Surface Analysis Chart

Reading Assignment
Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45E) – Section 5
Jeppesen Instrument/Commercial Manual – 9-80

Weather Services Assignment #1

Created by Dave Lund – CFI,CFII,MEI
 Surface Analysis Chart

1. What are the main items contained on the surface analysis chart? ______________________________

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2. Label the following symbols:

3. How often do surface analysis charts come out? ____________________________________________

4. What are the main items shown on the station models? _______________________________________

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Weather Services Assignment #1

Created by Dave Lund – CFI,CFII,MEI
5. Referring to the chart above:

What type of front stretches across Alabama and Georgia? ____________________________________

What is the general wind direction behind the front? _________________________________________

What is the general wind direction in advance of the front? ____________________________________

What is the general cloud condition over Georgia? Vero Beach? _______________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

What is the general wind circulation around the high pressure system centered off the east coast of

Florida? Is this consistent with high pressure systems? ______________________________________

What is the wind speed, direction, temperature, dew point, and cloud cover in Key West? ____________

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What type of weather is occurring at the station in central Alabama behind the front? _______________

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Weather Services Assignment #1

Created by Dave Lund – CFI,CFII,MEI
6. What is the symbol for rain? _____________________________________________________________

Snow? _____________________________________________________________________________

Fog? _______________________________________________________________________________

Thunderstorm? ______________________________________________________________________

7. Where can we find the surface analysis chart? ______________________________________________

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8. Why use the surface analysis chart? ______________________________________________________

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Weather Services Assignment #1

Created by Dave Lund – CFI,CFII,MEI
 Aviation Area Forecast (FA)

Reading Assignment
Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45E) – “Aviation Area Forecast (FA)”, 4-17
Jeppesen Instrument/Commercial Manual – “Aviation Area Forecast”, 9-71

Weather Services Assignment #2

Created by Dave Lund – CFI,CFII,MEI
 Aviation Area Forecast

1. How many different Aviation Area Forecasts are issued in the US? ______________________________

2. How often are they issued? _____________________________________________________________

3. What are the four main sections of the FA?

a. _____________________________________________________________________________

b. _____________________________________________________________________________

c. _____________________________________________________________________________

d. _____________________________________________________________________________

4. What is contained in the communications and product headers section? _________________________

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5. Decode the following product header:

MIAC FA 101845 ________________________________________________________________________________

SYNOPSIS AND VFR CLDS/WX ______________________________________________________________________

SYNOPSIS VALID UNTIL 111300 ___________________________________________________________________

CLDS/WX VALID UNTIL 110700...OTLK VALID 110700-111300 _________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________

NC SC GA FL AND CSTL WTRS _____________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. What is contained in the precautionary statements section? ___________________________________

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7. What information is given in the synopsis and what period of time does it cover? ___________________

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Weather Services Assignment #2

Created by Dave Lund – CFI,CFII,MEI
 ____________________________________________________________________________________

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8. What information is given in the VFR Clouds and Weather section and what period(s) of time does that

information cover? ____________________________________________________________________

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9. During preflight planning, what would we use the area forecast to help determine? _________________

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10. Where can we get an FA? ______________________________________________________________

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Weather Services Assignment #2

Created by Dave Lund – CFI,CFII,MEI
 Weather Depiction Chart
Reading Assignment
Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45E) – Section 6 “Weather Depiction Chart”

Jeppesen Instrument/Commercial Manual – “Weather Depiction Chart”, 9-82

Weather Services
Weather Depiction Chart
 Weather Depiction Chart Quiz
1. How often is the weather depiction chart issued? ____________________________________________

2. What type of report does the computer use to create the weather depiction chart? __________________

3. What information is shown on the weather depiction chart? ____________________________________

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4. What does the symbol “]” plotted next to the station circle mean? _______________________________

5. What is the symbol for rain? ____________________________________________________________

6. What is the symbol for snow? ___________________________________________________________

7. What is the symbol for fog? _____________________________________________________________

8. What is the symbol for haze? ___________________________________________________________

9. What is the symbol for thunderstorms? ____________________________________________________

10. What is the symbol for drizzle? __________________________________________________________

11. How can we determine the strength of a particular type of precipitation? _________________________

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12. What are the shaded areas on the chart? __________________________________________________

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13. What are the non-shaded areas within the contours? _________________________________________

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14. Where can we find the chart? ___________________________________________________________

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15. Why would we use the chart and in what phase of our weather planning would we use it? ___________

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Weather Services
Weather Depiction Chart
 Weather Services
Weather Depiction Chart
 AIRMETs
Reading Assignment
Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45E) – 4-23 to 4-25

Jeppesen Instrument/Commercial Manual – “AIRMET”, 9-108

Weather Services
AIRMETs
 AIRMETs Quiz
1. How often are AIRMETs issued? ________________________________________________________

2. What is their maximum forecast period? ___________________________________________________

3. How large of an area must an AIRMET cover? ______________________________________________

4. List the three types of AIRMETs and what weather conditions they cover:

Weather Services
AIRMETs
 SIGMETs (WS)
Reading Assignment
Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45E) – 4-23 to 4-24

Jeppesen Instrument/Commercial Manual – “SIGMET”, 9-108 to 9-109

Weather Services
SIGMETs (WS)
 SIGMETs (WS) Quiz
1. How often are SIGMETs issued? ________________________________________________________

2. What is their maximum forecast period? ___________________________________________________

3. How large of an area must a SIGMET cover? _______________________________________________

4. How are SIGMETs labeled and how do we know if the SIGMET has previously been issued and is now

being extended? _____________________________________________________________________

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5. What types of weather are covered under SIGMETs? ________________________________________

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Weather Services
SIGMETs (WS)
 Convective SIGMETs (WST)
Reading Assignment
Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45E) – 4-26 to 4-27

Jeppesen Instrument/Commercial Manual – “Convective SIGMET”, 9-109 to 9-110

Weather Services
Convective SIGMETs (WST)
 Convective SIGMETs (WST) Quiz
1. How often and when are convective SIGMETs issued? _______________________________________

2. What is their maximum forecast period? ___________________________________________________

3. Convective SIGMETs are divided into three geographical areas. What are they? ___________________

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4. How are convective SIGMETs labeled and how do we know if the convective SIGMET has previously

been issued and is now being extended? __________________________________________________

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5. What is done if the criteria are not met that would warrant the issue of a convective SIGMET? ________

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6. What types of weather are covered under convective SIGMETs? _______________________________

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Weather Services
Convective SIGMETs (WST)
 METARs
Reading Assignment
Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45E) – Section 2

Jeppesen Instrument/Commercial Manual – “Aviation Routine Weather Report”, 9-58 to 9-64

Weather Services
METARs
 METARs Quiz
1. How often and when are METARs issued? _________________________________________________

2. What are the 12 elements that may be found on a METAR? What information is contained in each item?

Element 1 - _____________________________________________________________________

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Element 2 - _____________________________________________________________________

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Element 3 - _____________________________________________________________________

Element 4 - _____________________________________________________________________

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Element 5 - _____________________________________________________________________

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Element 6 - _____________________________________________________________________

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Element 7 - _____________________________________________________________________

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Element 8 - _____________________________________________________________________

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Weather Services
METARs
 _____________________________________________________________________

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Element 9 - _____________________________________________________________________

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Element 10 - _____________________________________________________________________

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Element 11 - _____________________________________________________________________

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Element 12 - _____________________________________________________________________

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3. Decode the following METAR:

KNPA 161410Z COR 24004KT 1/8SM FG VV001 17/17 A3005 RMK SLP171

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4. Referring to the following METAR, what is the ceiling at this station? What does the first part of the

remarks section say?

KVPS 161455Z 28005KT 7SM FEW001 FEW004 BKN013 BKN250 19/18 A3006 RMK VIS LWR SE SLP180 53007

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Weather Services
METARs
5. What does +TSRA mean? What does –RASN mean? _______________________________________

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6. How is visibility measured? _____________________________________________________________

7. How much must the wind be gusting before it is noted in the wind section? _______________________

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8. What does VRB mean in the wind section? ________________________________________________

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9. How would the report read if the wind direction was variable between 100° and 180°? What other factor

would be required? ___________________________________________________________________

10. What does RAB35E40SNB40E55 mean in the remarks section? _______________________________

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11. What does CIG 006V010 mean in the remarks section? ______________________________________

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12. If you were making a METAR remark, how would you tell pilots that there are towering cumulus clouds

15 miles southeast of the airport that are moving to the northwest? _____________________________

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13. What is the difference between an A01 and A02 automated METAR reporting station? ______________

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14. What scale is sea-level pressure (SLP) given in? ____________________________________________

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15. In the remarks section, what does R31/2600FT mean? _______________________________________

16. Where can we find METAR reports? ______________________________________________________

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17. What charts use METAR reports as their basis for construction? ________________________________

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Weather Services
METARs
 PIREPs
Reading Assignment
Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45E) – 3-1 to 3-5

Jeppesen Instrument/Commercial Manual – “Pilot Weather Reports”, 9-66

Weather Services
PIREPs
 PIREPs Quiz
1. How often are PIREPs issued? __________________________________________________________

2. What are the two different types of PIREPs? _______________________________________________

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3. What information is required to be part of the PIREP? ________________________________________

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4. What else can be reported on a PIREP? __________________________________________________

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5. What are the four different intensity levels of turbulence that should be reported and how should we

differentiate between them? ____________________________________________________________

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Weather Services
PIREPs
6. What are the four different intensity levels of icing that should be reported and how should we

differentiate between them? ____________________________________________________________

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7. Why must we consider the type of aircraft that is reporting the weather? _________________________

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8. Who can receive PIREPs from pilots? ____________________________________________________

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9. Why is it important to include PIREPs in your preflight weather briefing? _________________________

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10. Why is it important to give PIREPs? ______________________________________________________

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Weather Services
PIREPs
 Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs)
Reading Assignment
Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45E) – 4-1 to 4-16

Jeppesen Instrument/Commercial Manual – “Terminal Aerodrome Forecast”, 9-68 to 9-71

Weather Services
Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs)
 Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs) Quiz
1. How often and when are TAFs issued? ___________________________________________________

2. Are there other times when a TAF will be issued? ___________________________________________

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3. What geographical area does a TAF cover? ________________________________________________

4. What forecast information is included in TAFs? _____________________________________________

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5. What is the abbreviation when visibility will be greater than six statute miles? _____________________

6. What determines when a new line (or time period) is started? __________________________________

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7. When is the from (FM) group used? ______________________________________________________

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8. When is the becoming (BECMG) group used? ______________________________________________

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9. What qualifies a temporary forecast (TEMPO)? _____________________________________________

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10. What does the following four digit time period of a TEMPO group refer to? TEMPO 1214 ____________

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11. What is the range of probability that a precipitation will occur when a PROB30 is used? _____________

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12. What does PROB40 1016 3SM ++TSRA mean? ____________________________________________

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Weather Services
Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs)
13. Referring to the following TAF,

1 KLAX 221730Z 221812 11008KT 4SM RA BR VCTS OVC035CB

2 TEMPO 1822 2SM TSRA BR BKN015CB
3 FM2200 13012KT 4SM RA BR VCTS OVC035CB
4 TEMPO 2202 2SM TSRA BR BKN015CB
5 FM0200 16010KT 4SM RA BR OVC035
6 FM0500 08008KT P6SM -RA OVC040

What does line 3 mean? ___________________________________________________________________

What period of time does this TAF cover? _____________________________________________________

14. Where can TAFs be found? _____________________________________________________________

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15. How can we use TAFs in planning our IFR flight? ___________________________________________

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Notes:

• A terminal aerodrome forecast (TAF) is valid for a 24 hour period and is issued four times a day. A TAF
should be your primary source of weather information for your destination.

• In the absence of a TAF, pilots should use the Area Forecast (FA) along with other forecasts to
determine destination weather.

• ADDS has a few new TAF related products that allow a user to graphically view TAFs over a large region
for a given time.

Weather Services
Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs)
 Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecasts (FD)
Reading Assignment
Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45E) – 4-35 to 4-37

Jeppesen Instrument/Commercial Manual – “Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecast”, 9-74

Weather Services
Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecasts (FD)
 Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecasts (FD) Quiz
1. How often and when are Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecasts issued? _______________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

2. What information is presented on this forecast? _____________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

3. Are wind directions given in magnetic or true? ______________________________________________

4. How does the last question relate to making a flight plan? _____________________________________

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5. What other information can we infer from the temperatures? ___________________________________

6. How far must a station be from the forecast altitude for winds to be included on the report?

Temperatures? _______________________________________________________________________

7. What does the code 841536 mean? ______________________________________________________

8. How is light and variable shown? ________________________________________________________

9. Where can winds aloft forecasts be found? ________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

Notes:

• ADDS has a few new wind related products that allow a user to graphically see the direction and velocity
of winds over a large area.

• Remember to add/subtract magnetic variation when flight planning.

Weather Services
Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecasts (FD)
 Text Radar Reports (SD)
Reading Assignment
Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45E) 3-6 to 3-9

Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25) 11-8 TO 11-9

Jeppesen Instrument/Commercial Manual – “Radar Weather Reports”, 9-65

Weather Services
Text Radar Reports (SD)
 Text Radar Reports (SD) Quiz
1. How often and when are Text Radar Reports (SD) issued? ____________________________________

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2. What information is presented on Text Radar Reports (SD)? ___________________________________

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3. Decode the following radar report:

1. MLB 1935 CELL TRWX 3/93 D4

2. CELL TRWX 42/89 D10
3. LN 5TRWX 135/116 153/120 9W C2631
4. AREA 3RW++ 299/122 126/119 246W C2631
5. AUTO
6. ^GL2 GN23 HK35 HN452 II11454553 IR2 JH121251 JO2222 KI2 KK112 KP332

Line 1. _______________________________________________________________________________

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Line 2. _______________________________________________________________________________

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Line 3. _______________________________________________________________________________

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Line 4. _______________________________________________________________________________

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Line 5. _______________________________________________________________________________

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Line 6. _______________________________________________________________________________

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4. What does the following mean? MLB 1235 PPINE AUTO _____________________________________

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5. What computer generated chart uses these reports to be constructed? __________________________

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Weather Services
Text Radar Reports (SD)
6. What does radar detect? What does it not detect? __________________________________________

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Notes:

Weather Services
Text Radar Reports (SD)
 Radar Summary Charts
Reading Assignment
Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45E) Section 7

Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25) 11-16 to 11-17

Jeppesen Instrument/Commercial Manual – “Radar Summary Chart”, 9-83 to 9-85

Weather Services
Radar Summary Chart
 Radar Summary Chart Quiz
1. How often and when are radar summary charts issued? ______________________________________

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2. What information can be found on radar summary charts? ____________________________________

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3. What are the six levels of intensity that may be shown on a radar summary chart? _________________

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4. How are the levels on intensity shown on the chart? _________________________________________

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5. What is the difference between a “WS” and a “WT” severe weather watch? _______________________

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6. How are weather watches numbered? ____________________________________________________

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7. What do the letters “NA” and “NE” stand for on the chart? _____________________________________

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8. What is the code that is shown when there is little movement of a cell? __________________________

Weather Services
Radar Summary Chart
9. Describe the precipitation located off the shore of Florida to the east of lake Okeechobee: ___________

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Notes:

• Radar summary charts are the only weather charts which show lines and cells of thunderstorms.
You can also determine the tops and bases of the echoes, the intensity of the precipitation, and
the echo movement.
• A radar summary chart is most effective when used in combination with other charts, reports,
and forecasts.

Weather Services
Radar Summary Chart
 NEXRAD Radar

Reading Assignment
Attached NEXRAD reading from http://www.srh.noaa.gov/radar/radinfo/radinfo.html

Weather Services
NEXRAD Radar
 NEXRAD Radar Quiz

1. How often does NEXRAD radar update? __________________________________________________

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2. What does anomalous propagation mean? _________________________________________________

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3. What does the “Cone of Silence” refer to? _________________________________________________

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4. What is the main difference between Base Reflectivity and Composite Reflectivity? ________________

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5. How does clear air mode differ from precipitation mode and what is an easy way of determining in which

mode the radar is operating. ____________________________________________________________

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Weather Services
NEXRAD Radar
 NEXRAD RADAR

Are there any other radar images available besides the current four products?
The National Weather Service has a central collection of WSR-88D radar products in process. While we currently
only display four of those products (Base Reflectivity, Composite Reflectivity, One-Hour Precipitation, and Storm
Total Precipitation) through these local radar pages, you can receive all products through a "multicast" flow or via
standard anonymous FTP from the Gateway file servers. Information on the other products and the type of computer
equipment you need to receive the products can be found at the Radar Product Central Collection/Distribution
Service webpage. (http://www.nws.noaa.gov/oso/rpccds.html)

How does the radar work?

NEXRAD (Next Generation Radar) obtains weather information (precipitation and wind) based upon returned energy.
The radar emits a burst of energy (green). If the energy strikes an object (rain drop, bug, bird, etc), the energy is
scattered in all directions (blue). A small fraction of that scattered energy is directed back toward the radar.

This reflected signal is then received by the radar during its listening period. Computers
analyze the strength of the returned pulse, time it took to travel to the object and back,
and phase shift of the pulse. This process of emitting a signal, listening for any returned
signal, then emitting the next signal, takes place very fast, up to around 1300 times
each second.

NEXRAD spends the vast amount of time "listening" for returning signals it sent. When
the time of all the pulses each hour are totaled (the time the radar is actually
transmitting), the radar is "on" for about 7 seconds each hour. The remaining 59
minutes and 53 seconds are
spent listening for any
returned signals.

The ability to detect the "shift in the phase" of the pulse of

energy makes NEXRAD a Doppler radar. The phase of the
returning signal typically changes based upon the motion of
the raindrops (or bugs, dust, etc.). This Doppler effect was
named after the Austrian physicist, Christian Doppler, who
discovered it. You have most likely experienced the
"Doppler effect" around trains.

As a train passes your location, you may have noticed the pitch in the train's whistle changing from high to low. As the
train approaches, the sound waves that make up the whistle are compressed making the pitch higher than if the train
was stationary. Likewise, as the train moves away from you, the sound waves are stretched, lowering the pitch of the
whistle. The faster the train moves, the greater the change in the whistle's pitch as it passes your location.

The same effect takes place in the atmosphere as a pulse of energy from NEXRAD strikes an object and is reflected
back toward the radar. The radar's computers measure the phase change of the reflected pulse of energy which then
convert that change to a velocity of the object, either toward or from the radar. Information on the movement of
objects either toward or away from the radar can be used to estimate the speed of the wind. This ability to "see" the
wind is what enables the National Weather Service to detect the formation of tornados which, in turn, allows us to
issue tornado warnings with more advanced notice.

Is everything I see on the images an accurate picture of my weather?

Weather surveillance radars such as the WSR-88D can detect most precipitation within approximately 80 nautical
miles (nm) of the radar, and intense rain or snow within approximately 140 nm. However, light rain, light snow, or
drizzle from shallow cloud weather systems are not necessarily detected.

Echoes from surface targets appear in almost all radar reflectivity images. In the immediate area of the radar, "ground
clutter" generally appears within a radius of 20 nm. This appears as a roughly circular region with echoes that show
little spatial continuity. It results from radio energy reflected back to the radar from outside the central radar beam,
from the earth's surface or buildings.

Under highly stable atmospheric conditions (typically on calm, clear nights), the radar beam can be refracted almost
directly into the ground at some distance from the radar, resulting in an area of intense-looking echoes. This
"anomalous propagation" phenomenon (commonly known as AP) is much less common than ground clutter. Certain
sites situated at low elevations on coastlines regularly detect "sea return", a phenomenon similar to ground clutter
except that the echoes come from ocean waves.

Returns from aerial targets are also rather common. Echoes from migrating birds regularly appear during nighttime
hours between late February and late May, and again from August through early November. Return from insects is
sometimes apparent during July and August. The apparent intensity and areal coverage of these features is partly
dependent on radio propagation conditions, but they usually appear within 30 nm of the radar and produce
reflectivities of <30 dBZ (decibels of Z).

However, during the peaks of the bird migration seasons, in April and early September, extensive areas of the south-
central U.S. may be covered by such echoes. Finally, aircraft often appear as "point targets" far from the radar,
particularly in composite reflectivity images.

The radar is also limited close in by its inability to scan directly overhead. Therefore, close to the radar, data are not
available due to the radar's maximum tilt elevation of 19.5°. This area is commonly referred to as the radar's "Cone of
Silence".

Though surface echoes appear in the base and composite reflectivity images, special automated error checking
generally removes their effects from precipitation accumulation products. The national reflectivity mosaic product is
also automatically edited to detect and remove most nonprecipitation features. Even with limited experience, users of
unedited products can differentiate precipitation from other echoes, if they are aware of the general meteorological
situation.

What are the different types of radar images?

Base Reflectivity
This is a display of echo intensity (reflectivity) measured in dBZ (decibels of Z, where Z represents the
energy reflected back to the radar). "Reflectivity" is the amount of transmitted power returned to the radar
receiver. Base Reflectivity images are available at several different elevation angles (tilts) of the antenna
and are used to detect precipitation, evaluate storm structure, locate atmospheric boundaries and determine
hail potential.

The base reflectivity image currently available on this website is from the lowest "tilt" angle (0.5°). This
means the radar's antenna is tilted 0.5° above the horizon.

The maximum range of the "short range" (S Rng) base reflectivity product is 124 nm (about 143 miles)
from the radar location. This view will not display echoes that are more distant than 124 nm, even though
precipitation may be occurring at greater distances. To determine if precipitation is occurring at greater
distances, select the "long range" (L Rng) view (out to 248 nm/286 mi), select an adjacent radar, or link to
the National Reflectivity Mosaic. (http://weather.noaa.gov/radar/mosaic/DS.p19r0/ar.us.conus.shtml)

Composite Reflectivity
This display is of maximum echo intensity (reflectivity) from any elevation angle at every range from the
radar. This product is used to reveal the highest reflectivity in all echoes. When compared with Base
Reflectivity, the Composite Reflectivity can reveal important storm structure features and intensity trends of
storms.

The maximum range of the "long range" (L Rng) composite reflectivity product is 248 nm (about 286
miles) from the radar location. The "blocky" appearance of this product is due to its lower spatial resolution
on a 2.2 * 2.2 nm grid. It has one-fourth the resolution of the Base Reflectivity and one-half the resolution of
the Precipitation products.

Although the Composite Reflectivity product is able to display maximum echo intensities 248 nm from the
radar, the beam of the radar at this distance is at a very high altitude in the atmosphere. Thus, only the most
intense convective storms and tropical systems will be detected at the longer distances.
 Because of this fact, special care must be taken interpreting this product. While the radar image may not
indicate precipitation it's quite possible that the radar beam is overshooting precipitation at lower levels,
especially at greater distances. To determine if precipitation is occurring at greater distances link to an
adjacent radar or link to the National Reflectivity Mosaic.

For a higher resolution (1.1 * 1.1 nm grid) composite reflectivity image, select the short range (S Rng)
view. The image is less "blocky" as compared to the long range image. However, the maximum range is
reduced to 124 nm (about 143 miles) from the radar location.

One-hour Precipitation
This is an image of estimated one-hour precipitation accumulation on a 1.1 nm by 1 degree grid. This
product is used to assess rainfall intensities for flash flood warnings, urban flood statements and special
weather statements. The maximum range of this product is 124 nm (about 143 miles) from the radar
location. This product will not display accumulated precipitation more distant than 124 nm, even though
precipitation may be occurring at greater distances. To determine accumulated precipitation at greater
distances you should link to an adjacent radar.

Storm Total Precipitation

This image is of estimated accumulated rainfall, continuously updated, since the last one-hour break in
precipitation. This product is used to locate flood potential over urban or rural areas, estimate total basin
runoff and provide rainfall accumulations for the duration of the event.

The maximum range of this product is 124 nm (about 143 miles) from the radar location. This product will
not display accumulated precipitation more distant than 124 nm, even though precipitation may be occurring
at greater distances. To determine accumulated precipitation at greater distances link to an adjacent radar.

How often are the images updated?

Image updates are based upon the operation mode of the radar at the time the image is generated. The WSR-88D
Doppler radar is operated in one of two modes -- clear air mode or precipitation mode. In clear air mode, images are
updated every 10 minutes. In precipitation mode, images are updated every four to six minutes. The collection of
radar data, repeated at regular time intervals, is referred to as a volume scan.
 Clear Air Mode

In this mode, the radar is in its most sensitive operation. This mode has the slowest antenna rotation rate which
permits the radar to sample a given volume of the atmosphere longer. This increased sampling increases the radar's
sensitivity and ability to detect smaller objects in the atmosphere than in precipitation mode. A lot of what you will see
in clear air mode will be airborne dust and particulate matter. Also, snow does not reflect energy sent from the radar
very well. Therefore, clear air mode will occasionally be used for the detection of light snow.

The radar continuously scans the atmosphere by completing volume coverage patterns (VCP). A VCP consists of the
radar making several 360° scans of the atmosphere, sampling a set of increasing elevation angles. There are two
clear mode VCPs.

In clear air mode, the radar begins a volume scan at the 0.5° elevation angle (i.e., the radar antenna is angled 0.5°
above the ground). Once it makes two full sweeps (a surveillance/reflectivity sweep and a Doppler/velocity sweep) at
the 0.5° elevation angle, it increases to 1.5° and makes two more 360° rotations. For one of the clear air mode VCPs,
two full sweeps are also made at 2.5°. Otherwise, at the higher elevations (2.5°, 3.5°, and 4.5°) a single sweep is
made (reflectivity and velocity data are collected together).

This process is repeated at 2.5°, 3.5°, and 4.5°. Then the radar returns to the 0.5° elevation angle to begin the next
volume scan which will repeat the same sequence of elevation angles. In clear air mode, the complete scan of the
atmosphere takes about 10 minutes at 5 different elevation angles.

Doppler Radar
Clear Air Mode Volumn Coverage Pattern 31/32 (VCP 31, VCP 32)
(Most sensitive operational mode)

Values in red represent the different elevation angles in this VCP. This table shows the
approximate height and width of the radar beam with distance from the radar site. The radar will
complete one volume scan (five elevation scans) every 10 minutes.
 Precipitation Mode

When precipitation is occurring, the radar does not need to be as sensitive as in clear air mode as rain provides
plenty of returning signals. At the same time, meteorologists want to see higher in the atmosphere when precipitation
is occurring to analyze the vertical structure of the storms. This is when the meteorologists switch the radar to
precipitation mode using one of two volume coverage patterns.

Both precipitation VCP's begin like the clear air mode mentioned above with the same evaluations scans as in the
clear air mode. The difference is the radar continues looking higher in the atmosphere, up to 19.5° to complete the
volume scan. The time it takes to complete the entire volume scan is also less. In the slower VCP, the radar
completes the volume scan of nine different elevations in six minutes. In the faster VCP, the radar completes 14
different elevation scans in five minutes.

Doppler Radar
Precipitation Volumn Coverage Pattern 21 (VCP 21)
Values in red represent the different elevation angles in this VCP. This table shows the
approximate height and width of the radar beam with distance from the radar site. The radar will
complete one volume scan (nine elevation scans) every six minutes.

Differences in the quality of radar images between the two precipitation mode VCPs are relatively minor. Therefore,
during severe weather, the faster VCP is almost always used as it provides the meteorologists with the quickest
updates and most elevation slices through the storms.

In summary, when the radar is in clear air mode, radar images will be updated approximately every ten minutes. In
precipitation mode, the updates will occur around five to six minutes apart.
 Doppler Radar
Precipitation Volumn Coverage Pattern 11 (VCP 11)
(Quickest operational mode)

Values in red represent the different elevation angles in this VCP. This table shows the
approximate height and width of the radar beam with distance from the radar site. The radar will
complete one volume scan (14 elevation scans) every five minutes.

What do the colors mean in the reflectivity products?

The colors are the different echo intensities (reflectivity) measured in dBZ (decibels of Z) during each
elevation scan. "Reflectivity" is the amount of transmitted power returned to the radar receiver.
Reflectivity (designated by the letter Z) covers a wide range of signals (from very weak to very
strong). So, a more convenient number for calculations and comparison, a decibel (or logarithmic)
scale (dBZ), is used.

The dBZ values increase as the strength of the signal returned to the radar increases. dBZ
Rainrate
Each reflectivity image you see includes one of two color scales. One scale (far left) (in/hr)
represents dBZ values when the radar is in clear air mode (dBZ values from -28 to 65 16+
+28). The other scale (near left) represents dBZ values when the radar is in 60 8.00
precipitation mode (dBZ values from 5 to 75). Notice the color on each scale remains 55 4.00
the same in both operational modes, only the values change. The value of the dBZ 52 2.50
depends upon the mode the radar is in at the time the image was created.
47 1.25
The scale of dBZ values is also related to the intensity of rainfall. Typically, light rain is 41 0.50
occurring when the dBZ value reaches 20. The higher the dBZ, the stronger the 36 0.25
rainrate. Depending on the type of weather occurring and the area of the U.S., 30 0.10
forecasters use a set of rainrates which are associated to the dBZ values. 20 Trace

These values are estimates of the rainfall per hour, updated each volume scan, with rainfall
accumulated over time. Hail is a good reflector of energy and will return very high dBZ values. Since
hail can cause the rainfall estimates to be higher than what is actually occurring, steps are taken to
prevent these high dBZ values from being converted to rainfall.
What is the difference between base and composite reflectivity?
The main difference is composite reflectivity shows the highest dBZ (strongest reflected energy) at all elevation
scans, not just the reflected energy at a single elevation scan. This can be seen in the images below from the Salt
Lake City radar.

Notice the additional reflectivity that is visible in Base Reflectivity Composite Reflectivity
the composite reflectivity (far right). It is most
readily seen around the name 'Wendover'.
Also notice the composite view displays a
slightly larger area of heavy rain (orange-red
area to the west of Wendover).

Why the difference? Base reflectivity only

shows reflected energy at a single elevation
scan of the radar. Composite reflectivity
displays the highest reflectivity of ALL
elevations scans. So, if heavier precipitation is
higher in the atmosphere over an area of
lighter precipitation (the heavier rain that has yet to reach the ground), the composite reflectivity image will display the
stronger dBZ level.

This occurs often with severe thunderstorms. The updraft, which feeds the thunderstorm with moist air, is strong
enough to keep a large amount of water aloft. Once the updraft can no longer support the weight of suspended water
then the rain intensity at the surface increases as the rain falls from the cloud.
 Satellite Weather Images
Reading Assignment
Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45E) 3-11

Weather Services
Satellite Weather Images
 Satellite Weather Images Quiz
1. How often are satellite images issued? ____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

2. What are the two standard types of satellite images available and what is the difference between the

two? _______________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

3. What color will high clouds appear on an infrared satellite image? Why? _________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

4. (Extra Credit) – ADDS has an additional type of image available called a Water Vapor satellite image.

Try to explain how this satellite can “see” only water vapor. ____________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

5. Where can satellite images be found? ____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

Notes:

• Satellite, combined with radar images and METARs, can help to form a more complete picture of the
flight environment.

Weather Services
Satellite Weather Images