; K 0 (t)\S (t)
dA n^ + (~v~v)+
Z
= dV @~ (~v~v)+
KZ0 (t)+
+ dA ^ (~v~v)+ :
K 0(T )\S (t)
Thus
d P~ hK 0 (t)+i = Z dV
h
@ (~
v ) + ~ (~v~v)i+
@
t
dt KZ0 (t)+
+ 0 dA (^ ~v ; W ) ~v ]+ :
K (t)\S (t)
Now
h i h i
@t (~v) + @~ (~v~v) = @t + @~ (~v) ~v + @t~v + ~v @~~v
$
= Dt~v = ~a = @~ S +f~
so, using Gauss's theorem

d P~ hK 0(t)+i = Z dA n
^
$+
+ S
dt Z 0(t)+
@K Z
+ 0 + dV f + 0 ~ dA (^ ~v ; W ) ~v]+
Z K (t) Z K (t)\S(t) $
= 0 + dV f~ + + 0 dA n^ S
K (t)
Z @ K (t$) +
+ 0 dA ;^ S + ((^ ~v) ; W ) ~v :
K (t)\S (t)
Using 13.7.22, we nally get
d P~ hK 0 (t)+i = Z dV ~++
f
Z
dA n
^ $
dt K 0 (t)+ + 0
S
Z @ K$(t) +
+ 0 dA ;^ S +m~v : (13.7.29)
K (t)\S (t)
An exactly similar argument gives
d P~ hK 0(t); i = Z dV f~+
Z
dA n
^ $
dt K 0(t); @ ; K 0 (t)
S
Z $;
; K 0(t)\S(t) dA m~v ; ^ S : (13.7.30)
Therefore, adding (13.7.29) and (13.7.30),
d P~ K 0(t)] = Z dV f~ + Z dA n^ $
dt K 0 (t) @K 0 (t)
S
Z $+
+ 0 dA m~v ; ^ S : (13.7.31)
K (t)\S (t) ;
We still need a mathematical identity for F~ K 0 (t)] in (13.7.24). This seems easy:
Z Z $
~F K 0 (t)] = dV f~ + dA n
^ S : (13.7.32)
0
K (t) @K (t)0
But (13.7.32) does involve assumptions. If S (t) is an air-water interface holding an electric
charge per unit area, there will be an electrostatic force per unit area on S (t) which must
be added to (13.7.32). In addition, the surface integral on the right in (13.7.32) assumes
that the stress on the material just inside @K 0 (t) by the material just outside @K 0 (t)
$; $+
is n^ S behind S (t) and n^ S in front of S (t), all the way to S (t). In fact, if S (t)
is an air-water interface, for example, the water molecules just behind S (t) and the air
13.7. STUFF 231
molecules just in front will be arranged dierently from those in the bulk of the air and
water. Therefore, along the curve @K 0 (t) \ S (t) there will be an additional force per unit
length exerted by the molecules just outside @K 0 (t) on the molecules just inside @K 0 (t).
This force per unit length is called the surface stress in S (t). For an air-water interface it
is tangent to S (t) and normal to @K 0 (t) \ S (t), and its magnitude is the surface tension.
We assume
there is no surface stress or surface force per unit area on S (t): (13.7.33)
Then (13.7.32) is correct, and substituting (13.7.31) and (13.7.32) in (13.7.24) gives
Z $+
dA m~v ; ^ S = 0 (13.7.34)
K 0\S (t) ;
for any open subset K 0 of K (t). By the surface version of the vanishing integral theorem,
it follows that $+
m~v ; ^ S = 0 on S (t): (13.7.35)
;
If S (t) is a boundary between two materials rather than a shock, then m = 0 so
(13.7.35) reduces to $+
^ S = 0 on S (t): (13.7.36)
;
At a boundary between two materials (a contact surface), the stress on the boundary (the
\normal stress") is continuous across that boundary.
Equation (13.7.35) has a simple physical interpretation. Consider a small patch dA
on S (t). Mass mt dA crosses dA from back to front in time t, and gains momentum
mt ~v]+; dA = m~v]+; tdA. Therefore, the patch requires momentum to be supplied to
it at the rate m~v ]+;dA per second. Where does this come from? In the material the
$
ux density of momentum is ; S , so momentum arrives at the back of dA at the rate
;
;^ $S dA and leaves the front at the rate ;^ S$ dA. The net momentum accumulation
+
$ $+
rate in dA, available to supply the required m~v]+;dA, is ;^ S ; dA + ^ S +dA
$
= ^ S ]+;dA. Thus (13.7.35) simply says that the dierence in momentum ux into the
two sides of dA supplies the momentum needed to accelerate the material crossing dA. If
m = 0, this reduces to action = reaction, i.e. (13.7.36).
13.7.4 Energy conservation

The physical law of conservation of energy is
d E K 0(t)] = W K 0(t)] (13.7.37)
dt
where E K 0(t)] is the total kinetic plus internal energy in K 0(t) and W K 0 (t)] is the rate
at which energy is being added. We refer again to gure 13.18 and follow the by now
well-trodden path to nd mathematical identities for both sides of (13.7.37). We have
h i h i
E K 0(t)] = E K 0 (t)+ + E K 0 (t);
where +
h i Z
E K 0 (t)+ = K 0(t) dV 21 v2 + U+
(13.7.38)
with a similar formula for E K 0(t); ]. Then
d E hK 0(t)+ i = Z 1 +
dV @ v 2+U
t
dt K 0(t)+ 2
Z 1 + Z 1 +
+ + 0 dA n^ ~v 2 v2 + U ; dA W v 2+U :
@ K (t) K 0(t)\S (t) 2
Also
R h i h i
@ K 0 (t) dA n
+ ^ ~v 12 v2 + U + = R@0 K 0(t) dA n^ + ~v 21 v2 + U +
+
h i
; RK 0(t)\S(t) dA n^+ ~v 21 v2 + U +
R h i+ R h i+
= K 0(t)+ dV @~ ~v 12 v2 + U + K 0(t)\S(t) dA ^ ~v 21 v2 + U :
Thus,
d E hK 0(t)+i = Z 1 1 +
2 ~
dV @t 2 v + U + @ ~v 2 v + U 2
dt K 0(t)+
Z 1 +
+ 0 dA (^ ~v ; W ) 2 v + U :
2
K (t)\S (t)
Now on page 221 we see that IK energy is a stu with

1 1 $
.= 2 v2 + U F = ~v 2 v + U + H~ ; S ~v:
~ 2
13.7. STUFF 233
h i
Therefore @t . + @~ F~ = = h + f~ ~v for this stu. Thus @t ( 12 v2 + U ) + @~
h 1 2 i ~ ~ ~ $
~v 2 v + U + @ H ; @ S ~v = h + f~ ~v, and
d E hK 0(t)+i = Z +
dV ; ~ H~ + @~ S$ ~v ; h + f~ ~v
@
dt K 0(t)+
Z +
+ 0 dA m 21 v2 + U
Z K (t)\S(t) + Z $ +
~
= 0 + dV h + f ~v + 0 + dA n^ ;H + S ~v + ~
K (t) @K (t)
Z 1 +
+ 0 dA m 2 v + U2
K (t)\S (t)
d E hK 0 (t)+i = Z ~ + Z $
dV h + f ~v + + 0 dA n^ ;H + S ~v ~
dt K 0 (t)+ @ K (t)
Z 1 $ +
+ 0 dA m 2 v + U + ^ H~ ; S ~v : (13.7.39)
2
K (t)\S (t)
Similarly,
d E hK 0(t);i = Z ~ ; Z $
dV h + f ~v + + 0 dA n^ ;H + S ~v ~
dt K 0 (t); @ K (t)
Z 1 $ ;
; K 0(t)\S(t) dA m 2 v + U + ^ H~ ; S ~v : (13.7.40)
2
Therefore
d E K 0(t)] = Z dV h + f~ ~v + Z
dA n
^ ; ~ + S$ ~v
H
dt K 0 (t) @ + K 0(t)
Z 1 $ +
+ 0 dA m 2 v2 + U + ^ H~ ; S ~v : (13.7.41)
K (t)\S (t) ;
Also, Z Z

W K 0(t)] = K 0(t)
dV h + f~ ~v +
@K 0(t)
dA n^ ;H~ + S~ ~v :
Therefore, (13.7.37) implies
Z 1 $ +
dA m 2 v + U + ^ H~ ; S ~v = 0
2 (13.7.42)
K 0 \S (t) ;
for every open subset K 0 of K (t). By the surface version of the vanishing integral theorem,
1 $ +
m 2 v2 + U + ^ H~ ; ^ S ~v = 0 on S (t): (13.7.43)
;
If the material is stationary, m = 0 and ~v = 0, so (13.7.43) reduces to the thermal

boundary condition
h ~ i+
^ H ; = 0: (13.7.44)
$ $
At a material boundary which is not a shock, m = 0, so ^ S ]+ = ^ S ];, and
$ $ $ $ $ $ $
^ S ~v]+; = ^ S ]+ ~v+ ;(^ S ); ~v; = (^ S ) ~v]+; where ^ S = ^ S ]+ = ^ S ];.
Also, from (13.7.23), if ~v = v ^ + ~vS where vv = ^ ~v, then v+ = v;, so ~v]+; = ~vS ]+.
Therefore (13.7.43) becomes
h ~ i+ $
^ H ; = ^ S ~vS ]+; : (13.7.45)
The quantity ^ H~ ]+; is the net heat ow per unit area per second from the boundary into
the surrounding medium. Equation (13.7.45) says that heat is generated mechanically
when the two materials slip past one another at the relative velocity ~vS ]+; and when the
$
surface stress (^ S ) on the boundary has a component in the direction of the tangential
relative slip velocity. Brune, Henyey and Roy (J. Geophys. Res. 74, 3821) used the
absence of an observed heat ow anomaly along the San Andreas fault, together with an
$
estimate of ~vS ]+; on the fault, to put an upper bound on the component of ^ S in the
direction of slip. They used (13.7.45).
Even when m 6= 0, (13.7.43) can be made to resemble 13.7.45. We have
1 + 1 m v~ + ; v~ ; v~ + + v~ ;
mv 2 =
2 ; 2
$+ $;
= 12 ^ S ; S v~ + + v~ ; from 13.7.35
so
1 $ + 1 $+ $; + $+ ~; $; ~;
2 mv2 ; ^ S ~v = 2 ^ ; S v~ ; S v~ + S v + S v
+
; $+ $;
= ;^ 1 S + S ~v]+; :
2
Dene
$ + 1 $+ $;
hS i; = 2 S + S = average S$ on S: (13.7.46)
Then (13.7.43) can be written in general as
h ~ i+ $
^ H + m U ; = ^ hS i+; ~v]+; : (13.7.47)
Chapter 14
Strain and Deformation
14.1 Finite deformation

Consider a continuum which at time t occupies open subset K (t) of physical space P .
Suppose K 0 (t0) is a very small open subset of K (t0 ). We would like to be able to visualize
the particles in K 0(t0 ), and to see their spatial positions at a particular later time t. The
time dierence t ; t0 is not small, but K 0 (t0) is a very small set, in a sense to be made
precise shortly.
We use t0 -position labelling. Then label space L is the same as physical space P ,
and ~r L(~x t) = position at time t of the particle which was at position ~x at time t0 . The
particles in which we are interested have their labels in the set H 0 = K 0(t0 ). First choose
a particular particle ~xA 2 K 0(t0 ). Let ~rA be its position at time t. Then ~rA = ~r L(~xA t).
Consider any other particle ~x 2 K 0(t0 ), and let ~r be its position at time t. Then ~r =
~r L(~x t). Dene ~ = ~r ; ~rA, ~ = ~x ; ~xA. Then
~ = ~r L(~x t) ; ~r L (~xA t) = ~r L(~xA + ~ t) ; ~r L(~xA t)
so

~ = ~ D~
~ r L (~xA t) + k~kR~ ~ (14.1.1)
where R~ (~) is the remainder function for ~r L( t) at ~xA .
235
236 CHAPTER 14. STRAIN AND DEFORMATION
L .
( , t)
.
r
x . r
ξ
. x
A
. ρ
rA
H ′=K ′(t 0 ) K ′(t)
Figure 14.1:
Now we assume that K 0 (t0) has been chosen so small that for every ~x 2 K 0(t0 ),

kR~ ~ k << kD~
~ r L (~xA t) k: (14.1.2)
This is the sense in which K 0 (t0) must be a small set. If (14.1.2) is satised, then we can
neglect the remainder term in (14.1.1) and write
~ = ~ D~
~ r L (~xA t) : (14.1.3)
If we measure initial positions in K 0 (t0) as displacement vectors from an origin at ~xA ,

and nal positions in K 0 (t) as displacement vectors from an origin ~rA, the mapping from
initial to nal positions ~ 7;! ~ is linear, and is (14.1.3). Thus the eect of the motion
on the particles in K 0(t0 ) is clear. The particle at ~xA is displaced to ~rA. The relative
positions of nearby particles, relative to particle ~xA 's position, suer the linear mapping
(14.1.3).
As we have noted (see 12.2.7), j det D~ ~ r L(~xA t0)j is never 0 for any t0 . But ~r L(x t0 ) =
~ r L(~x t0 ) =$I P and det D~
~x, so D~ ~ r L(~xA t0) = 1. Then, since det D~ ~ r L(~xA t0) depends
continuously on t0 and is never 0, it cannot change sign, so it is always positive. Therefore
~ r L (~xA t) > 0:
det D~ (14.1.4)
It follows from the polar decomposition theorem (page D-27) that there are unique tensors
$ $
C and R2 P P with these properties:
14.1. FINITE DEFORMATION 237
$
i) C is symmetric and positive denite,
$
ii) R is proper orthogonal (i.e., a rotation through some angle between 0 and about
some axis w^).
iii)
~ r L (~xA t) =C$ R
D~
$
: (14.1.5)
Thus (14.1.3) is
$ $
~ = ~ C R : (14.1.6)
Thus the eect of the motion on K 0 (t0) is to displace ~xA to ~rA then to subject the relative
position vectors (relative to particle ~xA) to the symmetric operator C and then to rotate
everything through angle about an axis passing through ~rA in the direction of w^.
$
The displacement ~xA 7;! ~rA and the rotation R are easy to visualize. The mapping
$ $ $
C may be worth discussing. Since C T =C there is an orthonormal basis y^1, y^2, y^3 for P
which consists of eigenvectors of C. That is, there are scalars c1, c2, c3 such that
C (^yi) = c(i) y^(i) i = 1 2 3: (14.1.7)

$ $ $ $ $ $ P
Then yî C = c(i) y^(i) so C = I P C = (^yi yî) C = yî yî C = 3i=1 c(i) y^(i) y^(i) . Thus
$
C = c1 y^1y^1 + c2y^2y^2 + c3y^3y^3: (14.1.8)
$
Since C is positive denite, c1 and c2 and c3 must all be positive. Now ~ = 1y^1 +2y^2 +3y^3
$
so ~ C = c11y^1 + c2 2y^2 + c3 3y^3. If we imagine a cube with edges of unit length parallel
$
to the axes y^1, y^2, y^3, the eect of C is to multiply the i'th edge of the cube by ci,
transforming that cube to the rectangular parallelipiped in gure 14.2.
Suppose that in K 0(t0 ) we imagine a small cube, with edges of length " parallel to the
$
axes y^1, y^2, y^3 which are eigenvectors for C . We can use the cube on the left in 14.2 by
shrinking its edges to " and placing the hidden vertex at ~xA. Then the eect of ~r L ( t)
on this cube is
i) to translate it so the hidden vertex is at ~rA
^y
3
^y c2
3
1 c3
^y
2
^y
1 2 c1
^y
^y 1
1
Figure 14.2:
14.1. FINITE DEFORMATION 239
ii) to stretch or compress it by the factor ci in the direction yî, as shown in Figure 14.2
iii) to rotate it through angle , with 0 , about an axis passing through ~rA in the
direction w^.
Now (14.1.5) implies
$ $0
~ r L (~xA t) =R
D~ C (14.1.9)
where
$ $ $ $ X 3 $ $
C 0=R;1 C R= ci yî R yî R : (14.1.10)
i=1
$
Therefore we can perform the rotation R as step ii), and the stretching or compression
as step iii). But then, from (14.1.10), the orthogonal axes along which stretching or
$ $ $
compression occurs are the rotated axes y^1 R, y^2 R, y^3 R.
All this motivates the following denition:
Denition 14.1.57 Suppose a continuum is labelled with t0-positions, and ~r L : K (t0 )
R ! P is the resulting Lagrangian description of the motion. Suppose t 2 R. Then
~r L( t) : K (t0 ) ! K (t) is called the \deformation" of the continuum from t0 to t. For
any ~xA 2 K (t0), D~ ~ r L(~xA t) is the \deformation gradient" at particle ~xA . The rotation
$ $
R in (14.1.5) and (14.1.9) is called the \local rotation at particle ~xA", and C in (14.1.5)
$
is the \prerotation stretch tensor at ~xA ", while C 0 in (14.1.9,14.1.10) is the \postrotation
$ L
~ r L(~xA t) as G $
stretch tensor at ~xA ." We will write D~ t0 (~xA t). For any t0 , Gt0 , is a
physical quantity.
$ $
Various tensors obtained from C or C 0 are called nite strain tensors. The commonest
$ $
is probably C ; I P , and the most useful is probably
X3
(ln ci) yîyî:
i=1
All these strain tensors reduce to the innitesimal strain tensor when the deformation is
$ $
nearly the identity mapping (see next section), and to 0 when ~r L( t) = I P .
In the foregoing discussion, the displacement of particle ~xA to position ~rA was so easy
to visualize that we said very little about it. It is worth considering. If we x t0 , the
displacement vector of any particle ~x at time t is
~sL (~x t) = ~r L (~x t) ; ~r L (~x t0 ) : (14.1.11)
As the notation indicates, we will consider the physical quantity ~s, called displacement,
whose Lagrangian description is the ~sL dened by (14.1.11). The denition requires that
we x t0. If we change it, we change the denition of ~s.

For t0 -position labelling, ~r L(~x t0 ) = ~x = ~x L (~x t) so ~sL(~x t) = ~r L ; ~x L (~x t).
Therefore
~s = ~r ; ~x for t0-position labelling: (14.1.12)
Equation (14.1.12) makes it convenient to use t0 -position labelling when studying dis-
~ x =$I P so D~ ~x =$I P .
placements. In particular, for such labelling, (D~ ~x )L(~x t) = D~
Thus, from (14.1.12)
~ r =$I P +D~
D~ ~ s for t0-position labelling: (14.1.13)
$ $
Also, (@~ ~r )E (~r t) = @~~r = I P so @~ ~r = I P . Then from (14.1.12)
$
@~ ~x = I P ;@~~s for t0 -position labelling: (14.1.14)
~ r ) =$I P , so from (14.1.13) and (14.1.14), ($I P ; $@ ~s) ($I P +D~
But (@~ ~x ) (D~ ~ s) =$I P , or
$ ~ ~ ~ ~ $
I P +D~s ; @~s ; @~s D~s = I P , or

D~ ~ s = @~~s $I P +D~
~ s = @~~s + @~~s D~ ~s : (14.1.15)
14.2 Innitesimal displacements

We use t0-position labelling throughout this section, and we discuss the displacement ~s
dened by (14.1.11) or (14.1.12).
Denition 14.2.58 A tensor T$2 P P is \small" if k T$ k << 1. That is k T$ h2i T$

$ $
k << 1. A tensor Q2 P P is \close to the identity" if Q ; $I P is small.
1
2
14.2. INFINITESIMAL DISPLACEMENTS 241
$ $
Remark 14.2.70 Suppose T$2 P P and k T$ k < 1. Dene (T$)n =T n, so T 0=$I P ,
$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
T 1=T , T 2=T T , T 3=T T T , etc. Then ( I P + T );1 and limN !1 PNn=0(;1)n T n
both exist, and they are equal.
Proof:
X
N $ X
N $ n k T$ kM
k (;1)n T n k kT k $ :
n= M n=M 1;k T k
As M , N ! 1, this ! 0, so the Cauchy convergence criterion assures the
$
existence of limN !1 PNn=0(;1)n T n. Then
$ $ X N $n XN $n XN $
I P + T (;1) T =
n (;1) T + (;1)n T n+1
n
n=0 n=0 n=0
X n $n NX
N +1 $ $ $N +1
= (;1) T ; (;1)n T n= I P +(;1)N T :
n=0 n=1
$N +1 $
But k T k k T kN +1, so letting N ! 1 on both sides gives
$ $ X 1 $ $
IP T+ (;1)n T n= I P :
n=0
QED
~ sk << 1, then k@~~sk << 1, and to rst order in D~
Corollary 14.2.50 If kD~ ~ s,
~ s = @~~s:
D~ (14.2.1)
Proof:
$ ~ ;1
By remark 14.1.14, ( I P +D~ s) exists and equals P1 n ~ s n . Then
n=0 (;1) D~
k($I P +D~
~ s);1k P1 ~ s ($I P
~ skn = 1=(1 ; kD~sk). By (14.1.15) , @~~s = D~
n=0 kD~
~ s );1, so
+D~

~ s ;1 k kD~
~ skk IP + D~

~ sk= 1 ; kD~

~ sk :
k@~sk kD~
Remark 14.2.71 If T$2 P P and T$ is symmetric and k T$ k < 1, then $I P + T$ is

positive denite and its positive denite square root is
0 1
$ $1=2 X1 B 21 C $n
IP + T = @ A T (14.2.2)
n=0 n
where 0 1
B@ N CA = N (N ; 1) (N ; n + 1)=n! (= 1 if n = 0):
n
Proof:
$ $ $
If k T k < 1, all T 's eigenvalues lie between ;1 and 1. Therefore I P + T has
all itseigenvalues
between 0 and 2. Therefore, it is positive denite. That
$
P1 1n=2 T n exists, is positive denite, and when squared gives $ + $
n=0 IP T
can be proved
in the same way as remark (14.2.70). Alternatively, the eect
1=2 $
of PNn=0 n T n can be studied on each of the vectors in an orthonormal
$
basis for P consisting of eigenvectors of T . Then one simply uses the known
$ $
validity of (14.2.2) when I P is replaced by 1 and T by any of its eigenvalues.
$
Corollary 14.2.51 Suppose T T =T$ and k T$ k < 1. Then correct to rst order in k T$ k,
$ $1=2 $ 1 $
I P + T =I P +2 T :
Theorem 14.2.29 Use the notation of denition (14.1.9), and dene the displacement ~s
~ sk << 1. Then to rst order in D~
by (14.1.12). Suppose that kD~ ~ s we have
@~~s = D~
~s (14.2.3)
$ $0 $ 1 h ~ ~ s (~xA t)T
i
C =C = I P + 2 D~ s (~xA t) + D~ (14.2.4)
$ $ 1 h~ i
~ s (~xA t)T :
R= I P + 2 D~s (~xA t) ; D~ (14.2.5)
Proof:
We have already proved (14.2.3). For the rest, abbreviate D~ ~ s(~xA t) as T$.
~ r =C$ R $ $ $T $T $ $ $;1
~ r )T =C$ R
~ r ) (D~
Since D~ we have (D~ R C =C R R
$ $ $ $ $2
C =C I P C =C , so
$ T 1=2 "$ $ $ $ !#1=2
C = D~ ~ r D~~r = IP + T IP + TT
"$ $ $ $ $ #1=2
= IP + T + TT + T TT
$ 1 $ $T $ $T ! ( $ $ $ $ )
= I P + 2 T + T + T T + O k T + T T + T T T k2
$ 1 $ $T ! $
= I P + T + T + O k T k2 :
2
~ r =R $ $0 ~ T ~ $0T $T $ $0 $0 $;1 $ $0
Also, D~ C , so D~r D~r =C R R C = C R R C
$0 $ $0 $02
=C I P C = C so
T 1=2 "$ $ ! $ $#1=2
C~ 0 = D~ ~ r D~~r = IP + TT IP + T
"$ $ $ $ $#
= IP + TT + T + TT T
$ 1 $T $ $T $! ( $ $ $ $ )
= I P + 2 T + T + T T + O k T T + T + T T + T k2
$ 1 $ $T $
= I P + T + T + O k T k2 :
2
$ $ $ $ $ n o
~ r =C ;1 $I P + T$ and C ;1=$I P ; 21 T$ + T T +O kT~ k2
Finally, R=C ;1 D~
so
$ $ $ $ ! n o! $ $
1
R = I P ; 2 T + T T + O kT~ k2 I P + T
$ 1 $ $T ! n o
= I P + 2 T ; T + O kT~ k2 :
QED.
Denition 14.2.59 Use t0-position labelling so the displacement ~s is dened by (14.1.12).
~ sL(~x t)k << 1. Then the tensor
Suppose kD~
$ L (~x t) = 1 hD~
~ sL(~x t) + D~
~ sL(~x t)T
i
(14.2.6)
2
is called the innitesimal strain tensor at particle ~x at time t, and

$ h~ L i
wL (~x t) = 21 D~ ~ sL(~x t)T
s (~x t) ; D~ (14.2.7)
is the innitesimal rotation tensor. The vector
w~ L (~x t) = 12 AP h2i w$L (~x t) (14.2.8)
is called the innitesimal rotation vector at particle ~x at time t.

Corollary 14.2.52 w~ L(~x t) can be written 1=2D~ ~sL(~x t) or 1=2 @~ ~s L (~x t) because
w~ L (~x t) = 21 AP h2iD~
~ sL (~x t) (14.2.9)
~ s,
and, to rst order in D~
L
w~ L (~x t) = 12 AP h2i @~~s (~x t) : (14.2.10)
Proof:
(14.2.10) follows from (14.2.9) and (14.2.3). To prove (14.2.9) note that for
$
any tensor T we have
$ $
AP h2i T T = ;AP h2i T : (14.2.11)
To see this, look at components relative to a pooob in P . Then (14.2.11)
is equivalent to "ijk Tkj = ;"ijk Tjk . But by changing index names we get
"ijk Tkj = "ijkTjk = ;"ijk Tjk . Applying (14.2.11) to (14.2.7, 14.2.8) with
$ ~ L
T = D~ s (~x t) gives (14.2.9). QED
Corollary 14.2.53 Let y^1, y^2, y^3 be an orthonormal basis for P consisting of eigenvectors
of $ (~xA t), where ~xA is as in denition 14.1.9. Then to rst order in D~
~ sL(~xA t),
$ $0 $ $ X
3
=
C C IP= + (~xA t) = (1 + i ) yîyî (14.2.12)
i=1
where 1 , 2, 3 are the eigenvalues of $ (~xA t) belonging to the eigenvectors y^1 , y^2, y^3.
$
And R is a rotation in the right-handed-screw sense through angle kw~ L(~xA t)k about the
axis through O~ P in the direction w~ L(~xA t).
ξ sin θ
δφ
ω
θ
ω x ξ
ξ
OP
Figure 14.3:
Proof:
We show $ (~xA t) = P3i=1 i yîyî in the same way we showed (14.1.8). The
$
rest of (14.2.12) follows from (14.2.4). To prove the results about R, we note
from exercise 9c that
w$L (~xA t) = AP w~ L (~xA t) :

~s
Then from (14.2.5). to rst order in D~
$ $
R= I P +AP w~ L(~xA t):
$
If we apply R to a vector ~, the result is
$
~ R= ~ + ~ AP w~ L (~xA t) :
We claim ~ AP ~v = ~v ~. Looking at components relative to a pooob,

(~ Ap ~v)i = j "jik vk = "ikj vk j ~v ~ i. Therefore
$
~ R= ~ + w~ L (~xA t) ~: (14.2.13)
Abbreviate w~ L (~xA t) by w~ , and examine gure 14.3 where ~ R~ = ~ + w~ ~.

Since kw~ ~k = kw~ kk~k sin , clearly = kw~ k. QED.
Now suppose
t = t0 + t (14.2.14)
where t is small enough that it is a good approximation to write
~r L (~x t) = ~r L (~x t0 ) + tDt ~r L (~x t0) + O (t)2 : (14.2.15)
Then, since Dt ~r = ~v and ~sL(~x t) = ~r L(~x t) ; ~r L(~x t0), we have
~sL (~x t) = t~vL (~x t0 ) + O (t)2 (14.2.16)
Then, to rst order in t,

$ L (~x t) =$ L (~x t + t) = t 1 hD~
~ vL (~x t0 ) + D~~ vL (~x t0 )T
i
(14.2.17)
0
2
h~ L i
w$L (~x t) =w$L (~x t0 + t) = t 1 D~ v ( ~
x t 0 ) ; ~ vL (~x t0)T
D~ (14.2.18)
2
h~ L i
w$L (~x t) =w$L (~x t0 + t) = t 1 Aph2i D~ v ( ~
x t0 )
2
= t 12 D~ ~vL (~x t0) : (14.2.19)
Consider the material near particle ~xA at various times t0 + t, with small t. Relative to
particle ~xA, the material stretches as in (14.2.12), the fractional stretching i being propor-
h~ L i
~ vL (~xA t0)T ,
tional to t, i = _ it, where _ i is one of the eigenvalues of 1=2 D~
v (~xA t0) + D~
and yî in (14.2.12) is the corresponding eigenvector. And relative to particle ~xA , the mater-
ial also rotates through angle tk 12 D~ ~vL (~xA t)k about an axis through ~xA and in direction
1~ ~ L
2 D ~v (~x0 t). In other words, it rotates with angular velocity 1=2D ~v (~xA t). To rst
L
$ $
order in t C 0=C , so the rotation can occur before or after the stretching. We prefer to
think of them as occurring simultaneously. The foregoing analysis began by choosing a
time t0 at which to introduce t0-position labels. We can choose t0 to be any time we like
the foregoing results are true for all t0 2 R. Therefore, we can dene physical quantities
$_ , w$_ , w~_ by requiring for any ~x 2 P and any t 2 r that
0
$_ E (~x t ) = 1 hD~
~ vL (~x t0) + D~
~ vL (~x t0)T
i
(14.2.20)
0
2
h~ L i
w$_ (~x t0 ) = 1 D~
E
v (~x t ~ vL (~x t0)T
0 ) ; D~ (14.2.21)
2
w$_ (~x t0 ) = 1 D~ ~vL (~x t0)
E
2 : (14.2.22)
Here it is understood that to evaluate the left side of (14.2.20, 14.2.21, 14.2.22) at any
particular t0 , we use that t0 to establish t0 -position labels in establishing the Lagrangian
descriptions needed on the right. Each t0 on the left calls for a new Lagrangian description
on the right, the one using t0-position labels.
But with t0-position labels, D~ ~ r L(~x t0) =$I P , so @~E f E (~x t0) = D~ Lf L(~x t0 ) for any
physical quantity f . Therefore D~ ~ vL can be replaced by @~~vE on the right in 14.2.20. Since
the Eulerian description of physical quantities are independent of the way particles are
labelled, this replacement leads to the conclusions
$_ = 1 @~~v + @~~vT (14.2.23)
2

w$_ = 1 @~~v ; @~~v T (14.2.24)
2
w~_ = 21 @~ ~v: (14.2.25)
The quantity 2w~_ is called the vorticity, and $_ is the strain-rate tensor.
Chapter 15
Constitutive Relations
15.1 Introduction
Let us examine the conservation laws as a system. They are
Eulerian Form Lagrangian Form
Mass Dt + @~ ~v = 0 Dt ~ = 0 (15.1.1)
$ $ ~
Momentum Dt~v = @~ S +f~ ~
~Dt~v = D S~ +f~ (15.1.2)
$ $
Internal Energy Dt U + @~ H~ = h+ S h2i@~v ~DtU + D~ H~ = h~ + S~ h2iD~
~ v:
(15.1.3)
If we knew the initial values of , ~v and U , or ~, ~v and U , at some instant t0 , we might
hope to integrate (15.1.3) forward in time to nd later values of these quantities. To do
this, clearly we must know f~ and h, or ~f~ and h~ , and we will assume henceforth that these
$ ~ $
are given to us. But there still remains the question of nding H~ and S , or H and S~. The
equations which give their values when the state of the material is known are called the
\constitutive equations" of the material. Ideally, we would like to be able to deduce these
from the molecular pictures of matter, but theory and computational techniques are not
yet adequate to this task for most materials. We must rely on experimental measurements.
The outcomes of these experiments suggest idealized mathematical models for various
classes of real materials.
249
250 CHAPTER 15. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS
^n
∂K
Figure 15.1:
In modelling a real material, one usually begins by considering its homogeneous ther-
mostatic equilibrium states (HTES). Then one studies small deviations from thermostatic
equilibrium, by linearizing in those deviations. Large deviations from thermodynamic
equilibrium are not fully understood, and we will not consider them. They make plasma
physics di#cult, for example.
A homogeneous thermostatic equilibrium state (HTES) is said to exist in a material
when no macroscopically measurable property of that material changes with time, and
when the macroscopic environments of any two particles are the same. The second law of
thermodynamics then implies that there can be no heat ow in the material. The material
can have a constant velocity, but if it does we study it from a laboratory moving with
the same velocity, so we may assume ~v = ~0 in an HTES. Then DtU = @t U . But @t U = 0
$
so, from (15.1.3), h = 0. The Cauchy stress tensor S must be the same everywhere at all
$
times in an HTES, so @~ S = ~0, and (15.1.3 momentum]) implies f~ = ~0. Therefore, in an
HTES we have
= constant H~ = ~0 ~v = ~0:
U = constant h = 0
$
S = constant f~ = ~0
If the material occupies a volume K with boundary @K and unit outward normal n^ ,
then in order to maintain the material in an HTES we must apply to the surface @K a
15.1. INTRODUCTION 251
$
stress n^ S , and we must prevent surface heat ow and volume heating. That is we need
8 $
>
> surface stress applied to @K at ~
r is n
^ (~r ) S
>
<
> n^(~r) H~ = 0 at every ~r 2 @K (15.1.4)
>
>
: h = 0 at every ~r 2 K:
Two HTES's are dierent if they dier in any macroscopically measurable quantity,
including chemical composition. Most pure substances require only the values of a few of
their physical properties in order to specify their HTES's. For example, two isotropically
pure samples of H2O (no deuterium, only O16) liquid which have the same density and
the same internal energy per unit mass will have the same values of pressure, temperature,
entropy per gram, electrical resistivity, index of refraction for yellow light, neutron mean
absorption length at 15 kev, etc. For water, the set of all possible HTES's is a two-
parameter family. (We have ignored, and will ignore, electrical properties. It is possible
to alter U for water by polarizing it with an electric eld.)
Changes from one HTES to another are produced by violating some of the conditions
(15.1.4). Changes produced by altering the surface stress applied to @K are said to \do
work," while changes produced by letting h 6= 0 are said to involve \internal heating or
cooling," and n^ H~ 6= 0 on @K involves \heat ow at @K ." For the materials in which
we are interested, these changes can be described as follows. We pick one HTES as a
reference state, and call it HTES0 We use t0 -position labelling, where t0 is any time when
the material is in HTES0 . We carry out a change by violating (15.1.4), and wait until time
t1 when the material has settled into a steady state, HTES1. The Lagrangian description
of the motion is ~r L(~x t), and it is independent of t for t t0 and for t t1 . We write
~r 01 (~x) = ~r L (~x t1) : (15.1.5)
$ ~ r 01 (~x) :
G01 (~x) = D~ (15.1.6)
Since the environments of all particles must be alike in HTES1 , they must have been
subjected to the same stretch and the same rotation so
$
G01 is constant, independent of ~x: (15.1.7)
$
(G01 is called the deformation gradient of HTES1 relative to HTES0.) Then from (15.1.6),
$
~r 01 (~x) = ~x G01 + ~r 01 (~0). If ~r 01 (~0) 6= ~0, we may move the material with a uniform
displacement so ~r 01 (~0) = ~0. Thus we may assume
$
~r 01 (~x) = ~x G01 : (15.1.8)
$
Here ~x is particle position in HTES0 and ~x G01 is particle position in HTES1. If we
want to study another HTES, say HTES2, we can adopt either HTES0 or HTES1 as the
$
reference state. If we use HTES1 for refrence, then particle position in HTES2 is ~x1 G12
$
where ~x1 is particle position in HTES1 and G12 is calculated from (15.1.6) but with t1
$
position labelling. If a particle has position ~x in HTES0, then ~x1 = ~x G01 and so ~x2 =
$ $ $ $
position in HTES2 = ~x1 G12 = ~x G01 G12 . But also ~x2 = ~x G02 , so
$ $ $
G02 =G01 G12 (15.1.9)
for any HTES0 , HTES1, HTES2.
15.2 Elastic materials

The observed HTES's of many material are approximated well by the following idealiza-
tion:
Denition 15.2.60 An elastic material is one whose HTES's have these properties:
$ $
i) If HTES0 is any HTES, there is an M0 > 0 such that for any G2 P P with k G
; $I P k < M0 , there is an HTES1 whose deformation gradient relative to HTES0 is
$ $
G10 =G
ii) Once a reference state HTES0 is chosen, any other equilibrium state HTES1 is com-
$
pletely determined by its deformation gradient G01 relative to HTES0 , and by its
entropy per unit mass N1.
iii) U , the internal energy per unit mass, is unchanged by rigid rotations. That is, if
$ $
G2 P P and R2 $+(P ) then
$ $ $
U G N = U G R N : (15.2.1)
15.2. ELASTIC MATERIALS 253
Now consider two dierent HTES's of an elastic material, say HTES1 and HTES2 ,
neither of them the reference state HTES0 . Suppose ~r L : K0 R ! P is the Lagrangian
description of the motion which carries the material from state 1 to state 2. Here K0 is
the region occupied by the material in HTES0 , so the total mass of the material is
M = jK0j~ (15.2.2)
where jK0j = volume of K0 . The total internal energy of the material is
U i = MUi = jK0 j~Ui in HTESi : (15.2.3)
Let 412W be the work done on the material and 412 Q the heat added to it in going from
HTES1 to HTES2 . Energy conservation requires
412 W + 412 Q = U 2 ; U 1 : (15.2.4)
Now suppose HTES1 and HTES2 are not very dierent. Then we will write df = f2 ;f1
for any property f of the two states. Thus (15.2.4) is d U = 412W + 412Q. According
to the second law of thermodynamics, correct to rst order in small changes,
412Q d N = ( N 2 ; N 1) (15.2.5)
where N i = jK0j~Ni = total entropy of state i, and is the smaller of 1 and 2 . It

is possible to nd processes ~r L in which equality is approximated arbitrarily closely in
(15.2.5). These are called \reversible processes." In such processes
412Q = jK0 j~dN: (15.2.6)
In any transition from state 1 to state 2, reversible or not,

~ $
~ ~
~DtU = ;D H + h+ S~ h2iD~ ~v
so, integrating over K0 and using Gauss's theorem,

Z Z Z ~ Z $
~ dVL(~x)Dt U = dVLh~ ; ~ ~v
dAL n^L H + dVL S~ h2iD~
K0 K0 @K0 K0
or
d U = Q_ + Z dV $~ h2iD~
LS ~ v
dt K0
where Q_ is the rate at which heat is added to the material. Thus, integrating from t1 to
t2 Z t2 Z $
U 2 ; U 1 = 412Q + dt dVL S~ h2iD~ ~ v:
t1 K0
Comparing with (15.2.4) we see that
Z t2 Z $
412W = dt dVL S~ h2iD~ ~ v:
t1 K0
$
Now if the transformation is done slowly, S~ will be nearly constant, about equal to its
value in HTES1 or HTES2 so
$ Z Z t2
412W =S~ h2i dVL ~ v:
dtD~
K0 t1
~ v = DD
But ~v = dt ~r so D~ ~ t ~r , (D~~ v)L(~x t) = DD
~ t
~r L(~x t) ~ r L (~x t)
= Dt D~
$ ~ v = Dt G $
= (Dt G)L(~x t). Thus, D~ , and
$ Z $ $
~
412W =S h2i K dVL(~x) G (~x t2) ; G (~x t1) :
0
$ $
But G (~x t1 ) and G (~x t2 ) refer to HTES's. They are independent of ~x. Thus
$
412W = jK0j S~ h2id G$ : (15.2.7)
$ $
From (15.2.4), (15.2.6) and (15.2.7), d U = jK0j S~ h2id G +jK0j ~ dN . Since
d U = jK0j~dU , dividing by jK0j~ gives
$
$ S~
dU = d G h2i ~ + dN (15.2.8)
$
for small reversible changes between HTES's. Here and S~ refer to either the initial or
the nal state, since they are close.
$
But U is a function of G and N . Equation (15.2.8) says this function is dierentiable,
and that $ @ $
G N = @N U G N (15.2.9)
15.2. ELASTIC MATERIALS 255
$ $
S~ (G N ) = @~$ U $ N (15.2.10)
~ G G
$ h i
where @~$G U (G N ) is an abbreviation for @~U ( N ) (G~ ). Since P P is a Euclidean space,
the theory of such gradients is already worked out. In particular, if y^1, y^2, y^3 is a pooob
for P , then the dyads yîy^j are an orthonormal basis for P P , and
$
G= Gij yîy^j : (15.2.11)
Then $ $
@$G U G N = yîy^j @G N )
@U ( G
ij
so, from (15.2.10)
$
S~ij = @U (G N ) : (15.2.12)
@Gij
To obtain the Cauchy stress tensor we use (13.3.30), namely
0 $1 $ 0$ 1
@ S A =GT B@ S~ CA : (15.2.13)
~
The equation $
U = U G N (15.2.14)
is called the equation of state of the elastic material. It can be solved for N as a function
$
of G and U , $
N = N G U : (15.2.15)
This serves as the basis for
Denition 15.2.61 A perfectly elastic material is one in which the small region near
$
any particle ~x at any time t behaves as if it were in an HTES with G= D~ r~L(~x t) and
U = U L (~x t).
$
In a perfectly elastic material, we will have (see page 250) h = 0, H~ = ~0, and S~ will be
given by (15.2.10), so the missing information needed to integrate (15.1.1, 15.1.2, 15.1.3)
is supplied by (15.2.12), which is known if the equation of state is known.
15.3 Small disturbances of an HTES

In seismology, the earth is at rest before an event. This resting state is used to label
particles by their positions in the resting state. Then particle displacements are given by
~sL (~x t) = ~r L (~x t) ; ~x: (15.3.1)
Usually it is a very good assumption in seismology that
~ sL (~x t) k << 1:
kD~ (15.3.2)
Expressed in terms of deformation gradients, we have
$ ~ $ ~
G= D~ r = I P +D~s
so
$ $ $
G= I P + G (15.3.3)
where
$ ~
G= D~
s
and
k G$ k << 1: (15.3.4)
We want to study HTES's which are close to the zeroth or initial state in the sense
of (15.3.4). We use subscripts 0 to refer to the initial state. Then, since particles are
labelled by their positions in HTES0 ,
$ $
G0 = I P (15.3.5)
~0 = 0 (15.3.6)
$ $
S~=S0 : (15.3.7)
Furthermore, if we write f = f1 ; f0 for any physical quantity, f1 being its value in
HTES1 , (since f is constant throughout the material, we needn't distinguish between f L
$
and f E ) then from (15.2.8), to rst order in N and G we have
$ $
U = N + 1 S 0 h2i G :
0
15.3. SMALL DISTURBANCES OF AN HTES 257
$ $ $ $ $ $
If GT = ; G, then G= I P + G is a rotation to rst order in G, and therefore N = 0
implies U = 0. Consequently,
$ $ $ $
S 0 h2i G= 0 if GT = ; G :
$ $ $ $T $ $T! $
But then for any G, S 0 h2i G ; G = 0, so S0 ; S0 h2i G= 0: Thus
$ $
S0=S0T : (15.3.8)
The Cauchy stress tensor is symmetric in every HTES of an elastic material.

We can go further. Since HTES1 is close to HTES0 , all the changes f are small, so
$ $ $0
we can linearize (15.2.12) and (15.2.13). The changes = 1 ; 0, S~=S~1 ; S~ are
$ $ $
given in terms of N = N1 ; N0 and G=G1 ; G0 by
$
@ G0 N0 $ $
= N @N + G h2i@~$G G0 N0
$~ $
$~ @ S G0 N0 $ $ $~ $
S = N + G h2i@G S G0 N0 :
@N
$$ $
We dene the following tensors, Q02 4 P , W 02 2 P , B0 2 R:
$$ ~ $~ $ ~ ~
$
Q0 = @$G S G0 N0 = ~0 @$G @$G U G0 N0 (15.3.9)
$
= @ $~ $ N = ~ @ @~$ U $ N
W0 @N S G0 0 @N G G0 0
$ $
= ~@~$G @ U G0 N0 = ~0@~$G @~G0 N0 (15.3.10)
@N
@ $ @ 2 $
B0 = @N G0 N0 = @N 2 U G0 N0 : (15.3.11)
Then 0 1
$ @ W$ 0 A
= NB0 + G h2i ~ (15.3.12)
0
(Note: ~ = .) Also
$
~ $ $ $$
S = N W 0 + G h2i Q0 : (15.3.13)
$
Furthermore, if y^1, y^2, y^3 is any pooob for P , and we write G as in (15.2.11) and write
$$
Q0= Qijklyîy^j y^k y^l
then
Qijkl = @ 2 U=@Gij @Gkl = @ 2 U=@Gkl @Gij
so $$ $$
Qijkl = Qklij or (13)(24) Q0 =Q0 : (15.3.14)
$ $ $
We would also like to calculate S =S 1 ; S 0, the change in the Cauchy stress tensor.
From (15.2.13) and (13.1.3),
$ $ ;1 $T $~
S 1= det G01 G 01 S 1 :
$
Now det G (t) depends continuously on t in going from HTES0 to HTES1 , and can never
$ $
vanish. It is 1 in HTES0, so is always > 0. Hence j det G j = det G and
$ $ ;1 $T $~
S 1= det G01 G 01 S 1: (15.3.15)
$ $ $ $
Now G01 =G= I P + G and, taking components relative to y^1, y^2, y^3

1 + G11 G12 G13
$
det G = G21 1 + G22 G23

G31 G32 1 + G33
$ $ $
= 1 + Gii + O k G k2 = 1 + tr G +Ok Gk2:
Thus $;1 $ $ 2
det G = 1 ; tr G +O k G k : (15.3.16)
Then
$ $ $ $T ! $ $~
S 1 = 1 ; tr G I P + G S 0 + S
$
where we have used (15.3.15) and have linearized in G. Keeping only terms up to rst
$
order in G, we have
$ $ $ $ $ $~
S 1=S 0 ; tr (G)] S 0 + GT S 0 + S
or
$ $~ $T $ $ $
S = S + G S 0 ; S 0 tr G : (15.3.17)
If we take components relative to the pooob, y^1, y^2, y^3 from P , and write
$
S 0= Sij yîy^j (15.3.18)
then (15.3.17) becomes
Skl = S~kl + Gik Sil ; Gjj Skl

= (Gij ) Qijkl + NWkl + Gij (jk Sil ; ij Skl )
= (Gij ) (Qijkl + Sil kj ; ij Skl ) + NWkl :
$$
We dene a tensor F 2 4 P by
$$
F 0= (Qijkl + Sil kj ; ij Skl) yîy^j y^k y^l
or,
$$ $$ $ $ $ $
F 0=Q0 +(24) S 0 I P ; I P S 0 : (15.3.19)
Then
Fijkl = Qijkl + Sil kj ; ij Sk (15.3.20)
and
$ $ $$ $
S = G h2i F 0 +N W 0 : (15.3.21)
$$ $$
This equation is of exactly the same form as (15.3.13), but Q0 is replaced by F 0 .
$ $
Now S is the dierence between the Cauchy stress tensors in two HTES's, so S T =
$ $ $
S for any G whatever and any N . First, take G= 0. Then we must have
$T $
W 0 =W 0 : (15.3.22)
Next, take N = 0. Then
Skl = Gij Fijkl = Slk = Gij Fijlk

so
Gij (Fijkl ; Fijlk ) = 0
$
for every G. Hence
Fijkl = Fijlk (15.3.23)
or
$$ $$
(34) F 0=F 0 : (15.3.24)
$
Now in general, G is a joint property of two HTES's, the zeroth
$ or initial state used
$ $ $ $$
to label particles, and the nal state. However, S 0, B0 , W 0 , Q0 and F 0 are properties $$
$ $
of the initial state alone,$HTES0 . As we have seen S 0 and W 0 are symmetric, and Q0
$
satises (15.3.14), while F 0 satises (15.3.24). If the initial HTES is isotropic, all these
tensors must be isotropic. From this follows
Remark 15.3.72 In an isotropic HTES of an elastic material, there are constants p, ,

, such that (, are the Lam0e parameters of the material)
8$ $
>
> S = ; p IP
>
>
< W = ; $I P
> $
> $$ $ $ $ $ (15.3.25)
>
> F = I P I P + (23) + (24)] I P I P or
>
> Fijkl = ij kl + (ik jl + il kj ) relative to any pooob for P:
:
Proof:
$$
In our discussion of I $+(P )] we proved all of this except that for F we proved
only the existence of three scalars , , such that
Fijkl = ij kl + ik jl + il kj :
But by (15.3.23), ik jl + il kj = iljk + ik lj , or ( ; )(ik jl ; il jk ) =
0. Setting i = $k = 1, j = l = 2 gives ; = 0, so = , and we have the
$
expression for F given in the remark 15.3.72.
Corollary 15.3.54 For HTES's close to an isotropic HTES0 ,

8
< = (N ) B ; tr $ (=)
>
: S$= tr $ $I P +2u $
> (15.3.26)
$ $ $T ~ T
~
where = 1=2( G + G ) = 1=2 D~s + D~s = innitesimal strain tensor.
In most cases, the HTES0 of the elastic material is not isotropic, either because the
$$
$
material itself is anisotropic or because S 0 is anisotropic. Then the stiness tensor F 0
$ $ $
gives the response of S to small changes G in the deformation gradient G away from
$ $
G0= I P . The stiness tensor has two sets of symmetries (see 15.3.23):
Fijkl = Fijlk : (15.3.27)
The second symmetry is obtained (15.3.14) and (15.3.20). Let
Rijkl := jk Sil ; ij Skl: (15.3.28)
Then from (15.3.20, Qijkl = Fijkl ; Rijkl, so from (15.3.14)
Fijkl = Fklij + Rijkl ; Rklij : (15.3.29)
Since Fijkl have to be measured experimentally, and there are 81 such components, we
would like to use (15.3.27) and (15.3.29) to see how many of these components are ind-
pendent. Only those need be measured and recorded.
To answer this question we need one more symmetry, deducible from (15.3.27) and
(15.3.29). We have from those two equations
Fijkl = Fklji + Rijkl ; Rklij :
Interchange i and j in (15.3.29), so
Fkljk = Fjikl ; Rjikl + Rklji:
Then
Fijkl = Fjikl + Rijkl ; Rklij + Rklji ; Rjikl: (15.3.30)
$$
Now dene E 02 4 P by
Eijkl = 41 Fijkl + Fjikl + Fklij + Flkij ] : (15.3.31)
Then it is a trivial algebraic identity that
Fijkl = Eijkl + 14 Fijkl ; Fijkl] + 41 Fijkl ; Fjikl]

+ 14 Fijkl ; Fklij ] + 41 Fijkl ; Flkij ]
= Eijkl + 1 Fijkl ; Fjikl] + 1 Fijkl ; Fklij ]
4 4
1
+ Fijkl ; Fklij + Fklij ; Flkij ]
4
= Eijkl + 41 Fijkl ; Fjikl] + 21 Fijkl ; Fklij ]
+ 14 Fklij ; Flkij ] :
Using (15.3.30) once as written and once with the interchanges i $ k and j $ l, and
using (15.3.29 once as written, we get
Fijkl = Eijkl + 41 Rijkl ; Rklij + Rklji ; Rjikl]

+ 14 Rklij ; Rijkl + Rijlk ; Rlkij ]
+ 1 Rijkl ; Rklij ]
2
= Eijkl + 1 (Rijkl ; Rklij ) + 1 (Rijlk ; Rlkij )
2 4
1
; 4 (Rjikl ; Rklji)
= Eijkl + 21 (jk Sil ; ij Skl ; li Skj + klSij )
+ 14 (jlSik ; ij Slk ; kiSlj + lk Sij )
; 41 (ik Sjl ; jiSkl ; lj Ski + kl Sji) :
Therefore
Fijkl = Eijkl + 12 kl Sij ; ij Skl + jlSik ; ik Sjl + jk Sil ; il Sjk ] (15.3.32)
where we have used ij = ji and Sij = Sji. Now we must measure the six independ-
$$
ent components of Sij and the components of Eijkl in order to know F 0 . How many
$$
independent components does E have? From (15.3.31)
Eijkl = Ejikl = Eijlk = Eklij : (15.3.33)
Therefore we can think of Eijkl as a 6 6 matrix whose rows are counted by (ij ) = (11),
(12), (13), (22), (23), (33) and whose columns are counted by (kl) = (11), (12), (13),
(22), (23), (33). We need not consider (ij ) = (21), (31), or (32) because of the rst of
equations (15.3.33). The fact that Eijkl = Eklij means that this 6 6 matrix is symmetric.
Therefore it contains only 21 independent components. These can be chosen arbitrarily
but not all choices describe stable materials.
A tensor in 4 P with the symmetries (15.3.33) is called an \elastic tensor." The set
of all such tensors in a subspace of 4P , which $we call E 4(P ). We have just proved
$
that dim E 4(P ) = 21. We have also shown that if F 2 4 P has the$ symmetries (15.3.27,
$ 4
15.3.28,
$$ 15.3.29) then it can be
$ written in the form (15.3.32)
$ with E 2 E (P ). Conversely,
$ $ $ $
if E 2 E 4(P ) and S T =S and F is given by (15.3.32), then F has the symmetries (15.3.27,
15.3.28, 15.3.29), a fact which is easily veried and is left to the reader.
$$ Therefore it is not
possible to reduce the problem further. In principle, to measure F 0 , it may be necessary
$
to
$$ measure the six independent components of S 0 and the 21 independent components of
$ $
E 0. Actually, only ve of the components of S 0 need be measured. Suppose 40 is the
$
stress deviator for S 0 , so
$ $ $ $
S 0 = ;p0 I P + 40 with ; 3p0 = tr S 0 : (15.3.34)
$
Then substituting
$$ (15.3.34) in (15.3.27) shows that the isotropic part of S 0 makes no
contribution to F 0 , and we can rewrite (15.3.32) as
Fijkl = Eijkl + 12 kl 4ij ; ij 4kl + jl 4ik ; ik 4jl + jk 4il ; il 4jk] : (15.3.35)
$$ $$ $$
Therefore F 0 has 26 independent components, 21 in E 0 and 5 in 40 .
$$ $$
Suppose a material is originally$isotropic in an HTES with S 0= 0 . Suppose the mater-
$ $
ial is strongly compressed so that S 0= ;p0 I P where p0 is very large (say of the order $$ $$of
mantle pressure, 0.1 to 1.35 megabar). The new HTES will still be isotropic, and F 0 =E 0
will have the form (15.3.25), which involves only two constants, the Lam0e parameters
$
and . Suppose then that a small (a few kilobars) stress deviator is$ added, say 40. Then
$$ $$ $ $$
will
E0 $ $ change by a small amount $ E which depends linearly
$
on 4 0 , and F 0 will change
$ $ $ $ $
by F = E + terms involving 40 in (15.3.35). Now E = J0h2i 40 where J0 2 6P .
This tensor is a property of the original highly compressed isotropic HTES. Therefore it is
a member of I 6( +(V )), i.e. it is isotropic. By Weyl's theorem, it is a linear combination
$ $ $
of all possible permutations of I P I P I P . These are as follows:
ij kl mn ij kmln ij knlm
ik jl mn ik jmln ik jnlm
il jk mn il jmkn il jnkm
im jk ln im jl kn imjnkl
in jk lm in jlkm injmkl :
Since 4mn = 4nm, we can combine two terms which dier only in interchanging m and n.
Since 4mm = 0, we can discard terms with mn . Thus there are scalars , , , ", such
that 2Jijklmn = (ij kmln + ij knlm)+ (ik jm ln + ik jnlm) + (il jmkn + il jnkm)
+(im jk ln + injk lm) +"(imjl kn + injl km) + (imjnkl + in jmkl). Moreover,
Jijklmn must satisfy (15.3.33) for any xed m, n, so = = = " and = . Therefore
J0 involves only two independent constants, and
2Jijklmn = ij((kmln + kllm ) + kl (im jn + in jm)
+ ik (jmln + jnlm) + il (jmkn + jnkm)
)
+jk (im ln + inlm ) + jl (im kn + in km) :
Then
Eijkl = Jijklmn4mn = (ij 4kl + kl 4ij )
+ (ik 4jl + il 4jk + jk 4il + jl4ik ) :
15.4. SMALL DISTURBANCES IN A PERFECTLY ELASTIC EARTH 265
Thus, nally, correct to rst order in 4ij , (15.3.35) gives

Fijkl = ij kl + u (ik jl + il jk ) (15.3.36)
1 1
+ ; 2 ij 4kl + + 2 kl 4ij (15.3.37)
1 1
+ ; (ik 4jl + il 4jk) + + (jk 4il + jl 4ik ) : (15.3.38)
2 2
$$
If the anisotropy in F 0 arises solely because$ an isotropic material has been subjected to
$
a small (anisotropic) deviatoric stress
$ then F 0 involves only 9 independent constants, the
$
ve independent components of 40 and the four constants , u, , . If the anisotropy
was already present in the crystal structure of the material, either because it was a single
$
crystal,
$$ or because its micro-crystals were not randomly oriented, then E 0 can involve 21
and F 0 26 independent parameters.
15.4 Small disturbances in a perfectly elastic earth

Neglecting dissipation, we will treat the earth as a perfectly elastic body in studying its
response to earthquakes. Before an earthquake, we assume the earth is at rest in static
equilibrium. We label the particles by their equilibrium positions, so we use t0-position
labelling where t0 is any time before the earthquake. When the earth is at rest, we have
8 L
>
< ~r (~x t) = ~x
(15.4.1)
: G$L (~x t) = ( D ~r )L (~x t) =$I P
>
so the Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions of any physical quantity are the same, and
the two kinds of density and two kinds of stress tensor are the same. Using subscript 0
to denote the equilibrium state,
0 (~x) = ~0 (~x)
$ $
S 0 (~x) = S~0 (~x) :
The body force is f~ (~x) = f~~0 (~x) = 0(~x)~g0(~x) where ~g is the acceleration of gravity, and
~g0 is its equilibrium value. The conservation equations reduce to
~0 = @~ S$0 ;0~g0 = D~ S$~ 0 ; ~0~g0: (15.4.2)
Now suppose an earthquake occurs, after which

~r L (~x t) = ~x + ~sL (~x t) (15.4.3)
with
~ sL (~x t) k << 1 for all ~x t:
kD~ (15.4.4)
Then
$ $
GL (~x t) = D~ r~L (~x t) = I P +D~ s~L (~x t) : (15.4.5)
For earthquakes, ~s as well as D~~ s is quite small, and it is almost always possible to
replace the exact conservation laws and constitutive relations by linearized versions in
~ s higher than the rst are omitted. In these problems it is
which all powers of ~s or D~
useful to be able to convert easily between Eulerian and Lagrangian representations. For
example, gravity is easy to calculate in the Eulerian representation, and the constitutive
relations are simple in the Lagrangian representation. We discuss this conversion now.
For any physical quantity f , we have
f L (~x t) = f E (~r t) where ~r = ~r L (~x t) :
If ~r L(~x t) = ~x + ~s L(~x t) then to rst order in ~s we have

f L (~x t) = f E ~x + ~sL (~x t) t = f E (~x t)
+~s L (~x t) @~f E (~x t) : (15.4.6)
If f is small of rst order in ~s, we have
f L (~x t) = f E (~x t) or f L = f E if f = Ok~s k: (15.4.7)
If f is small of order ~s, there is no need to distinguish between its Eulerian and Lagrangian
representations, so we can write both f E (~x t) and f L (~x t) simply as f (~x t). That is
f (~x t) := f E (~x t) = f L (~x t) if f = Ok~s k: (15.4.8)
This is true in particular for f = ~s. If f is of order ~s, we can use f not merely for the pair
of functions (f L f E ) but for either function alone, since to order ~s they are equal. Even
when f is not small of order ~s, f E (~x t) ; f0 (~x) is, so to rst order in ~s, ~sL(~x t) @~f E (~x t)
= ~s(~x t) @~f0(~x) and (15.4.6) for any f is
f L(~x t) = f E (~x t) + ~s(~x t) @~f0(~x) (15.4.9)
or, as a relationship between functions,
f L = f E + ~s @~f0 (15.4.10)
for any physical quantity f .
Relations between derivatives are also needed. For any physical quantity f , Dt f =
@t f + ~v @~f . But ~v = Dt~s = Ok~sk, and f ; f0 is of order ~s, so correct to rst order in ~s,
~v @~f = ~v @~f0 , and
Dt f = @t + ~v @~f0 : (15.4.11)
If f is Ok~sk then ~v @~f0 is Ok~sk2, so correct to Ok~s k
Dt f = @t f if f = Ok~sk: (15.4.12)
In particular, correct to Ok~sk
~v = Dt~s = @t~s ~a = Dt~s = @t2~s: (15.4.13)
~ = (D~
If f is any physical quantity, Df ~ r ) @~f = ($I P +D~
~ s) @~f = @~f + D~
~ s @~f . If
f = Ok~s k then correct to Ok~s k
~ = @~f if f = Ok~sk:
Df (15.4.14)
~ s = @~~s. Therefore, correct to Ok~sk, D~
In particular, correct to Ok~sk, D~ ~ s @~f = @~~s @~f
= @~~s @~f0 . Thus for any f
~ = @~f + @~~s @~f0 correct to Ok~sk:
Df (15.4.15)
For any physical quantity f we dene Lf and E f , the Lagrangian and Eulerian
derivatives of f from its equilibrium value. Both are physical quantities, and they are
dened by
L L
f (~x t) = f L (~x t) ; f0 (~x) (15.4.16)
E
E f (~r t) = f E (~r t) ; f0 (~r) : (15.4.17)
Both Lf and E f are small of order k~sk, so we can apply to them the convention (15.4.8)
even when f is not small of order ~s. Thus, for the functions,
Lf = f L ; f0 (15.4.18)
E f = f E ; f0 : (15.4.19)
Then Lf ; E f = f L ; f E = ~s @~f0 from (15.4.10), so
L f = E f + ~s @~f0 to rst order in ~s: (15.4.20)

$ $ $ $
From (15.4.1), G0 = I P so ~s @~ G0 = 0 . Therefore
$ $
L G= E G= @~~s to rst order in ~s: (15.4.21)
With the help of this machinery, the Eulerian and Lagrangian conservation equa-
tions and the constitutive relations can be linearized. They produce either Eulerian or
Lagrangian equations of motion, and it is conventional to work with the former, even
in seismology. We will give the derivation of these equations, based on the Lagrangian
constitutive relations and Eulerian conservation equations.
The Eulerian mass conservation equation is
@t E (~r t) + @~ E (~r t) ~vE (~r t) = 0:

We have E = 0 + E and @t 0 = 0, so, correct to rst order in ~s,

@t E + @~ (0~v) = 0:
But ~v = Dt~s = @t~s so, correct to rst order in ~s,
h i
@t E + @~ (0~s) = 0:
For t = t0 (before the earthquake) E = 0 and ~s = 0. Therefore
E = ;@~ (0~s) : (15.4.22)

The Eulerian momentum conservation equation is

2 E $E
Dt ~s (~r t) = @~ S (~r t) ; E (~r t) ~gE (~r t) :
$E $ $
Here S =S 0 +E S , E = 0 + E , ~gE = ~g0 + E~g, so correct to rst order in ~s,
~ $ ~ E $
0 @t ~s = @ S 0 +@ S ; 0~g0 ; 0 E~g ; E ~g0:
2
But then we can apply (15.4.2) to obtain

$
2 ~
0@t ~s = @ E S ; 0 E~g ; E ~g0: (15.4.23)
We nd E from (15.4.22). We nd E~g as E (;@~) = ;@~E + @~0 = ;@~(E ; 0), so

E~g = ;@~ E (15.4.24)
where is the gravitational potential. It is obtained from @ 2 = 4; where ; =
Newton's gravitational constant. Subtracting @ 2 0 = 40; gives
@ 2 E = 4;E : (15.4.25)
$
In order to solve (15.4.23), it remains to express E S in terms of ~s. We approximate
$
the neighborhood of each particle in the earth as a HTES, and we assume that S can be
calculated everywhere at all times as if the local material were in such a state. Thus at
each particle ~x we can use (15.4.20):
$ L $ $$ $
S = G h2i F 0 (~x) + LN W 0 (~x) :
L (15.4.26)
We must use the Lagrangian representation here, because (15.3.21) applies to a particular
lump of matter, the matter close to particle ~x. The initial HTES0 at particle ~x is the HTES
appropriate for the region near that particle before
$$ the earthquake. Thus this HTES0 will
$
vary from particle to particle, and the tensors F 0 and W 0 really will depend on ~x. The
heat conductivity of the earth is so low that during the passage of earthquake waves almost
no heat has time to ow, so there is no change in entropy per gram at each particular
particle. That is
LN = 0 everywhere at all times. (15.4.27)
$ $
Thus equation (15.4.26) gives L S in terms of ~s, since L G= @~~s. And then (15.4.20)
$
gives E S as
$ $ $
E S = L S ;~s @~!S 0
$ $$ $
S = @~sh2i F 0 ; ~s @~ S 0 :
E ~
Thus (15.4.23) nally becomes, to rst order in ~s,
" $$ # $
0@t ~s = @ @~s h2i F 0 (~x) ; @ ~s @~ S 0
2 ~ ~ ~
h i
;0 E~g + @~ (0~s) ~g0 (15.4.28)
where E~g is obtained from ~s via (15.4.22), (15.4.24) and (15.4.25).
$
For waves short compared to the radius of the earth, it is safe to neglect ~g and @~ S 0 .
If we assume that the undisturbed state is the same everywhere and is isotropic, then
Fijkl = ij kl + (ik jl + il jk )
so
" $$ #
@~s h2i F 0 = @~ ~s kl + (@k sl + @l sk )
kl
~ $$ $ h i
@~s h2i F 0 = @~ ~s I P + @~ ~s + (@~s)T :
If we assume that there is no ~x dependence in the equilibrium state (homogeneous
earth) then and are independent of ~x, and (15.4.28) becomes
" $$ # ~
~
0 @t sl = @k @~s h2i F 0 = @l @ ~s + @k @k sl + @k @l sk
2
kl

0 @t2~s = ( + ) @~ @~ ~s + @ 2~s
h i
= ( + 2) @~ @~ ~s + @ 2~s ; @~ @~ ~s

= ( + 2) @~ @~ ~s ; @ @~ ~s :
Divide this equation by 0 and dene
c2p = + 2 c2s = : (15.4.29)
0 0
Then

@t2~s = c2p@~ @~ ~s ; c2s @~ @~ ~s : (15.4.30)
Since we are assuming 0 , , independent of ~x, the same is true of c2p and c2s . Taking
the divergence of (15.4.30) gives

@t2 @~ ~s = c2p@ 2 @~ ~s : (15.4.31)
The scalar @~ ~s propagates in waves with velocity cp. These are called P -waves (primary

waves) or compression waves. Taking the curl of (15.4.30) and using @~ @~ ~v = @~ @~ ~v ;
@ 2~v gives

@t2 @~ ~s = c2S @ 2 @~ ~s : (15.4.32)
The vector @~ ~s propagates in wave with velocity cs. These are called S -waves (secondary
waves) or shear waves.
There is an interesting inequality involving cs and cp which we can derive by studying
$$
(15.3.21) when N = 0 and F 0 is isotropic. In that case
$ $ $ " $ $ T #
S = I P tr G + G + G :
$ $
For a pure shear, ~s(~r) = (~r y^3)^y1, we have G= y^3y^1 so S = (^y1y^3 + y^3y^1) and
$
y^3 S = y^1. If 0, the material either does not resist shear or aids it once it has
begun, so we must have
> 0: (15.4.33)
$ $ $ $
For a pure dilatation ~s(~r) = "~r, we have G= " I P , so S = "(3 + 2) I P . If " > 0,
the material expands slightly. If this does not produce a drop in pressure, the material
will explode. Therefore
3 + 2 > 0: (15.4.34)
Combining these two relations gives 3( + 2) > 4 > 0, so
2
0 < cs2 < 3 0 < cs < 0:866: (15.4.35)
cp 4 cp
Therefore the P wave always travels faster than the S wave, and arrives rst. Hence it is
the \primary" wave.
15.5 Viscous uids

A uid is a material whose HTES's support no shear, so the Cauchy stress tensor is
always isotropic. We need now a more precise denition. A uid supports no shear in an
HTES, and each HTES is uniquely determined by the density and entropy per unit mass,
or by volume per unit mass, , and entropy per unit mass, N . Clearly = 1=, and by
our assumption
U = U ( N ) : (15.5.1)
From elementary thermodynamics, it is well known that
dU = ;pd + dN so (15.5.2)
p ( N ) = ; @U (@ N ) (15.5.3)
( N ) = @U@N
( N ) (15.5.4)
In an HTES, the Cauchy stress tensor is
$ $
S = ;p I P : (15.5.5)
Now suppose the uid deviates slightly from an HTES. At each point in space, ~r, and
each instant t, there will be a well dened density E (~r t) and a well dened energy per
unit mass, U E (~r t). We set = 1=E (~r t), U = U E (~r t) and use (15.5.1) to calculate
N E (~r t) as if the uid were in an HTES at (~r t). Then with N = N E (~r t) and =
1=E (~r t) we use (15.5.3) to calculate pE (~r t) as if the uid were in an HTES at (~r t).
We call this pressure the thermostatic equilibrium pressure at ~r t and write it pEHTES(~r t).
The uid at (~r t) is not in fact in the HTES dened by U E (~r t) and E (~r t), so the actual
$
Cauchy stress tensor S E (~r t) is not given by (15.5.5) but by
$ $ $
S E (~r t) = ;pEHTES (~r t) I P + V E (~r t) (15.5.6)
$ $
where (15.5.6) denes V E . The tensor V E (~r t) is called the viscous stress tensor at (~r t).
It vanishes in HTES's.
15.5. VISCOUS FLUIDS 273
The deviation from an HTES can be measured by the failure of to be constant and
$
by the failure of ~v to vanish. Thus V E (~r t) can be expected to depend on the functions
$
E and ~vE in the whole uid. We expect V E to vanish when E is constant for all ~r t. In
fact, ~vE = constant for all ~r t is simply an HTES moving with constant velocity, so we
expect
$ $
V E (~r t) = 0 if E and v~E are constant
for all ~r and t:
$
For ordinary uids, we would also expect V E (~r t) to be aected only by the behavior of
the functions E and ~vE near ~r t. This behavior is determined by the derivatives, so we
$
would expect V E (~r t) to be determined by the values at (~r t) of
8
>
> ~E @~@~ E @~t @~ E @t2 E
< @ @t
E
> (15.5.7)
>
: @~v~E @t v~E @~@~v~E @~t @~v~E @t2 v~E
We will assume that the deviation from an HTES is small. In that case, V~ E (~r t) can be
expanded in Taylor series in the quantities (15.5.7), and we can drop all but the linear
terms. We will also assume that the inuence of distant uid on (~r t) drops o very rapidly
with distance in either space or time, so that only rst derivatives need be considered in
(15.5.7). In fact, physical arguments suggest that a term @~m @tn E or @~m @tn v~E in (15.5.7)
$
contributes to V (~r t) in the ratio (=L)m (t=T )n where and t are mean free path and
mean time between collisions for a molecule and L and T are the macroscopic wavelength
and time period of the disturbance being studied.
$
On the basis of the foregoing approximations, we expect that V E (~r t) will depend
linearly on @~ E (~r t), @t E (~r t), @~~vE (~r t) and @t~vE (~r t).
$$
We$are thus led to $ a model in which at any point (~r t) there are tensors F E (~r t) 2
$ $ $
4 P , J E (~r t) and K E (~r t) 2 3 P , and H E (~r t) 2 2 P such that
$ ~ $$ ~ !$ !$ $
V = @ ~v h2 i F + @ J + (@ t ~
v ) K + (@t ) H : (15.5.8)
It seems$reasonable
! ! to assume that the uid is skew isotropic. Then the same must be
$ $ $ $
true of F , J , K , and H . Therefore at each (~r t) there are scalars , , , , , such
that relative to any pooob for P
Fijkl = ij kl + ik jl + il jk
Jijk = "ijk
Kijk = "ijk
Hij = ij:
It is observed experimentally that @~~v, @~ , @t~v and @t can be adjusted independently.
$
Therefore we can take all but @~ to be 0. Then Vij = "ijk @k . This V is antisymmetric.
If we assume that the intrinsic angular momentum, body torque and torque stress in the
uid are negligible, then Sij = Sji, so Vij = Vji. Therefore we must have = 0. By the
same argument, = 0 and = . Thus we conclude that

Vij = ij @~ ~v + (@i vj + @j vi) + ij @t : (15.5.9)
If ~vE = ;"~r, the uid is being compressed at a uniform rate. If @t = 0 then (15.5.9)
gives Vij = ;ij (3 + 2)". An extra pressure, over and above pHTES , is required to
conpress the uid at a nite rate. The quantity = + 2=3 is therefore called the bulk
viscosity:
= + 2=3: (15.5.10)
Then

Vij = ij @~ ~v + @ivj + @j vi ; 23 ij @~ ~v + ij @t : (15.5.11)
The quantity is called the shear viscosity because in a pure shear ow, ~vE (~r) = w~r y^3y^1,
$ $ $
V = w(^y3y^1 + y^1y^3) and y^3 V = y^1w. The tangential stress y^3 V is times the rate of
shear, w. In the ocean, = 100. However, except in sound waves, @~ ~v 0, so the
large value of in the ocean is not noticed except in the damping of short sound waves.
The second law of thermodynamics gives more information about (15.5.11), namely
= 0 0 0 : (15.5.12)
The argument is as follows. At a particle ~x at time t, U and are measurable physical

quantities even though the material is not in an HTES. If the local values of U and are
used in (15.5.1), a local value of N can be found for particle ~x at time t. Then (15.5.3)
and (15.5.4) give local values of p and at particle ~x at time t. These local values of N ,
p, are not measured. They are calculated from the measured and U as if the material
near ~x at time t were in an HTES. Therefore we denote them by NHTES L (~x t), pL (~x t),
HTES
$
L (~x t). Note that pHTES is not ;1=3 tr S the latter is a measurable quantity. If we
HTES
follow particle ~x, (15.5.2) implies
Dt U = ;pHTES Dt + HTES Dt NHTES: (15.5.13)
There are no other candidates for and N , So we drop the subscripts HTES on and N .
$
We do not do so on pHTES, because ;1=3 tr S is another candidate for the pressure and
we do not want to confuse the two. If we multiply (15.5.9) by and use (13.6.15) we
obtain
;@~ H~ + h+ S$ h2i@~~v = ;pHTES Dt + Dt N: (15.5.14)
But Dt = ;1 Dt = Dt ln = ;Dt ln = @~ ~v. Therefore (15.5.14) is

Dt N + @ H = h + S h2i@~v + pHTES @~ ~v : (15.5.15)
$ $ $ $
But pHTES(@~ ~v) = pHTES I P h2i@~~v so S h2i@~~v + pHTES(@~ ~v) = (S +pHTES I P )h2i(@~~v)
$
=V h2i@~~v from (15.5.6). If we divide (15.5.15) by and use the identity @~ (H= ~ )=
(@~ H~ )= + H @~(1= ), (15.5.15) becomes
0 1
~ $
DtN + @~ @ H A = h + 1 V h2i@~~v + H~ @~ 1 : (15.5.16)
If we dene the stu \entropy" as the stu whose density per unit mass is N and
~ , then (15.5.16) shows that its creation rate is
whose material ux density is H=
$
= h + H~ @~ 1 + 1 V h2i@~~v: (15.5.17)
Now h can be positive (e.g. ohmic heating) or negative (e.g. heat radiation by a trans-
parent liquid into empty space if the liquid is a blob in interstellar space). However,
; h= is the creation rate of entropy by local events in the uid. The second law of
thermodynamics is generalized to motions near HTES by requiring that everywhere at all
times
; h 0: (15.5.18)
$
To use (15.5.18), we must calculate V h2i@~~v in (15.5.17). Since Vij = Vij , we have
$ 1 1 1
V h2i@~~v = Vij @ivj = 2 (Vij + Vji) @i vj = 2 Vij @ivj + 2 Vji@vj
= 1 Vij @i vj + 1 Vij @j vi = Vij 1 (@i vj + @j vi)
2 2 2
$ 1 ~ ~ T
= V h2i @~v + @~v :
2
Now suppose we write (15.5.10) as
~ 2 ~

Vij = ij @ ~v + @t + @i vj + @j vi ; 3 ij @ ~v (15.5.19)
and write
1 (@ v + @ v ) = 1 @~ ~v + 1 @ v + @ v ; 2 @~ ~v : (15.5.20)
2 ij j i ij
3 2 i j j i 3 ij
$
Then we have expressed V and 1=2@~~v +(@~~v)T ] as the sum of their isotropic and deviatoric
parts. Since an isotropic and a deviatoric tensor are orthogonal, there are no cross terms
$
when we calculate V h2i 21 @~~v + (@~~v)T ] from (15.5.19) and (15.5.20). Therefore
$ T 2 $
V h2i@~~v = @~ ~v @~ ~v + @t + 2 k@~~v + @~~v ; 3 I P @~ ~vk2 :
Thus for a viscous uid (15.5.18) requires
1 2 ~ T 2 $ ~ 2 ~
~ ~ ~ ~
H @ + @ ~v + 2 @~v + @~v ; 3 I P @ ~v + @ ~v @t 0: (15.5.21)
We can arrange experiments in which @~ = ~0, and @t = 0, and ~vE (~r t) = "~r + (~r
y^3)^y1. Then @~~v = "Ip + y^3y^1, @~ ~v = 3", and (15.5.21) becomes 9"2 + 2 2 0. Since
this inequality must hold for " = 0, 6= 0 and for " 6= 0, = 0, we must have 0,
0. We can also arrange experiments with ~vE (~r t) = "~r, @~ = ~0, and @t of any value.
In such an experiment, (15.5.21) becomes
9"2 + 3"@t 0: (15.5.22)
If 6= 0, take " > 0 and @t < ;3". Then (15.5.22) is violated. Therefore we must
have = 0. The fact that (15.5.12) are observed experimentally is one of the arguments
for (15.5.18) as an extension of the second law of thermodynamics.
Part III
Exercises
279
Set One
Exercise 1
Let (~b1 ~bn) be an ordered basis for Euclidean vector space V . Let (~b1 ~bn ) be its
dual basis. Let gij and gij be its covariant and contravariant metric matrices. Prove
a) ~bi = gij~bj
b) ~bi = gij~bj
c) gij gjk = i k
d) gij gjk = i k
Note that either c) or d) says that the two n n matrices gij and gij are inverse to each
other. Thus we have a way to construct (~b1 ~bn) when (~b1 ~bn ) are given. This is
the procedure:
Step 1. Compute gij = ~bi ~bj .
Step 2. Compute the inverse matrix to gij , the matrix gij such that gij gjk = i k or
gij gjk = i k (either equation implies the other).
Step 3. ~bi = gij~bj .
Exercise 2
V is ordinary Euclidean 3-space, with the usual dot and cross products. The function M
is dened by one of the following six equations, where ~v1, ~v2 ~v3, ~v4 are arbitrary vectors
281
282
in V . In each case, state whether M is multilinear, whether M is a tensor, and whether

M is totally symmetric or totally antisymmetric. State why you think so.
i) M (~v1 ~v2) = ~v1 ~v2 .
ii) M (~v1 ~v2 ) = ~v1 ~v2 .
iii) M (~v1 ~v2 ) = (~v1 ~v2 )~v2.
iv) M (~v1 ~v2) = (~v1 ~v2 ) ~v2.
v) M (~v1 ~v2~v3) = (~v1 ~v2) ~v3 .
vi) M (~v1 ~v2~v3~v4) = (~v1 ~v2 )(~v3 ~v4 ).
Solutions
1.a) For any vector ~v 2 V , we know that

~v = ~v ~bj ~bj
See equations (D-14) and (D-15).
Let i 2 f1 ng, and apply this result to the vector ~v = ~bi . Thus we obtain
~bi = ~bi ~bj ~bj or ~bi = gij~bj :
1.b) For any ~v 2 V , ~v = (~v ~bj )~bj (see equations (D-12) and (D-13). Apply this result to
~v = ~bi . Thus ~bi = (~bi ~bj )~bj , or ~bi = gij~bj . Note that part b) can also be obtained
immediately by regarding (~b1 ~bn) as the original basis and (~b1 ~bn) as the
dual basis.
1.c) Dot ~bk into a) and use ~bi ~bk = i k .
1d. Dot ~bk into b) and use ~bi ~bk = i k .
283
2.i) M is multilinear because a dot product is linear in each factor.

M is a tensor because its values are real numbers (scalars). (It is of order 2.)
M is totally symmetric because ~v1 ~v2 = ~v2 ~v1 .
2.ii) M is multilinear because a cross product is linear in each factor.
M is not a tensor because its values are vectors in V , not scalars.
M is totally antisymmetric because ~v1 ~v2 = ;~v2 ~v1.
2.iii) M is not multilinear because M (~v1 2~v2) = 4M (~v1 ~v2 ).
M is not a tensor and is neither totally symmetric nor totally antisymmetric because
M (~v1 ~v2) is generally 6= M (~v2 ~v1) and 6= ;M (~v2 ~v1).
2.iv) M (~v1 ~v2 ) = 0, so M is multilinear.
M is a tensor because its values are real numbers. (It is of order 2.)
M is both totally symmetric and totally antisymmetric because
M (~v1 ~v2) = M (~v2 ~v1) = ;M (~v2 ~v1)
for all ~v1 , ~v2 2 V .
2.v) M is multilinear because it is linear in each of ~v1, ~v2 , ~v3 when the other two are
xed.
M is a tensor because its values are scalars. (It is of order 3.)
M is totally antisymmetric. To show this, we must show that
(12)M = (13)M = (23)M = ;M:
We have
M (~v2~v1 ~v3) = (~v2 ~v1 ) ~v3 = ; (~v1 ~v2 ) ~v3 = ;M (~v1 ~v2~v3)
so (12)M = ;M . And we have
M (~v3~v2 ~v1) = (~v3 ~v2) ~v1 = (~v2 ~v1 ) ~v3 = ;M (~v1 ~v2~v3)
284
so (13)M = ;M . Finally
M (~v1~v3 ~v2) = (~v1 ~v3) ~v2 = (~v2 ~v1 ) ~v3 = ;M (~v1 ~v2~v3)
so (23)M = ;M .
2.vi) M is multilinear because it is linear in each of ~v1 , ~v2 , ~v3 , ~v4 when the other three
are xed.
M is a tensor because its values are scalars. (It is of order 4.)
M is neither totally symmetric nor totally antisymmetric. It is true that (12)M = M
and (34)M = M . However, (23)M is neither M nor ;M . To see this, we must nd
~u1, ~u2, ~u3, ~u4 2 V such that M (~u1 ~u3 ~u2 ~u4) 6= M (~u1 ~u2 ~u3 ~u4), and we must nd
~v1~v2 ~v3~v4 2 V such that M = (~v1~v3 ~v2~v4) 6= ;M = (~v1 ~v2~v3~v4). Let x^ y^ z^ be
an orthonormal basis for V and let ~u1 = ~u2 = ~v1 = ~v2 = x^, ~u3 = ~u4 = ~v3 = ~v4 = y^.
Then M (~u1 ~u2 ~u3 ~u4) = 1 and M (~u1 ~u2 ~u3 ~u4) = 0. Note: One might be tempted
to say that (~v1 ~v2 ) (~v3 ~v4) is \obviously" dierent from (~v1 ~v3)(~v2 ~v4 ). Yet if
dim V = 1, we do have (~v1 ~v2)(~v3 ~v4) = (~v1 ~v3)(~v2 ~v4), and M is totally symmetric.
Extra Problems
In what follows, V is an n-dimensional Euclidean vector space and L 2 L(V ! V ).
1E. Recall that l 2 R is an \eigenvalue" of L i there is a nonzero ~v 2 V such that

L(~v) = l~v.
a) Show that if l is an eigenvalue of L and p is any positive integer, then lp is an
eigenvalue of Lp.
b) If 2 Sq (i.e., : f1 qg ! f1 qg is a bijection ), show that there is a
positive integer p q! such that p = e, the identity permutation.
c) Regard 2 Sq as a linear operator on q V . Suppose c 2 R is an eigenvalue of
: q V ! q V . Show that c = 1.
285
2E.
a) For any c 2 R, show that det(cL) = cn det L.
b) Recall that L;1 exists i the only solution ~u of L(~u) = ~0 is ~u = ~0. Use this
fact to give a pedantically complete proof that l 2 R is an eigenvalue of L i
det(L ; lIV ) = 0, where IV is the identity operator on V .
3E.
a) Show that det(L ; lIV ) is a polynomial in l with degree n. That is, det(L ;
lIV ) = c0 ln + c1ln;1 + + cn. Hint: Choose a basis B = (~b1 ~bn) for V .
Let Li j be the matrix of L relative to B , i.e., L(~bi ) = Li j~bj . Show that relative
to B the matrix of L ; lIV is Li j ; li j . Finally, use det L = L1 i1 Ln in "i1 in
with L ; lIV replacing L.]
b) Show that c0 = (;1)n and cn = det L. (Thus the degree of det(L ; lIV ) is n.)
c) (;1)n;1c1 is called the trace of L, written tr L. Calculate tr L in terms of the
matrix Li j of L relative to B .
Solutions to Extra Problems

1E.
a) By hypothesis, ~v 6= ~0 and L(~v) = l~v. Then L2 (~v) = LL(~v)] = L(l~v) = lL(~v) =
l2~v. And L3(~v) = LL2 (~v)] = L(l2~v) = l2 L(~v) = l3~v. Etc. (or use mathematical
induction on p).
b) Sq has q! members. Therefore, among the q!+1 permutations e 2 3 q!,
two must be the same, say a = b a < b. Then ;a a = e = ;ab = b;a .
Take p = b ; a.
c) If c is an eigenvalue of , and p is as in b) above, then cp is an eigenvalue of
p, so there is a nonzero M 2 q V such that eM = cpM . But eM = M , so
cp = 1. Since c 2 R, c = 1.
286
2E.
a) Let A 2 nV , A 6= 0. Let (~b1 ~bn) = B be a basis for V . Then A(cL)(~b1 ) (cL)(~bn)]
= det(cL)A(~b1 ~bn). But A(cL)(~b1 ) (cL)(~bn)] = AcL(~b1 ) cL(~bn)]
= cnAL(~b1 ) L(~bn )] = cn(det L)A(~b1 ~bn). Since A(~b1 ~bn) 6= 0,
det(cL) = cn(det L).
b) l is an eigenvalue of L , 9~v 2 V 3 ~v 6= ~0 and L(~v) = l~v. (Denition of eigen-
value.)
, L(~v) ; lIV (~v) = ~0 ( def. of IV )

, (L ; lIV )(~v) = ~0 ( def. of L ; lIV ):
6 ~0 and (L ; lIV )(~v) = ~0 , det(L ; lIV ) = 0.
But 9~v 2 V 3 ~v =
3E.
a) (L ; lIV )(~bi ) = L(~bi ) ; lIV (~bi) = Li j~bj = l~bi = (Li j ; li j )~bj , so the matrix
of L ; lIV relative to B is Li j ; li j . * Therefore det(L ; lIV ) = (Ll i1 ;
ll i1 ) (Ln in ; ln in )"i1 in . This is a sum of n! terms. Each term is a
product of n monomials in l, whose leading coe#cients are 0 or ;1. Therefore
each term is a polynomial in l of degree n. Hence so is the sum of all n!
terms.
b) cn is the value of the polynomial when l = 0. Hence it is the value of det(L ; lIV )
when l = 0, i.e., it is det L.
b and c) To nd c0 and c1 , note that (*) in the solution 3E.a) is a sum of nn terms,
of which n! have a nonzero factor "i1 in . Among these nonzero terms, one has
i1 = 1, i2 = 2 in = n. It is (y)
1
L1 ; ll l L(n) (n) ; l(n) (n) "1 n

= L1 1 ; l L2 2 ; l L(n) (n) ; l :
In all other nonzero terms, there must be at least two failures among i1 = 1,
i2 = 2 in = n, because fi1 ing = f1 ng. Therefore, in each
287
nonzero term in (*) except (y) above, at least two factors have no l, so the
total degree as a polynomial in l is n ; 2. Therefore, all the terms in ln and
ln;1 in det(L ; lIV ) come from (y). But (y) is
h i
(;1)nln + (;1)n;l L1 1 + L2 2 + + L(n) (n) ln;1 + :
Thus c0 = (;1)n and c1 = (;1)n;1Li i. Hence tr L = Li i.

288
Set Two
Exercise 3
Let (^x1 x^2 x^n) = B be an ordered orthonormal basis for Euclidean space V . Let
B 0 = (^x2 x^1 x^3 x^n) (i.e., just interchange x^1 and x^2 ). Show that B and B 0 are
oppositely oriented.
Exercise 4
If V is Euclidean vector space, the \identity tensor" on V is dened to be that I 2 V V
such that for any ~x ~y 2 V
I (~x ~y) = ~x ~y:
Suppose that ~u1 ~un, ~v1 ~vn are xed vectors in V such that
X
n
I= ~ui~vi :
i=1
a) Prove that n dim V . (Hence, if dim V 2, I is not a dyad ).
b) Prove that if n = dim V then (~u1 ~un) is the basis of V dual to (~v1 ~vn).
Solutions
3. Let A be one of the two unimodular alternating tensors over V . Let 2 Sn. Then
A(^x(1) x^(n) ) = ( sgn )A(^x1 x^n). Hence (^x1 x^n) and (^x(1) x^(n) )
have the same or opposite orientation according as sgn = +1 or ;1.
289
290
4. Change notation so as to use our restricted summation convention. Write I = ~ui~vi.

Then for any ~x ~y 2 V we have
h i
~x ~y = I(~x ~y) = (~ui ~x)(~vi ~y) = ~x ~ui ~vi ~y : (23)
Thus
h i
~x ~y ; ~y ~vi ~ui = 0: (24)
For any xed ~y 2 V , (24) is true for all ~x 2 V . Thus ~y ; (~y ~vi)~ui = ~0, or

~y = ~y ~vi ~ui for any ~y 2 V: (25)
a) (25) shows that f~u1 ~ung spans V . Hence, n dim V .
b) If n = dim V , then (~u1 ~un) is an ordered basis for V . Let (~u1 ~un) be
its dual basis. Choose xed j k 2 f1 ng and set ~x = ~uj , ~y = ~uk in (23).
Then

~uj ~uk = ~ui ~uj ~vi ~uk
or

j k = i j ~vi ~uk = ~vj ~uk :
Thus (~v1 ~vn) is a sequence dual to (~u1 ~un). Since (~u1 ~un) is a
basis for V , there is exactly one such dual sequence, namely (~u1 ~un). Hence
~vi = ~ui.
Exercise 5
Let V be an n-dimensional Euclidean space. Let A be any nonzero alternating tensor
over V (that is, A 2 nV and A 6= 0). Let (~b1 ~bn) be an ordered basis for V , with
dual basis (~b1 ~bn). Let 4 = A(~b1 ~bn). For each i 2 f1 ng dene

~vi = 1 (;1)i;1Ahn ; 1i ~b 6~b ~b :
4 1 i n
Show that ~vi = ~bi . When n = 3, express (~b1 ~b2 ~b3 ) explicitly in terms of (~b1 ~b2 ~b3 ), using
only the dot and cross products, not A.
291
Exercise 6
Suppose L 2 L(V ! V ).
a) Show that there are unique mappings S , K 2 L(V ! V ) such that S is symmetric
(S T = S ) K is antisymmetric (K T = ;K ) and L = S +K . (Hint: then LT = S ;K .)
b) Suppose dim V = 3 and A is one of the two unimodular alternating tensors over V .
Suppose K 2 L(V ! V ) is antisymmetric. Show that there is a unique vector
~k 2 V such that K$ = A ~k. Show that ~k = 21 Ah2i K$ and that K$ = ~k A. Hint: Take
components relative to a positively-oriented ordered orthonormal basis. Use (3.1.2)
and page D-9.]
Exercise 7
Let (~b1 ~bn) be a basis for Euclidean vector space V , its dual basis being (~b1 ~bn).
Let L 2 L(V ! V ).
$
a) Show that L= ~bi L(~bi) = ~biL(~bi ).
b If L is symmetric, show that V has an orthonormal basis x^1 x^n with the property
$
that there are real numbers l1 ln such that L= Pnv=1 l(v) x^v x^v . Hint: Let l(v) be
the eigenvalues of L. See page D-27.]
Solutions
5.a) We show that ~bj v~ i = j i, and then appeal to the fact that the dual sequence of an
ordered basis is unique. We have
~bj v~ i = 1 (;1)i;1 ~bj Ahn ; 1i ~b1 6~bi ~bn
4
i;1
= (;41) A ~bj ~b1 ~bi;1 ~bi+1 ~bn :
292
It takes i ; 1 interchanges to change (~bj ~b1 ~bi;1 ~bi+1 ~bn) into

(~b1 ~bi;1 ~bj ~bi+1 ~bn), and each changes the sign of A, so
~bj v~ i = 1 A ~b1 ~bi;1 ~bj ~bi+1 ~bn :
4
If j 6= i, ~bj appears twice, so A(~b1 ~bi;1 ~bj ~bi+1 ~bn) = 0 and ~bj v~ i = 0. If
j = i, then A(~b1 ~bi;1 ~bi ~bi+1 ~bn) is 4, so ~bj v~ i = 1. QED.
5.b) When n = 3, 4 = A(~b1 ~b2 ~b3) = ~b1 Ah2i(~b2~b3 ) = ~b1 (~b2 ~b3 ), and
~b 1 = 1 Ah2i(~b ~b ) = 1 ~b ~b
2 3
4 42 3
~b 2 = ; 1 Ah2i(~b2~b3 ) = ; 1 ~b1 ~b3 = 1 ~b3 ~b1
4 4 4
~b3 = 1 Ah2i(~b1~b2 ) = 1 ~b1 ~b2 :
4 4
6.a) Uniqueness: If L = S + K with S = S T and K T = ;K then LT = S ; K so
S = 1=2(L + LT ) and K = 1=2(L ; LT ).
Existence: dene S = 1=2(L + LT ) and K = 1=2(L ; LT ). Then S T = S ,
K T = ;K , and L = S + K .
$
6.b) Uniqueness: Suppose K = A ~k. Relative to any pooob we have Kij = "ijkkk so
$
Kij "ijl = "ijl"ijk kk = 2l k kk = 2kl . Thus, 2~k =K h2iA. Also 2kl = "lij Kij , so
$
2~k = Ah2i K .
Existence: Given K$ antisymmetric, dene ~k = 1=2Ah2i K$ . We have relative to
any pooob
~
A k ij = "ijk kk = 21 "klmKlm

= 12 i l j m ; i mj l Klm
= 12 Kij ; 21 Kji = Kij :
$ $
Hence, K = A ~k. Also Kij = "ijk kk = kk "kij so K = ~k A.
$ $ $
7.a) ~bi L= L(~bi ). Multiply by ~bi and sum over i to get ~bi L(~bi ) = ~bi~bi L] = (~bi~bi ) L
$ $ $
= I V L=L. By viewing ~bi as the original and ~bi as the dual basis, one then also
$
nds ~biL(~bi ) =L.
293
7.b) From page D-27, V has an orthonormal basis x^1 x^n consisting of eigenvectors
of L. That is, there are numbers l1 ln 2 R such that L(^x1 ) = l1 x^1 L(^xn ) =
lnx^n. By 7a)
$ X n X
n X
n
L = x
^v L x
(^ v ) = x
^ ( l
v v vx
^ ) = lv (^xv x^v ) :
v=1 v=1 v=1
Extra problems
4E. Suppose f~b1 ~bm g is a linearly independent subset of Euclidean space V (so m
dim V m < dim V is possible!). Let (~u1 ~um) and (~v1 ~vm) be any m-tuples
of vectors in V . Show that ~ui~bi = ~vi~bi implies ~ui = ~vi.
5E. Suppose V is a Euclidean vector space and a, b, c, d, e are non-negative integers.

Suppose A 2 a V , C 2 cV , E 2 eV . We want to study whether it is true that
Ahbi (C hdiE ) = (AhbiC ) hdiE: (26)
i) Using p 54 of the notes, nd conditions on a, b, c, d, e which imply (26).

ii) If dim V 2, show that whenever a, b, c, d, e violate the conditions found in i),
it is possible to have A 2 a V , C 2 cV and E 2 l V which violate (26).
(Hint: use polyads.)
6E. In oriented Euclidean 3-space (V A), show that ~u, ~v, w~ can be chosen so that ~u
(~v w~ ) 6= (~u ~v) w~ .
Solutions to Extra Problems

4E. Let U = spf~b1 ~bm g. Then U is a subspace of V and hence a Euclidean vector
space under V 's dot product. Also, (~b1 ~bm) is an ordered basis for U , so in
U it has a dual basis (~b1 ~bm). If u~ i~bi = v~ i~bi then (u~ i~bi ) ~bj = (v~ i~bi ) ~bj , so
u~ i(~bi ~bj ) = v~ i(~bi ~bj ), so u~ i i j = v~ ii j . Then u~ j = ~vj . QED.
294
a
A p q
b
c
C q r ss
A t
E
e
Figure Ex-1: Exercise 5E.i
5E.i) The picture that makes (26) work is in gure Ex-1 There must be p q r s t 0
such that a = p + q, b = q, c = q + r + s, d = s, e = s + t. solving for p q r s t
gives p = a ; b, q = b, r = c ; b ; d, s = d, t = e ; d. The conditions that
p q r s t a b c d e 0 reduce to
0 b a 0 d e b + d c:
5E.ii) The question is, is it possible to violate the inequalities in i) in such a way that
Ahbi(C hdiE ) and (AhbiC )hdiE are both dened. Let hki(P ) = order of tensor P .
Thus hki(A) = a, hki(AhbiC ) = a + c ; b, etc. A product P hqiR is dened only
if hki(P ) q and hki(R) q. If Ahbi(C hdiE ) is dened we must have a b,
hki(C hdiE ) = c + e ; 2d b and c d, e d. If (AhbiC )hdiE is dened we must
have d e and hki(AhbiC ) d, or a + c ; 2b d, and also b a, b c. If both
triple products are dened we must have b a, b c, d c, d e, b + 2d c + e
and 2b + d a + c. The only way i) can fail if all these hold is to have b + d > c.
Choose ~ 1 ~ a , ~1 ~c, ~"1 ~"e 2 V and let A = ~ 1 ~ a , C = ~1 ~c,
E = ~"1 ~"e. Then we have gure Ex-5ii And AhbiC = (~ a;b+1 ~1) (~ a
295
a
C c
E e
Figure Ex-2: Figure Ex-5.ii
~b)~ 1 ~ a;b~b+1 ~c (AhbiC )hdiE = (~ a;b+1 ~1) (~ a ~b)(~ a+c;2b;d+1 ~"1)
(~ a;b ~"d+b;c) (~b+1 ~"d+b;c+1) (~c ~"d) ~ 1 ~ a+c;2b;d ~"d+1 ~"e.
Similarly C hdiE = (~c;dn ~"1) (~c ~"d)~1 ~c;d~"d+1 ~"e and Ahbi(C hdiE ) =
(~ a;b+1 ~1) (~ a;b+c;d ~c;d)(~ a;b+c;d+1 ~"d+1) (~ a ~b+2d;c) (~c;d+1 ~1) (~c
~d )~ 1 ~ a;b~b+2d;c+1 ~"e.
Choose all ~ , ~ , ~" so the dot products are 6= 0. Now a ; b > a + c ; 2b ; d, so
(AhbiC )hdiE = Ahbi(C hdiE ) implies that ~ a;b and ~"2d+b;c are linearly dependent.
By choosing them linearly independent we have (AhbiC )hdiE 6= Ahbi(C hdiE ).
6E.
~u (~v w~ ) = (~u w~ )~v ; (~u ~v)w~

(~u ~v) w~ = w~ (~v ~u) = (w~ ~u)~v ; (w~ ~v)~u:
These are equal i (~u ~v)w~ = (~v w~ )~u. Choose ~u and w~ mutually ? and of unit
length, with ~v = ~u + w~ , and this equation will be violated.
296
Exercise 8
$
Let U be a Euclidean vector space. Let D be an open subset of U . Let T 2 U U . For
$
each ~u 2 U , let f~(~u) =T ~u and g(~u) = ~u ~u. Show that at every ~u 2 D, f~ : D ! U
and g : D ! R are dierentiable. Do so by nding r ~ f~(~u), r
~ g(~u), and the remainder
functions, and by showing that R(~h) ! 0 as ~h ! ~0.
Exercise 9
Suppose that Df and Dg are open subsets of Euclidean vector spaces U and V respectively.
Suppose that f~ : Df ! Dg and ~g : Dg ! Df are inverse to one another. Suppose there
is a ~u 2 Df where f~ is dierentiable and that ~g is dierentiable at ~v = f~(~u). Show that
dim U = dim V . Hint: See page 108.]
Exercise 10
Suppose V is a Euclidean vector space, (U A) is an oriented real three-dimensional Eu-
clidean space, D is an open subset of U , and f~ : D ! U and ~g : D ! V are both
dierentiable at ~u 2 D.
i) Which proposition in the notes shows that f~~g : D ! U V is dierentiable at ~u?
ii) Show that at ~u

r~ f~~g = r~ f~ ~g ; f~ r~ ~g:
Note: In this equation, one of the expressions is undened. Dene it in the obvious way
and then prove the equation.]
Solutions
8a.
$ $ $
f~ ~u + ~h = T ~u + ~h =T ~u+ T ~h
297
$T
= f~(~u) + ~h T :
~ f~(~u) =T$T and R~ (~h) = ~0 for all ~h.
Therefore r
8b.
~ ~
g ~u + ~h = ~u + h ~u + h
=~u ~u + 2~h ~u + ~h ~h

= g (~u) + ~h 2~u] + ~h ~h :

Therefore r ~ g(~u) = 2~u, and R(~h) = ~h. As ~h ! 0, R(~h) ! 0 because ~h ! ~0

means ~h ! 0.
$ ~~ $ ~ $ $ $ $ $ $
9. Dene P = r f (~u) and Q= r ~g(~v). By example 9.2.24, P Q= I U and Q P = I V .
Therefore, by 7.4.20, the linear mappings P : U ! V and Q : V ! U satisfy
Q P = IU and P Q = IV . By iii) on page D-6, P and Q are bijections. Since they
are linear, they are isomorphisms of U to V and V to U . By preliminary exercise
3, dim U = dim V .
10.i) Method 1 on page 105 or method 2 on page 107, applied to f~ ^1 : D ! U R1 and

^1~g : D ! R1 V .
$ $ $
10.ii) For ~u 2 U and P 2 U V we dene ~u P := Ah2i ~u P . Then, relative to any
$
basis ~b1 , ~b2 , ~b3 for U and ~1 ~n for V , we have (~u P )i l = Aijk j Pkl . Then
h ~ ~ ii
r f ~g l = Aijk @j f~~g kl = Aijk @j (fk gl)
= Aijk (@j fk ) gl + fk @j gl ]
~ ~ i
= r f gl ; Aikj fk @j gl
h ~ ~ ii
= r f ~g l ; Aijk fj r~ ~g kl
h ~ ~ ii ~ ~ i
= r f ~g l ; f r~g l
h ~ ~ ~ ~ ii
= r f ~g ; f r~g l : QED:
298
Extra Problems
$
7E. Let U be a Euclidean vector space. Let T 2 U U . Let D be the set of all ~u 2 U
$ $
such that ~u T ~u > 0. If ~u 2 D, dene f (~u) = ln(~u T ~u).
i) Show that D is open.

~ f (~u).
ii) Show that f : D ! R is dierentiable at every point ~u 2 D, and nd r
8E. Let V be the set of all innite sequences of real numbers, ~x = (x1 x2 ), such that
P1 x2 converges. If ~y = (y y ) is also in V and a b 2 R, dene a~x + b~y =
n=1 n 1 2
(ax1 + by1 ax2 + by2 ). Dene ~x ~y = P1
n=1 xn yn . The sum converges by the
Cauchy test because, for any M and N , Schwarz's inequality implies j PNn=m xn ynj
(PNn=m x2n )1=2 (PNn=m yn2 )1=2 . Furthermore, j~x ~yj2 = j limN !1 PNn=1 xn ynj2 =< limN !1
(PNn=1 x2n )(Pnn=1 yn2 ) = k~xk2k~yk2, so Schwarz's inequality works in V .] V is a real
dot-product space but not a Euclidean space, because it is not nite dimensional.
If ~v0 ~v1~v2 is a sequence of vectors in V , dene limn!1 ~vn = ~v0 by the obvious
extension of denition 9.1.30, i.e. limn!1 k~v0 ; ~vn k = 0.
i) Suppose limn!1 ~vn = ~v0 . Show that for any ~x 2 V , limn!1 ~x ~vn = ~x ~v0 .
ii) Construct a sequence ~v1 ~v2 in V such that limn!1 ~x ~vn = 0 for every ~x 2 V ,
but limn!1 ~vn does not exist.
(For dierentiability, V has two dierent denitions, leading to Frechet and Gateau
derivation respectively based on norms and on components).
Solutions
$ $ $
7E. If T = 0 , D is empty and i) and ii) are trivial. Therefore assume k T k > 0. Dene
$
g(~u) = ~u T ~u.
299
$ $ $
i) g(~u + ~h) ; g(~u) = ~h T ~u + ~u T ~h T ~h. Therefore, by the triangle and
generalized Schwarz inequalities,
~ $
g ~u + h ; g (~u) k~hkk T k 2k~uk + k~hk :
Assume ~u 2 D so g(~u) > 0. Then ~u 6= ~0. Let " be the smaller of k~uk and
$ $
g(~u)=(3k~ukk T k). If k~hk < " then jg(~u + ~h) ; g(~u)j < "k T k(2k~uk + k~hk)
$
< 3"k T kk~uk g(~u). Hence g(~u + ~h) ; g(~u) > ;g(~u), so g(~u + ~h) > 0. That
$
is, if ~u 2 D and " = smaller of ~u and g(~u)=(3k~ukk T k) then the open ball
B (~u ")
D. Hence D is open,
$ $T
ii) By i) above, g(~u + ~h) = g(~u) + ~h (T + T ) ~u + k~hkR(~h) where R(~h) =
$
(~h T ~h)=k~hk for ~h 6= ~0 and = ~0 for ~h = ~0. Thus g is dierentiable at ~u, with
r~ g(~u) = (T$ + T$ ) ~u. By the chain rule, f g is dierentiable, with f (v) = lnv,
T
and its gradient is @v f (v)r ~ g(~u) where v = g(~u). This is v;1r ~ g(~u), so
$ $T
$ T + T ~u
~rln ~u T ~u (~u) = $ :
~u T ~u
8E. i)
j(~x ~vn ; ~x ~v0 )j = j~x (~vn ; ~v0 )j k~xkk~vn ; ~v0 k ! 0

if k~vn ; ~v0 k ! 0.
8E. ii) Let ~vn = (0 0 1 0 ), all 0 except for a 1 in the n'th place. If ~x 2 V ,
~x ~vn = xn ! 0 as n ! 1 because P1 1 xn converges. But if k~vn ; ~v k ! 0 for some
2
~v 2 V then there is an N so large that if n > N then k~vn ; ~vk < 1=2. If m, n > N
p
then k~vm ; ~vn k = k~vm ; ~v + ~v ; ~vn k k~vm ; ~vk + k~vn ; ~vk = 1. But k~vm ; ~vn k = 2.
Exercise 11
A mass distribution m occupies a subset D of ordinary Euclidean 3-space U . Let n^ be any
unit vector in U and denote by n^R the straight line through U 's origin ~0 in the direction
300
of n^. Let w~ (~r) be the perpendicular distance of the point ~r from the axis n^R, so that
R
the moment of inertia of the mass distribution about that axis is J (^n) = D dm(~r)w~(~r)2.
$ $ $
Dene T : D ! U U by requiring for each ~r 2 D that T (~r) = r2 I U ;~r~r. Here r2 = ~r ~r
$ $ R $
and I U is the identity tensor in U U . The tensor J = D dm(~r) T (~r) is called the inertia
$ R $
tensor of the mass distribution, and is usually written J = D dm(~r)r2 I U ;~r~r ].
$
a) Show that J is symmetric.
$
b) Show that J (^n) = n^ J n^.
$
c) Show that to calculate J it is necessary to calculate only six particular integrals of
real-valued functions on D with respect to the mass distribution m. (Once these
six functions are calculated, the moment of inertia of the body about any axis is
found from 11b.)
Exercise 12
In problem 11, suppose the mass distribution rotates rigidly about the axis n^ R with
angular velocity ,~ = ,^n, so that the mass at position ~r has velocity ~v(~r) = ,~ r. The
R
angular momentum of the mass distribution about ~0 is dened as L~ = D dm(~r)~r ~v(~r)],
R
and the kinetic energy of the mass distribution is dened as K = 1=2 D dm(~r)v(~r)2, where
v2 means ~v ~v. Show the following:
$
a) L~ =J ,~
$
b) K = 1=2 ,~ J ,~
c) L~ need not be J (^n),~ .
Exercise 13
$
The second moment tensor of the mass distribution in problem 11 is dened as M =
R dm(~r) ~r ~r.
D
301
$ R
a) Show that tr M = D dm(~r)r2.
$ $ $ $
b) Express J in terms of M , tr M and I U .
$ $ $ $ $
c) Express M in terms of J , tr J and I U . (J can be observed by noting the reaction
$ R
of the mass distribution to torques. Then 13c) gives M and 13a) gives D dm(~r)r2
from such observations).
d) If the mass distribution is a cube of uniform density , side 2a and center at ~0, nd
J (^n) when n^ R is the axis through one of the corners of the cube.
Exercise 14
Let y^1, y^2, y^3 be an orthonormal basis for physical space P . Let c be a xed scalar. For
any ~r 2 P , write ~r = riyî. Consider a steady uid motion whose Eulerian description ~vE
is given by
~vE (~r t) = r1y^1 + c r2y^2 = ~r (^y1y^1 + cy^2y^2)
for all ~r 2 P and all t 2 R.
a) Find the Lagrangian description of this motion, using t0-position labels.
b) Show that the paths of the individual particles lie in planes r3 = constant, and are
hyperbolas if c = ;1 and straight lines if c = +1.
c) Find the label function ~x E : P R ! P . (It will depend on which xed t0 is used to
establish t0-position labels.)
d) Find the Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions of the particle acceleration ~a.
Solutions
$ $
11 a) The permutation operator (12): P P ! P P is linear, and (12) T (~r) =T (~r),
so Z Z Z
$ $ $
(12) dm(~r ) T (~r ) = dm(~r) (12) T (~r ) = dm(~r ) T (~r ):
D D D
302
. ~
w( r )
.
n^ r
^n r
.
Figure Ex-3:
b)
we (~r )2 = r2 ; (^n ~r )2
$
= r2n^ I P n^ ; n^ r^r^ n^
$
= n^ r2 I P ;~r ~r n^ :
Hence
Z h i
J (^n) = dm(~r)^n r2IP ; ~r ~r n^ (27)
D Z $ $
= n^ dm (~r) r I P ;~r ~r n^ = n^ J n^:
2 (28)
D
$ $T $ $
c) Choose a pooob, x^1 , x^2 , x^3 . Then J = Jij xî x^j and since J =J , Jij = Jji. Thus J is
known if we know J11, J22, J33 , J12 , J23, J31 relative to one pooob. But
Z h i
Jij = dm (^r) r2ij ; rirj :
D
12 a)
Z i Zh~ h i
L~ = dm (~r) ~r , ~r = dm (~r) ~r ,~ ; ~r ~r ,~
ZD $ D
= dm (~r ) r2 I P ;~r ~r ,~
Z D $ $
= dm (~r ) r I P ;~r~r ,~ =J ,~ :
2
D
303
b)
K = 1 Z dm (~r ) ,~ ~r ,~ ~r
2 ZD
= 1 dm (~r) , h~r ,~ ~ri
2 ZD
= 1 dm (~r ) ,~ hr2,~ ; ~r ~r ,~ i
2 ZD
= 1 dm (~r) ,~ r2 $ ;~r ~r ,~
2 D Z IP
= 1 ,~ dm (~r) r2 $ ;~r~r ,~
2 D
IP
= 1 ,~ $ ,~ :
2 J
c) Let the mass distribution consist of a single mass point m at position ~r. Then
$ $
J = m r I P ;~r ~r
2

~L = J$ ,~ = m, r2 $I P ;~r ~r n^
h i
= m, r2n^ ; ~r (~r n^)
$ h i
~
J (^n) , = n^ J n^ n^, = m, r2 ; (^n ~r )2 n^:
If L~ = J (^n),~ then r2 ; (^n ~r)2 ]^n = r2n^ ; ~r(~r n^ ), so (~r n^)2 n^ = (~r n^)~r. To violate
this condition choose n^ so it is neither parallel nor perpendicular to ~r.
13 a) tr : P P ! R is linear, so
$ Z Z
tr M = tr dm (~r) ~r ~r = dm (~r) tr ~r~r
Z D D
= dm (~r) r2:
D
$ R $ R $ R
b) J = dm(~r) r I P ;~r ~r = D dm (~r) r2] I P ; D dm (~r) ~r ~r
2
$ $ $ $
J = I P tr M ; M :
c) From the above equation, since tr : P P ! R is linear,
$ $ $ $ $ $ $
tr J = tr I P tr M ; tr M = 3 tr M ;tr M = 2 tr M :
$ $ $ $ $ $
Hence, tr M = 1=2 tr J and M = 1=2 I P (tr J ); J .
304
d) Let x^1 , x^2 , x^3 be a pooob parallel to the edges of the cube. Then
Z
Mij = dx1 dx2 dx3 xixj
Za
cube Za Za
= dx1 dx2 dx3 xi xj :
;a ;a ;a
R
Thus Mij = 0 if i 6= j and M11 = M22 = M33 = 4a2 ;aa x2 = 8a5 =3. Therefore
$ $ $
M = 8a5 =3 I P and tr M = 8a5 so from () above
$ 16a5 $
J= 3 I P :
$
Then for any n^ , n^ J n^ = 16a5=3.
14 a)
dr1 = r1 dr2 = cr2 dr3 = 0 so
dt dt dt
r = A e 0 r = A ec(t;t0 ) r3 = A3:
1 1 ( t ;t ) 2 2
The label ~x = xi yî belongs to the particle which was at that position at t = t0. For
this particle when t = t0 , ri = xi , so xi = Ai. Thus
() r1 = x1 e(t;t0 ) r2 = x2 ec(t;t0 ) r3 = x3 :
~r = riyî = e(t;t0 ) x1 y^1 + ec(t;t0 ) x2 y^2 + x3 y^3

h i
= ~x y^1y^1e(t;t0 ) + y^2y^2ec(t;t0 ) + y^3y^3 :
h i
~r L (~x t) = ~x y^1y^1e(t;t0 ) + y^2y^2ec(t;t0 ) + y^3y^3 :
b) y^3 ~r is independent of time for each particle, so each particle lies in a plane y^3 ~r =
constant. And for a particular particle, r1r2 = x1 x2 e(1+c)(t;t0 ) = x1 x2 if c = ;1,
which is a hyperbola. And r2=r1 = e(c;1)(t;t0 ) x2=x1 = x2 =x1 , if c = +1. Then this
is a straight line through the y^3 axis.
c) From () above, x1 = r1e;(t;t0 ) , x2 = r22e;c(t;t0 ) , x3 = r3, so
~x = xi yî = r1 e;(t;t0 )y^1 + r2e;c(t;t0 ) + r3y^3
h i
= ~r y^1y^1e;(t;t0 ) + y^2y^2 e;c(t;t0 ) + y^3y^3 :
h i
~x E (~r t) = ~r y^1y^1 e;(t;t0 ) + y^2y^2 e;c(t;t0 ) + y^3y^3 :
305
d)
h i
~aL (~x t) = Dt2 ~r L (~x t) = ~x y^1y^1 e(t;t0 ) + y^2y^2 ec(t;t0 )
h i
~aE (~r t) = ~x E (~r t) y^1y^1 e(t;t0 ) + c2y^2y^2 ec(t;t0 )
h i
~aE (~r t) = ~r y^1y^1 e;(t;t0 ) + y^2y^2 e;c(t;t0 ) + y^3y^3
h i
y^1y^1 e(t;t0 ) + c2 y^2y^2 ec(t;t0 )
h i
= ~r y^1y^1 + c2y^2y^2 :
Another way to get the same result is to observe that
~vE (~r t) = ~r (^y1y^1 + c y^2y^2)
has no explicit t dependence, so @t~vE (~r t) = ~0. Also @~~vE (~r t) = y^1y^1 + c y^2y^2, so
~vE @~~vE (~r t) = ~r (^y1y^1 + c2 y^2y^2). But
~aE (~r t) = Dt~vE (~r t)

= @t~vE (~r t) + ~vE @~~vE (~r t)

= ~0 + ~r y^1y^1 + c2y^2y^2 :
Exercise 15
a) Given a continuum and a function f : R ! W which depends on t alone (W is a
Euclidean vector space), invent a physical quantity which can reasonably be called
f , and show that (Dtf )L(t) = (@t f )E (t) = t f (t).
b) A continuum undergoes rigid body motion. At time t the position, velocity and
acceleration of the pivot particle are R~ (t), V~ (t) = t R~ (t) and A~ (t) = t V~ (t), and the
angular velocity relative to the pivot particle is ,~ (t). Find the Eulerian description
of particle acceleration in the material.
306
Exercise 16
Several decades ago, before the big bang was accepted, Fred Hoyle suggested that the
expanding universe be explained by the continuous creation of matter. Then mass is not
quite conserved. Suppose that a certain region of space is occupied by a continuum, and
that at position ~r at time t new matter is being created at the rate of E (~r t) kilograms
per cubic meter per second. Make the necessary changes in the derivation of the Eulerian
form of the law of conservation of mass and in equations (13.1.12) and (13.1.17).
Exercise 17
$
At time t0 in a certain material, the Cauchy stress tensor S is symmetric.
a) Let K 0 be an open set in the region occupied by the material, and suppose its boundary
@K 0 is piecewise smooth. Show that the total force F~ and the total torque L~ about
~0 exerted on K 0 by the stress on @K 0 are the same as those exerted by a ctitious
$
body force with density @~ S newtons / m3 acting in K 0.
$ $ $(0)
b) Write the Taylor series expansion of S about ~0 in physical space P as S (~r) =S
$(0) $(1) $(2)
+~r S (1) + 1=2(~r ~r)h2iS (2) + where S , S , S , are constant tensors in
P P , 3 P , 4P , and (12)S (2) = S (2) . Neglect all terms except those involving
$(0) $(1) $(2)
S , S , and S , and calculate F~ and L~ of a) for K 0 = B (~0 c), the solid ball of
radius c centered on ~0.
Hint 1: Do all calculations relative to an orthonormal basis in P .

R
Hint 2: Use the symmetry of B (~0 c) to evaluate B dV (~r)rirj .
Solutions
15 a) The physical quantity has as its Lagrangian description f L(~x t) = f (t). Then its
Eulerian description is f E (~r t) = f (t). Since @~f~ = 0, Dtf = @t f + ~v @~f~ = @t f .
307
b)
h i
~vE (~r t) = V~ (t) + ,~ (t) ~r ; R~ (t)
h i $
= V~ (t) + ~r ; R~ (t) , (t):
$
@~~vE =, so
$ h i
~vE @~~vE = ~vE ,= ,~ ~vE = ,~ V~ + ,~ ,~ ~r ; R~
$ h i $
@t~vE = A~ (t) ; V~ (t) , + ~r ; R~ @t ,

= A~ ; ,~ V~ + @t ,~ ~r ; R~ :
E h i
(Dt~v)E = ~aE = @t~v + ~v @~~v = A~ + @t ,~ ~r ; R~ + ,~ ,~ ~r ; R~
~
h ~ i $ $ $
~a (~r t) = A(t) + ~r ; R(t) @t , + , , :
E
16. The amount of mass in K 0(t) is

Z
M K 0 (t)] = dVP (~r)E (~r t):
K 0 (t)
It is a mathematical identity (derivative over moving volume) that

d M K 0(t)] = Z dV @ E + Z dA
E E
0 (t) P t p p ~v
n
^
dt ZK @K 0 (t)
h iE
= 0 dVp @t + @~ (~v) (~r t) :
K (t)
Hoyle's new physical law is that

d M K 0(t)] = Z dV E (~r t):
p
dt K 0(t)
Therefore
Z h iE
dVp t@ + ~
@ ( ~
v ) ; (~r t) = 0:
K 0 (t)
Since this is true for every open set K 0 (t) with piecewise smooth boundary, the
vanishing integral theorem gives
@t + @~ (~v ) = :
308
Then for any other physical quantity f~,

d Z dV f~ E = Z dV h(@ ) f~ + @ f~ iE
dt K 0(t) P KZ0 (t)
P t t
h iE
+ 0 dAP n^ ~v f~
Z K (t) h iE
= 0 dVP (@t ) f~ + @t f~ + @~ ~vf~
ZK (t) n h i oE
= 0 dVP (@t ) f~ + @t f~ + @~ (~v ) f~ + ~v @~f
ZK (t) n h i oE
= 0 dVP @t f~ + ~v @t f~ + @t + @~ (~v) f~
ZK (t) h iE
= 0 dVP Dt f~ + f~
K (t)
17 a)
Z $ Z $
dAn^ S = 0 dV @~ S
@K 0 K
Z $ Z $
0
dA~r n^ S = ; 0 dA~n S ~r
@K i K i
Z $ Z
= ; dV ~ S ~r = ; dV @j (Sjk rl "kli)
@
K0Z i K0
= ;"ikl K 0 dV (rl @j Sjk + jl Sjk )
Z
= ;"ikj K 0 dV (rj @l Slk + jl Slk )
Z
= "ijk 0 dV (rj @l Slk + Sjk )
Z K $
= dV ~r @~ S :
K0 i
b)
(1) + 1 rk rl S (2)
Sij = Sij(0) + rk Skij 2 klij
(1) + 1 k rl + l rk S (2)
@i Sij = Siij 2 i i klij
(1) + 1 rl S (2) + rk S (2)
= Siij 2 ilij kiij
(1) + rk S (2) = v + rk w
@i Sij = Siij kiij j kj
( denes vj and wkj ):
309
$
@~ S = ~v + ~r w$ :
$
~r @~ S = ~r ~v + ~r ~r w$
$
~
~r @ S = (~r ~v)i + "ijk rj rlwlk
Z $
i Z Z $
dV @~ S = jB j~v + dV ~r w~ : dV ~r = 0 so
B B B
4 4
F~ = 3 c3~v = 3 c3 tr12 S (1)
Z Z
~L = dV ~r @~ $ S Li = dV "ijk (rj vk + rj rl wlk ) :
B B
Z R dV r r = 4=15 c5 so L = 4=15 c5 " w , L~ = 4=15 c5
dV rj = 0 and B j l jl i ijk jk
B
Ah2itr23 S (2) .
Exercise 18
a) The angular momentum of a single dysprosium atom is 15h=4 where h is Planck's
constant. The density of dysprosium is 8:54gm=cm3, and its atomic weight is
162.50. Compute the angular momentum of a stationary ball of solid dysprosium
with radius r cm if all the dysprosium atoms are aligned in the same direction. If
the dysprosium atoms had no angular momentum, how rapidly would the ball have
to rotate as a rigid body in order to have the same angular momentum?
b) Let y^1, y^2, y^3 be a positively oriented ordered orthonormal basis for physical space P .
A permanent alnico magnet has magnetization density M~ = M y^1 where M = 106
amp/meter (close to the upper limit for permanent magnets). The magnet is held at
rest in a uniform magnetic eld B~ = B y^2 with B = 1 tesla (about the upper limit for
commercial electromagnets). Then the volume torque on the magnet is m ~ = M~ B~
joules /meter3 . Suppose that the magnet's intrinsic angular momentum density ~l
$ $
does not change with time, and that its torque stress tensor M vanishes. Let S be
$ $T
the Cauchy stress tensor in the magnet. Find 1=2(S ; S ), the antisymmetric part
$
of S , in atmospheres of pressure (one atmosphere = 1:013 105 newtons/meter2 =
$ $ $T
1:013 106 dynes /cm2 ). If the symmetric part of S , 1=2(S + S ), vanishes, sketch
310
1 meter
^n ^n
5
1
S5 ^z S1
^n S2
4 ^y
S4
^x ^n
2
1 meter
^n
3
S3
Figure Ex-4:
the stresses acting on the surface of a small spherical ball of material in the magnet.
Exercise 19
a) Give the obvious denition of the stu \y component of momentum". Give its (. F~ ),
its ( F~ ), and its creation rate .
b Show that in a material at rest with no body forces, the material ux density F~ of y
momentum satises @~ F~ = 0. (If F~ were the velocity of a uid, the uid would be
incompressible.)
c) An aluminum casting 10 cm thick and 1 meter on each side is shaped as in gure Ex-4.
A steel spring is compressed and placed between the jaws of the casting as shown.
The spring and casting are at rest and gravity is to be neglected. Roughly sketch
311
the eld lines of F~ (the material ux density of y^ momentum) in the casting. (If
F~ were a force eld, the eld lines would be the lines of force if F~ were a velocity
eld, they would be the streamlines.)
Hint for c): Estimate qualitatively the sign of the y^ component of the force exerted
by the aluminum just in front of (Si n^ i) on the aluminum just behind it for
the surfaces i = 1 2 3 4 5 sketched in the gure.
Note for c): The x^ axis points out of the paper, the y^ axis is parallel to the axis of
the spring, and the z^ axis points up, as shown in the gure.
Solutions
18 a) There are 6:025 1023=162:50 = 3:7 1021 atoms in a gram of Dysprosium. Each
has angular momentum (15=4)(6:625 10;27) erg sec. If all are aligned, one
gram of Dy has angular momentum l = 2:932 10;5 erg sec/gm. A Dy ball of
radius r cm has intrinsic angular momentum (4=3)r3l. If this angular momentum
were not intrinsic, but due to an angular velocity ! of rigid rotation, the angular
momentum would be (2=5)r2(4=3)r3!. Thus l = (2=5) r2!, or ! = (5=2) l=r2 =
7:33 10;5=r2 radians/sec, with r in cm.
b)
~0 $
~ + Ah2i S so relative to the pooob y^1 y^2 y^3
= m
0 = mi + "ijk Sjk : Then
0 = mi"ilm + "ilm"ijk Sjk
0 = mi"ilm + (lj mk ; lk mj ) Sjk = mi"ilm + Slm ; Sml :
() 12 (Slm ; Sml ) = ; 21 "lmimi :

In our problem, m
~ = MB y^3 so
1 (S ; S ) = ; 1 MB 1 (S ; S ) = 1 (S ; S ) = 0 and
2 12 21 2 2 13 31 2 23 32
312
..
..
Figure Ex-5:
1 $ ; $T = 1 $ ; $T y^ y^ so
2 S S 2 S S ij i j
1 $ ; $T = 1 MB (^y y^ ; y^ y^ ) :
2 S S 2 2 1 1 2
1 MB = 106 joules/meter3 = 106 newtons/meter2

2 2 2
10 6
= 2 1:013 105 atm = 4:94 atmospheres:
$ $ $ $T $ $T $ $T $ $
For any S , S = 1=2(S + S ) +1=2(S ; S ). If 1=2(S + S ) = 0, then S = 1=2(S
; $S ). From (*), $S = ;1=2 A m~ . The stress S~ (^n) is n^ S$= ;1=2^n A m~ so
T
Sj (^n) = ;1=2ni"ijk mk = 1=2"jiknimk = 1=2(^n m ~ )j . Thus

S~ (^n) = 21 n^ m
~:
The stress is directed along lines of latitude about the north pole m ~ , points west,
and has magnitude equal to the sine of the colatitude of n^ relative to m~.
19 a)
. = ~v ~y = ~v y^
F~ = ~v~v; S y^ F~ = ; $S y^
$
$ $
= Dt + @ ; S y^ = Dt~v ; @ S y^ = f~ y^:
~ ~
313
n^5 ^n
1
n^ ^z
4
^y
^x
^n
2
^n
3
Figure Ex-6:
$ $ $
b) If f~ = 0 and ~v = ~0 then @~ S = ~0 so (@~ S ) y^ = @~ (S y^) = 0.
$ $
c) F~ = ; S y^. The double arrows show nî S on the ve surface sections. Then
$ $ $
~
on S1 n^1 F = y^ ; S y^ = ;y^ S y^ = ; n^1 S y^ > 0
$ $ $
~
on S2 n^ 2 F = ;z^ ; S y^ = ; ;z^ S y^ = ; n^2 S y^ > 0
$ $ > 0 above
~
on S3 n^3 F = ;y^ ; S y^ = ; ;n^3 S y^
< 0 below
$ $
~
on S4 n^4 F = z^ ; S y^ = ; n^4 S y^ > 0
$ $
on S5 n^5 F~ = y^ ; S y^ = ; n^5 S y^ > 0:
Thus the ow lines are as in gure Ex-7.
314
Figure Ex-7:
Exercise 20
Geological evidence indicates that over the last 5 million years, the west side of the San
Andreas fault has moved north relative to the east side at an average rate of about 6
cm/year. On a traverse across the fault, Brune, Henyey and Roy (1969) (J.G.R. 74,
3821) found no detectable extra geothermal heat ow due to the fault. They estimate that
they would have detected any anomalous heat ow larger than 1:3 10;2 watts/meter2 .
Use (13.7.45) to obtain an upper bound on the northward component of the average stress
exerted by the material just west of the fault on the material just east of the fault. Assume
that the fault extends vertically down from the surface to a depth D, and that the shape
of the heat ow anomaly due to the fault is a tent function whose width is D on each side
of the fault.
315
up
American Plate
North Pacific Plate
D east
San Andreas Fault
Extra heat flow due to fault, watts /m 2
. D D
. east
Figure Ex-8:
316
Solutions
20. We assume that the heat ow is steady. Since we are interested only in averages, we
$
may assume that S ]+; is constant on the fault, as is ^ H~ ]+; . D is probably < 20 km
(see Brune et al. 1969) so we may treat the fault as innitely long. Then H~ lies in
east-west vertical planes. Consider a length L along the fault. The amount of heat
produced by this section of the fault in LD^ H~ ]+;. It all ows out of the surface of
the earth in a rectangle of length L along the fault and width 2D across the fault, the
prole being the triangular one sketched as the bottom gure in the exercise. The
area under that triangle is Dh where h is the triangle's height, so the total heat ow
out in the length L and width 2D is LDh. This must equal LD^ H^ ]+; in the steady
state. Thus h = ^ H^ ]+;. Since no anomaly was detected, h 1:3 10;2w=m2.
$
Thus ^ H^ ]+; = ^ S ]+; ~v]+; 1:3 10;2w=m2. Let x^ be a unit vector pointing
north, and let y^ = ^ point west. Then ~v]+; = 6^x cm=yr = 6 10;2x^ meters/yr
= 2 10;9x^ meters/sec. The heat production must be positive, so
$+
0 ^ S x^ 2 10;9 1:3 10;2
;
or $+
0 ^ S x^ 65 105 pascals.
;
The material just west of the fault exerts on the material just east of the fault, a
$ $
stress ^ S ]+;. The northward component of this stress is ^ S ]+; x^, and it lies
between 0 and 65 bars (105 pascal ).
$
See Brune et al., for a discussion of energy loss from ~v S ]+; ~v]+; by seismic
radiation. This exercise works only for the parts of the fault where most energy is
not radiated, i.e., the parts of the fault which creep.
Exercise 21
Below are the Eulerian descriptions of three motions of continua. In these descriptions,
fx^ y^ z^g is a right-handed orthonormal basis for physical space P , is a constnat real
317

number, and ,~ is a constant vector. For each motion, nd the local strain rate tensor $ ,
its eigenvectors, and its eigenvalues. Also nd the local rotation rate tensor $
! , and the

local angular velocity w~ .
a) ~vE (~r t) = ~r (^xx^ ; y^y^) = (xx^ ; yy^)
b) ~vE (~r t) = ~r (^yx^) = yx^
c) ~vE (~r t) = ,~ ~r .
Exercise 22
Let ~v, $_ , $
!_ be the Eulerian descriptions of the velocity, local strain rate tensor and local
rotation rate tensor in a certain continuum. Let x^1 , x^2 x^3 be a right-handed orthonormal
basis in physical space P . Let position vectors be written ~r = rixî . Let @i denote the
partial derivative with respect to ri. Take tensor components relative to x^1 x^2 x^3.
a) Show that @ ! = @ ;@
i jk j ki k ij
b) Show that @i @j kl ;@j @k li +@k @l ij ;@l @i jk = 0.

$
c) Show that if : P ! P P is any tensor-valued function of ~r such that everywhere
= and b) holds, then a function $! : P ! P P can be found which satises
ij ji
! = ; ! and also a) above. Show that this function is unique up to an additive
ij ji
$
constant tensor , which is antisymmetric.

d) Show that if $ is the function
$ in c), there is a velocity function ~v : P ! P whose local
strain rate tensor is . Show that any two such functions ~v and ~v dier by the
1 2
velocity eld of a rigid motion that is, there are xed vectors ,~ and V~ such that
for all ~r 2 P , ~v2(~r) ; ~v1(~r) = V~ + ,~ ~r.
Hint for c) and d): Suppose gi : P ! R for i = 1 2 3. You know from elementary
vector calculus that there is a \potential function" f : P ! R such that gi = @if i
R
@i gj = @j gi everywhere and if this is so, then f (~r) = f (~0) + 0~r drigi (line integral).
318
Exercise 23
Use the notation beginning on page 256 for discussing small disturbances of an HTES of
an elastic material whose reference state is HTES0 .
$ $ $$
a) Using only 0 , S 0, B0, W 0 , 0 , Q0, explicitly express U ; U0 as a function of N and
$ $ $ $
G, correct to second order (i.e., including the terms (N )2 , N G and G G.)
$$
b) The tensor F 0, is called the isentropic or adiabatic stiness tensor because if N = 0
(no change in entropy) then
$ $ $$
S = G h2i F :
$$
Find the isothermal stiness tensor F00 , the tensor such that if = 0 then
$ $ $$0
S = G h2i F0 :
$
$0 $$ $
Express F0 in terms of F 0 , W 0 B0, 0 .
Exercise 24
Using the notation on page 260, give the results of 23 a), b) when HTES0 is isotropic.
Solutions
21 a)
T
@~~vE = (^xx^ ; y^y^) = @~~vE
so
$ = (^xx^ ; y^y^)
$
eigenvectors and eigenvalues being (^x ), (^y ;), (^z ;0). $
! = 0 , so ~!= ~0,
319
b)
T
@~~vE = y^x^ @~~vE = x^y^
$ = (^xy^ + y^x^) $! = (^yx^ ; x^y^)
2 2

eigenvectors and eigenvalues of $ are
! !
x^p+ y^ x^p+ y^ ; (^z 0) :
2 2 2 2

w~ = 21 Ah2i $! = 12 2 (^y x^ ; x^ y^) = ; 12 z^
$
c) Let ,= A ,~ . Then
~vE = Ah2i,~ ~r = ;,~ A ~r
$ $
= ; , ~r = ~r , :
$ T $ $
Then @~~vE =,, @~~vE = ; ,, so $ = 0 (so all eigenvalues are 0 and any vector is
an eigenvector)
$! =$ ~! = ,~ :
,
22. a)
!_ jk = 12 (@j vk ; @k vj )
_ ij = 12 (@ivj + @j vi )
@k _ ij = 12 (@k @i vj + @k @j vi)
Replace (ijk) by (kij ) and this becomes

@j _ ki = 12 (@j @k vi + @j @ivk ) :
@i !_ jk = 12 (@i @j vk ; @i @k vj ) :
Comparing these three equations gives a).

320
b) @i @l !_ jk = @l @i!_ jk so, by a),

@i (@j _ kl ; @k _ lj ) = @l (@j _ ki ; @k _ ij )
or, since _ kl = _ lk and @i @j = @j @i ,
@j @i _ kl ; @i @k _ lj + @k @i_ li ; @l @j _ ik = 0:
Now make the replacements j ! i, i ! j , and one proves b).
c) Fix i and j . a) can be written
() @k !_ ij = @i _ jk ; @j _ ki:
Then b) implies @k @l !_ ij = @l @k !_ ij , which are exactly the integrability conditions for
(*). They insure that the line integral
Z ~r
~0
drk (@i _ jk ; @j _ ki)
will be independent of path. Thus the solution of (*) exists, and has the form
Z ~r
!_ ij (~r) = ;!_ ij (~0) + ~0
drk (@i _ jk ; @j _ ik ) :
The integral is antisymetric in ij . If !_ ij (~0) is chosen antisymmetric in ij , !_ ij (~r)
will be antisymmetric for all ~r.
d) Let !_ ij (~r) be given as in c). We want to try to solve
@i vj = _ ij + !_ ij :
This will be possible, and the solution will be
Z ~r
vj (~r) = Vj + ~0
dri (_ ij + !_ ij )
as long as for each xed j the integrability condition @k @i vj = @i@k vj is satised,
i.e.,
(y) @k (_ ij + !_ ij ) = @i (_ kj + !_ kj ) :
But !_ ij was obtained by solving (*) on the preceding page. Substituting (*) in (y)
makes (y) an identity.
321
23. a)
$
U ; U0 = N@N U + G h2i@~$G U

+ 1 (N )2 @N2 U + N G h2i@~$G @N U
2
1 $ $ ~$ ~$
+ 2 G G h4i@G @G U + third order terms
$ S$0 1
= N 0 + G h2i + 2 (N )2 B0
0
$ $$
$ $ $ Q0 + third order term:
+N G h2i W 0 1
+
0 2 G G h4 i 0
b)
$ W$ 0
= NB0 + G h2i
0
$ $ $ $$
S = N W 0 + G h2i F 0 :
$ $
If = 0, then N = ; G h2i W0 B00 , so
0 1
$ $ @ $$ W$ 0W$ 0 A
S = G h2i F 0 ; B :
0 0
Therefore $$ $$ $ $
F00 =F0 ; W 0BW 0 :
0 0
24. In an isotropic material,

$ $
S0 = ;p0 I
$ $
W0 = ; I
Fijkl = ij kl + (ik jl + il kj )
Qijkl = Fijkl + ij Skl(0) ; jk Sil(0)
= Fijkl + p0 (jk il ; ij kl )
Qijkl = ( ; p0) ij kl + ik jl + ( + p0 ) jk il
322
a)
p 0
$ 1
U ; U0 = N 0 ; tr G + 2 (N )2 B0
0
$ 1 n $ 2
; (N ) tr G + 2 ( ; p0) tr G + G$ h2i G$

0 0
$ $T o
+ ( + p0) G h2i G + third order terms:
b)
0ij kl + 0 (ik jl + il jk )

= ij kl + (ik jl + il jk ) ; 0B2 0 ij kl:
Thus 0 = , 0 = ; 2=0 B0.

George Backus - Continuum Mechanics

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Continuum Mechanics

Center for Wave Phenomena

c Samizdat Press, 1997

Samizdat Press publications are available via FTP

Five Prerequisite Proofs PP-3

I Tensors over Euclidean Vector Spaces 1

2 Denition of Tensors over Euclidean Vector Spaces 11

5 Polyad Bases and Tensor Components 31

6 The Lifting Theorem 41

8 How to Rotate Tensors (and why) 67

9 Dierential Calculus of Tensors 89

9.6 Multiple gradients and Taylor's formula : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 113

10 Integral Calculus of Tensors 119

11 Integral Identities 127

II Elementary Continuum Mechanics 139

13 Conservation Laws in a Continuum 163

13.1.2 Eulerian form of mass conservation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 165

14 Strain and Deformation 235

15 Constitutive Relations 249

III Exercises 279

Sets (same as \Classes")

C := set of all complex numbers.

f1 : : : ng := set of integers from 1 to n inclusive.

62 \is not a member of"

\is a proper subset of." A B means that A

A \ B := the set of all objects in both A and B . (Read \A meet B .")

A B := the set of all objects in A or B or both. (Read \A join B .")

Cartesian A  B := the set of all ordered pairs of (a b) with a 2 A and b 2 B .

f = g for functions means Df = Dg and for each d 2 D, f (d) = g(d).

f jW is the \restriction" of f to W . It is dened whenever W is a subset of Df . It is the

\Extension." If g is a restriction of f , then f is an extension of g to Df .

Dg = U and 8u 2 U g(u) = f (u v0)

f (d) = r. That is, d = f ;1(r) is the unique solution of r = f (d). Note Df ;1 = Rf ,

Note: If f : U ! V and g : V ! W and h : W ! X then

Note: If f : U ! V and g : V ! W are bijections, so is g  f : U ! W , and

Theorem 1 (See, e.g., Birkho and MacLane, A Survey of Modern Algebra.) If

) = 0 if any of i : : : i are equal i.e., if fi : : : i g 6= f1 : : : ng.

If fi1 : : : ing = f1 : : : ng, then there is a unique 2 Sn 3 i1 = (1) : : : in =

all other "ijk = 0. Thus, "111 = 0, "112 = 0, etc.

Ai1 : : : ip;1ipip+1 : : : iq;1 iq iq+1 : : : ir

Ai1 :::in = "i1:::in :

r~  w~ = curl of w~ = x^i "ijk @w k

j by i and the index i by j . Then

AjiSji = Aij Sij :

Vector Space Facts

vii) (a + b)~u = a~u + b~u

The zero vector is ~0 = (1 1 : : : 1).

L(~u + ~v) = L(~u) + L(~v)

L(V ! W ) is the set of all linear mappings from V to W . 1

then the isomorphism L : Rn ! V is given by

L(u1 : : : un) = (eu1 : : : eun )

Finite dimensional vector spaces. V is a vector space over eld F . U is an arbitrary

Linear combination: If ~u1 : : : u~n 2 V and a1 : : : an 2 F , the vector ai~ui is

Finite dimensional. A vector space V is \nite dimensional" if V = sp U for

Euclidean Vector Spaces

An orthonormal set is linearly independent, so in a nite dimensional Euclidean

Theorem 9 Every Euclidean vector space has an orthonormal basis. If U is a

Theorem 10 Let V be a Euclidean vector space. The mapping ~v j! ~v dened

To prove that ~v j! ~v is injective, suppose ~u = ~v . We want to prove

Because duality is symmetrical, it follows immediately that

vj = vj = x^j  ~v = x^j  ~v:

gij = ~bi  ~bj : (D-17)

The contravariant metric matrix of B D is

9 Dierential Calculus of Tensors 89

Cartesian A B := the set of all ordered pairs of (a b) with a 2 A and b 2 B .

f jW is the \restriction" of f to W . It is dened whenever W is a subset of Df . It is the

Note: If f : U ! V and g : V ! W are bijections, so is g f : U ! W , and

) = 0 if any of i : : : i are equal i.e., if fi : : : i g 6= f1 : : : ng.

Ai1 :::in = "i1:::in :

r~ w~ = curl of w~ = x^i "ijk @w k

Finite dimensional vector spaces. V is a vector space over eld F . U is an arbitrary

Finite dimensional. A vector space V is \nite dimensional" if V = sp U for

An orthonormal set is linearly independent, so in a nite dimensional Euclidean

Theorem 10 Let V be a Euclidean vector space. The mapping ~v j! ~v dened

vj = vj = x^j ~v = x^j ~v:

gij = ~bi ~bj : (D-17)

Facts: The eigenvalues f1 : : : ng are uniquely determined by L, but the eigenvectors

Then L ] is a subspace of V , and dim L ] > 0 , is an eigenvalue of L. In

L(~v) ~v > 0 for all nonzero ~v 2 V (D-26)

and positive semidenite when

L(~v) ~v 0 for all ~v 2 V: (D-27)

A symmetric linear operator is positive denite (semidenite) i all its eigenvalues

Polar Decomposition Theorem: (See Halmos, p. 169 ). Suppose V is Euclidean

Lemma PP-1 Suppose Ai1:::in is an n : : : n dimensional n'th order array which is

Then from the denition (PP-4), with ir = r, js = s

(Sij ; ij )rj = 0 or Sij rj = ri :

Let denote complex conjugation. Then

riSij rj = (riri): (PP-10)

riSij rj = (riri):

rj Sjiri = (riri): (PP-11)

Hence ~u S (~v) = S (~u) ~v.

Lemma PP-7 If S is positive denite and symmetric, det S > 0.

kR(~u + ~v)k2 = kR(~u)k2 + 2R(~u) R(~v) + kR(~v)k2 : (PP-16)

Lij = L(^xi ) x^j : (PP-20)

Therefore (LT )ij = LT (^xi ) x^j = x^i L(^xj ) = Lji.

Suppose R(~v) = ~v and ~v 6= ~0. Then k~vk = kR(~v)k = k~vk =j j k~vk so

Rij Rik rj rk = riri:

Lemma PP-19 In lemma PP-18, is also a zero of det(Rij ; ij ) = 0.

Rik rk = ri so (Rij rj )(Rik rk ) = 2riri , or Rij Rik rj rk = 2riri, or jk rj rk =

Rjk rj = e;i rk : (PP-24)