JE us in a d

ILLCoriUITL/

m cu m in tc

de. Do
mine a d
a d i u u d i i /

dum me f
fe fd n a .

G loria/1
p a tri c t f i h o c t Ij^ iritu i I a n £ £o B M i
c u t erat in jprincijno ct n u n c c t f c n r
Per c t in ifecuia fcculorurrx amen A (
le lic y a L a u s tiLi clom ine r c y ^
ctctn e o lo r ic . Mv S.
I lm e n to f a lu t is aucf cor cj7 n o !
f t n q u o n d a m corporis

9H S —
 DAVID H A R R IS

r
fanctiftcitioncftniimir.|).§ftmu
DCflqaamDrictuinoinmts
annuafifturqitmttsfac’
totalis mnOti.InfttamuinlatiOf
offmmus.futpUcttrctoiantrs:
urcuntsmtmftmi uicctibi fmu
nutsttninmu.Cufteigtisausno
tumuracrcpu.p. jnfmcanoncm.
anctgtmroOlauoucfcnu
nmsmcrquantuotoffr
raegofamulustuttsoUOtonm
quomeOtgnatuscstitnuntftr
noCacrpconfttmcrr(acrrtotnn.
oufccroOneplacantsampler
r {* #k
( $

D O RLING KIN D ERSLEY

LONDON • NEW YO R K • STU TTGART
 A D O R L IN G K IN D E R S L E Y B O O K

P ro je c t e d ito r Louise Candlish

A rt e d ito r Liz Brown
A ssistant e d ito r David T Walton
A ssistant d esig n er Carla De Abreu
S en io r e d ito r Roger Tritton
S en io r a r t e d ito r Tracy Hambleton-Miles
DTP d esig n er Zirrinia Austin
M anag in g e d ito r Sean Moore
M anag in g a rt e d ito r Toni Kay
P ro d u ctio n c o n tro lle r Meryl Silbert
P ictu re research Julia Harris-Voss, Jo Walton
P h o to grap h y Steve Gorton, Andy Crawford

First published in G reat B ritain in 199S

by D o rlin g K indersley L im ited ,
9 H en rietta S tre e t, L ondon W C 2 E 8PS

C opyright © 199S D orlin g K indersley L im ited , London

Text cop yright © 1995 David H arris

All rights reserv ed . N o p art o f this publication may be rep rod u ced , stored
in a retrieval system , o r transm itted in any fo rm o r by any m eans, e le c tro n ic ,
m echanical, photocopying, reco rd in g o r o th erw ise, w ithout the p rio r w ritten
perm ission o f the cop yright ow ner.

A C IP catalogue reco rd for this b o o k is available from the B ritish Library

ISBN 0 7 5 1 3 0 1 4 9 3

C o lo u r reprod uction by G R B E d itrice s.r.l.

P rinted in Singapore by Toppan P rintin g C o. (S) P te Ltd

Contents

Introduction 6 Bastard Capitals 78

The Developm ent o f W estern Script 8 Cadels 80
Script Tim eline 12
Getting Started 14 I t a l ia n & H u m a n is t S c r ip t s

Rotunda 84
R o m a n & L a t e R o m a n S c r ip t s Rotunda Capitals 88
Rustic Capitals 16 Humanist Minuscule 90
Square Capitals 20 Italic 94

Uncial & Artifical Uncial 24 Humanist & Italic Capitals 98

Italic Swash Capitals 100
In s u l a r & N a t io n a l S c r ip t s

Insular Majuscule 28 P o st- R e n a is s a n c e S c r ip t s

Insular Minuscule 34 Copperplate 102

Copperplate Capitals 106

C a r o l in e & E a r l y G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Caroline Minuscule 38 R oman & L ate R oman S c r ip t s

Foundational Hand 42 Imperial Capitals 108

Early Gothic 46
Script R eference Chart 120
G o t h ic S c r ip t s Glossary 122
Textura Quadrata 50 Bibliography 124
Textura Prescisus 54 Index & Acknowledgments 125
Gothic Capitals & Versals 58

Lombardic Capitals 62
Bastard Secretary 66
Batarde 70
Fraktur & Schwabacher 74
I n t r o d u c t io n

B o o k p ro d u c tio n
T h e p r o d u c ti o n o f a
m a n u s c r ip t b o o k is
a c o m p le x business,
req u irin g th e skills o f
n u m e r o u s c ra fts m e n .
Introduction
OR2 ,0 0 0 y e a r s , the western Latin alphabet
F
has developed and been modified by a vast
range o f social and technological changes,
providing a rich and varied resource for the
m odern calligrapher to quarry. This book
charts that development, presenting scripts
in both historical and practical contexts.
Calligraphers o f all levels will be able to
explore the origins o f each script and eyeglass is a valuable aid to
understand anew the construction o f e x a m in in g th e letterfo rm s
in h isto rical m anuscrip ts
the 26 letters that we use every day. s h o w n in this b o o k .

Wedge serif f Bracketed serif ^Capital line

G en era lly, L a t in - b a s e d scripts fall
into two categories: formal —that Majuscule (capital
letter, upper-case
is scripts used as the instrument o f
letter)
authority; and informal - the cursive
or quickly written scripts used for
Bowl (bow,
everyday transactions. History curved stroke)
repeatedly shows formal scripts
degenerating into cursive form s,
Inter­
which are, in turn, upgraded, finally letter \ Horizontal

achieving formal status as new hands W space foot (main stroke) space

in their own right. The pages o f Lower

Descender I
historical analysis in this book chart counter

the rise, fall, and revival o f these Interlinear space

hands, and explain the em ergence

o f other significant scripts. l.iaalure
a
..
Headline
P r a c tic a l a d v ic e (waistline,

Following the historical study o f

each script is a practical guide to
the construction o f the letters in
Pen angle
that hand. A com plete alphabet is
included, showing the separate strokes
needed to produce each letter, and
indicating the probable sequence
of these strokes. To the left o f this
alphabet, the chief characteristics Descender line

o f the script are described and Letter anatom y

In o r d e r t o id e n tify o r c o n s t r u c t scrip ts, it is
demonstrated in a separate panel. essential t o b e c o m e fa m ilia r w ith th e v o c a b u la r y
The appearance o f a script is o f callig ra p h y . U n f o r tu n a te ly , th e r e is n o a g re e d
sta n d a rd n o m e n c l a t u r e , so te r m s u sed in this
influenced by a range o f practical b o o k are th o s e m o s t c o m m o n l y f a v o u r e d by
factors, including the cut o f the nib ca llig ra p h e rs a n d p a la e o g ra p h e rs. A lte r n a tiv e
te r m s , in c lu d in g th o s e u se d b y ty p o g ra p h e rs ,
used to write it. Full information a re s h o w n h e r e in b r a ck e ts. F o r e x a m p le , th e
about tools is given for each script.
h e a d lin e is k n o w n t o s o m e callig ra p h e rs as
th e “ w a is d in e ” a n d t o ty p o g ra p h e rs as th e
“ x - l i n e ” . A lth o u g h th e s e le tte rs re p re se n t
o n ly a fe w c h a r a c te r s , th e te r m s u sed to
d e s crib e th e ir c o m p o n e n t s a re ap p licab le
t o all th e le tte rs in th e a lp h a b e t. A full
g lo ssa ry o f th e ca llig ra p h ic te r m s u sed in
th is b o o k is also in c lu d e d (pp. 1 2 2 - 1 2 3 ) .

6

This angle indicates the degree o f
forward lean of the letter; in this
case, the angle is close to 1 0 °
The minim height o f
this f is four pen widths .
\ ascender is about
L e tte r h e ig h t a n d een a n g le
T h e h e ig h t o f a le tte r is ca lc u la te d
in pen w id th s, s h o w n in this b o o k
to the left o f th e le tte r in th e f o r m
o f a “ la d d e r” . E a c h s c rip t is d ra w n
with th e p e n h e ld at o n e p a rticu la r
angle. T h e figu res u sed to in d ica te
this angle re fe r to d e g re e s to th e
ho rizon tal. W h e r e r e le v a n t, th e
a p p ro xim ate an g le o f th e f o rw a rd
lean o f a le tte r is also g iv e n . T h is is
m easured in d e g re e s to th e v e rtic a l.
St r o k e seq u en ce
A re c o m m e n d e d s e q u e n c e o f stro k e s is g iv e n
for all 2 6 le tte rs o f e a c h sc rip t. T h e use o f
transparent c o lo u r s m a k e s it c le a r w h e r e a
stroke cro sses o r o v e rla p s w ith a n o th e r .
The first letter in the sequence
shows the model that you should
follow — in this example, a Caroline
Minuscule f (p p. 4 0 - 4 1 )
The sensitivity o f a quill
pen makes it an ideal tool
for drawing hairlines
I n t r o d u c t io n
M o d e l scrip ts
The search for a definitive model
for any particular hand is virtually
The height o f the impossible. Within each script there
three pen widths
are endless variations, ranging from
the excessively formal to the almost
The pen is held at
indecipherable. Therefore the scripts
an angle o f 4 0 °
to the horizontal included in the practical pages of
this book are actuallyJ a synthesis
J
of
This letter is written
with a “slanted’’pen various different styles, and should
(square-cut nib) be used to prompt your own
personal redefinition o f the hands.
M a n u s c r ip t so u rc es
By definition, a script is a system
o f handwritten characters, and the
majority of the scripts included in this
book come from manuscript sources.
An arrow-head W here appropriate, an enlargement
indicates where the
stroke finishes and
o f a section from an important
manuscript is shown, often revealing
the basic ductus o f the script under
scrutiny and giving invaluable clues
to the construction o f lettcrform s.
I m p e r i a l C a p ita ls
One significant script included in this
book must be regarded separately
from the rest —the Roman Imperial
Capital. A product o f the brush and
not the pen, it was, until recently,
not accepted as a script at all. Due
The second stroke creates
The black arrow indicates the ascender of the letter to its com plexity and importance to
the progress o f thefirst and, finally, the crossbar is modern calligraphy and typography,
stroke; on reaching the added with a third stroke
baseline, the pen is pushed it is explored in depth in a section
back over the first stroke at the end o f the book. For the first
and upwards
tim e, the origins and structure o f
all 26 letters are demonstrated in an
W r it in g t o o l s
easily accessible way (pp. 1 0 8 -1 1 9).
S o m e m a te ria ls a n d im p le m e n ts a re m o r e
su itab le fo r an a c c u r a te re p re se n ta tio n o f a scrip t L e ft - h a n d e d w o rk
th a n o th e r s . F o r in s ta n c e , m o s t sc rib e s w r itin g
The step-by-step letters demonstrated
b e f o re 1 5 0 0 u sed e ith e r p a r c h m e n t o r v e llu m ,
w h ic h re m a in t o this d a y t w o o f th e finest in this book are the work o f a right-
w r itin g su rfaces. F r e q u e n tly , th e w r itin g handed calligrapher. Left-handed
im p le m e n t is o f e q u a l im p o r t a n c e . F o r a
B a ta r d e le tte r (left), it w o u ld b e d ifficu lt to
calligraphers can follow the same
a c h ie v e th e v e ry fin e lin es w ith a n y o t h e r angles and stroke sequences, but
im p le m e n t th a n a sh a rp ly c u t q u ill. A d v ic e
might find it useful to adjust their
o n th e s e le ctio n o f su rfaces an d w r itin g to o ls
is g iv e n in “ G e tti n g S ta r te d ” (/;/;. 14— I S ). normal writing position to the
“underarm” position: tuck the arm
The quill has been shorn o f
most o f its barbs, making it inwards, turn the hand to the left,
easier to handle and shift the paper down to the right.
Nibs cut obliquely from top right to
bottom left can also be verv useful.
Th e D evelo pm en t o f W ester n S c r ip t

The Development of Western Script

he first evolved in Phoenicia in about 1 2 0 0 B . C . .
ALPHABET

T This was adapted in the eighth century B.C. by the Greeks,

whose letterform s were borrowed by the Etruscans and, in
turn, by the Romans. All subsequent W estern scripts have
evolved from Roman originals. The scripts in this book are
grouped in six categories: Roman and Late Roman Scripts
(pp. 16—27, 108—119), Insular and National Scripts (pp. 2 8 —37),
Caroline and Early G othic Scripts (pp. 3 8 —4 9 ), G othic Scripts
(pp. 50—8 3 ), Italian and Humanist Scripts (pp. 84—1 0 1 ), and
Post-Renaissance Scripts (pp. 102—107). The duration o f
each script is shown in a tim eline (pp. 12—13).

E tru s c a n le tte r s
PROBABLY the most important event
T h e s e le tte rs h a v e b e e n w r itte n in O s c a n ,
in the history o f W estern script was an a n c ie n t Italian la n g u a g e d e r iv e d fro m

the Roman adoption o f the Etruscan E tr u s c a n . In a d d itio n t o th e w r itin g sy ste m ,

a lm o s t e v e r y a s p e c t o f E tr u s c a n c u ltu r e w as
alphabet. By the first century B . C . , the a d o p te d b y th e R o m a n s , in c lu d in g th e legal
Romans had developed several scripts. a n d m ilita ry sy ste m s.

One was a quickly penned, cursive This lerracotta tablet, o f a type used to mark property
script used for correspondence, and land, shows clearly recognizable letteforms, such
as this character, which resembles an overturned E
scratched onto a wax tablet or written
with a reed pen on papyrus. This hand
T h e L a tin a lp h a b e t
was influential in the development o f
T h is in s c rip tio n f r o m th e base o f th e T r a ja n
the minuscule letter, including the C o l u m n , R o m e , is o n e o f th e fin est s u rv iv in g
Half Uncial (pp. 3 8 —3 9 ). Another e x a m p le s o f Im p e ria l C a p ita ls {p p. 1 0 8 - 1 0 9 ) .
T h e o ld e st L a tin a lp h a b e t c o n ta in e d 2 1
key script was the Rustic Capital, c h a ra c te r s , as o p p o s e d t o th e E tr u s c a n 2 0 . B y
used in manuscript, signwritten, late R o m a n tim e s , th e L a tin a lp h a b e t h a d 2 3
c h a r a c te r s , th e t w o a d d itio n a l c h a ra c te r s — Y an d
and inscribed forms (pp. 16—17).
Z - h a v in g b e e n ta k e n f ro m th e G r e e k U p s ilo n
I m p e r ia l C a p ita ls a n d Z e t a . A ll o f th e s e c h a ra c te r s h a v e su rv iv e d
f o r m o d e r n u se , w ith th e a d d itio n in m e d ie v a l
The third Roman hand produced by
tim e s o f le tte rs J , U , a n d W .
the first century B . C . , now known as
the Imperial Capital, was used in both
stone-carved and brush-drawn form
(pp. 108—109). Over 2 ,0 0 0 years
S E N A l l s POPVlVSGY§ RC
later, the letters o f the script provide
the basis o f our m odern capitals. I M P C A ^ A R l n l\ i N 1 WA1
By the fourth century, the Square
Capital, a modified de luxe bookhand,
had also emerged (pp. 2 0 —21).
flTM APflO W G G E R M
Another important script that had
its origins during the Roman period
M AXlfToTRIhPO TXV!
was the Uncial (pp. 24—2 5 ). Similar
in form to the G reek Uncial that \ D D E CL XR \ N P \ \ U A \ N 1 . \ | /
preceded it, this was developed for
use by the early Christian Church. \ \ si v v G ^ H l y j'A s s

8

C h a r le m a g n e a n d A lc u in
In m a n y w a y s th e e i g h t h - c e n tu r y E m p e r o r C h a r le m a g n e
m o d e lle d h im s e lf a n d his c o u r t o n his R o m a n fo re b e a rs.
R o m a n in flu e n c e in th e F ran k ish E m p i r e w as p a rticu la rly
im p o r ta n t in th e areas o f le a rn in g a n d s c h o la rsh ip , in
w h ic h th e e m p e r o r w as a id e d b y a p r o m in e n t m o n k fro m
Y o r k n a m e d A lc u in . U n d e r A lc u in ’s a b b o ts h ip fro m 7 9 6 -
8 0 4 , th e g re a t s c rip to r iu m at T o u r s , F r a n c e , w a s fo u n d e d .
H e r e , th e C a r o lin e M in u s c u le w as c r e a te d {p p. 3 8 - 3 9 ) .
The rounded tip o f the
penknife suggests that it
was also usedfo r scoring
the page
The scribe casts a critical eye over the The production of book covers was
newly sharpened nib o f the quill a separate craft requiring the skills
o f a team o f workers
T H E PR O D U C TIO N
OH MANUSCRIPTS
T h e s e 1 2 t h - c e n t u r y illu stratio n s
s h o w s o m e o f th e p ro ce sse s
in v o lv e d in th e p r o d u c tio n o f a
m e d ie v a l b o o k . F irs t, th e
p a r c h m e n t m a k e r w o u ld so ak th e
sk in an d th e n s tr e tc h a n d sc ra p e it.
N e x t , th e d rie d p a r c h m e n t w o u ld
The finished manuscript book lends
b e tr im m e d a n d s c o r e d in
authority to the monk’s preaching
p re p a ra tio n f o r th e s c rib e . T h e
t e x t w o u ld b e p la n n e d in d e ta il,
w ith sp aces left fo r th e w o r k o f
th e illu stra to r an d illu m in a to r.
A f te r th e s c rib e h ad c o m p l e t e d his
t e x t , th e illu m in a to r w o u ld ap p ly
th e g o ld leaf, w h ic h w as th e n
o v e r d r a w n b y th e illu strato r.
F in a lly , se p a ra te leav es w e r e
g a th e r e d a n d b o u n d , a n d th e
c o v e r fitted .
The book is bound and the scribe prepares to
make any necessary annotations to the text
Once the leaves of the manuscript The punched holes are joined hy scored
are placed in order, they are lines, between which the scribe would
stitched together then write the text
The parchment is stretched on a wooden
frame and scraped with a curved knife
Once dried and cleaned, the
parchment is trimmed to si/.e
Teaching from written manuscripts
was a key aspect o f monastic life
Small holes are punched through the
parchment, probably to provide
guidelines for spacing
T h e D evelo pm en t of W ester n S c r ip t
I n s u la r a n d N a tio n a l scrip ts
After the demise o f the western
Roman Empire in the fifth century,
numerous hands developed in the
kingdoms carved out of the remains
o f the Empire. Irish scripts, such as the
Insular Majuscule (pp. 28—31), derived
from Uncial and Half Uncial forms,
are now known as “insular” scripts.
Elsewhere in Europe, national scripts
included the Visigothic in Spain and
the Merovingian in France.
The most important means of
communication between different
nations was the Christian Church,
which kept the torch o f literacy and
learning alive. Irish monks formed
manv J
monastic centres in Scotland and
northern England, as well as in Luxeuil
and Corbie in France, and Bobbio in
Italy. Meanwhile, monks from Rome
entered southern England and were
responsible for the widespread
conversion to Christianity there.
C a ro lin e a n d E arly G o th ic scrip ts
The first empire in the West to
emerge from the remains of the
Roman Empire was that o f Charles
the Great (Charlemagne). By the ninth
century, his Frankish Empire stretched
from the Pyrenees
J
to the Baltic. A
reformed hand devised by Alcuin of
York became the established hand of
the empire it is now known as the
Caroline Minuscule (pp. 3 8 -3 9 ).
Outside the Frankish Empire,
national hands persisted. In Italy,
the Bencvcntan script was one of the
longest surviving post-Roman scripts,
used from the mid-eighth century until
1 300 (pp. 8 4 -8 3 ) . In England, the
Insular and Anglo-Saxon Minuscules
sufficed until the tenth century (pp.
34- 35), when the Caroline Minuscule
was introduced. Over time, the
Caroline Minuscule became more
compressed, anticipating the angular,
uniform aspect o f Gothic letters. This
compressed script is known as Late
Caroline or Early Gothic (pp. 4 6 -4 7 ).
9
Ini D i \ I I o / ’ i// \ r of 11 i s / i ' R x S m i r i

G o th ic s c r ip ts
B y the end o f the 1 2th century, a

complex system o f Gothic scripts

had evolved throughout Europe. For
simplicity, these are often divided
into two groups: the high-quality
(do luxe), formal hands used for
both religious and secular book NCI PIT PREFABO P11NIIVERON6NSIS AD HTNM AV

text, and the cursive hands used lor 6VSTVA\ IhPERATOKEM IILRROS NAlVfiAU:? HIs TORIE
documentary work and, from the late
1 3th century, for vernacular book
production. The two most important
de luxe bookhands were the Textura
Quadrata (pp. 50 51) and its twin,
the Prescisus (pp. 54 55).
B a s t a r d s cr ip ts
Gothic cursive scripts are known as
bastard scripts, and they remained
in use until supplanted by the
Copperplate in the 18th century
(pp. 102 103), some 200 vears after
the demise o f the formal Gothic
bookhands. Bastard hands are
difficult to categorize, differing from
country to country, town to town,
and trade to trade. However, general
differences can easily be discerned
between English (pp. 66 67), French
(pp. 70 71), and German (pp. 74 75)
models. It was in bastard text script
that minuscules and capitals of the
same hand first appeared together
w ith the Gothic Capitals used to
begin new sentences and denote
proper nouns (pp. 5 8 -5 9 ).

I Iu m a n ist M in u s c u le
T h is m a n u s c r ip t p a g e f ro m a tran slatio n
o f P lin y ’s X tilu m l I lislory s h o w s b eau tifu lly
p e n n e d H u m a n is t M in u s c u le le tte rs. T h e
h a n d w ritte n R e n a is s a n c e sc rip t w as u sed as a
m o d e l fo r ty p e b y 1 5 t h - c e n t u r y V e n e tia n
p rinters. It q u ick ly re p la ce d th e G o th ic m o d els
f a v o u re d b y J o h a n n G u te n b e r g , t h e G e r m a n
in v e n to r o f p r in tin g w ith m o v a b le ty p e.

10

NiUMfr
fu&^mttif. .E3
V'txvmmit-tr xpcctfvudhnmiu
alii i)nm ).vr |a»ut»u>jmuciutui
it&ttii/h inim?iiiM>tKv(u^.Q
0 v iu y u f /u e c v - p i o n o t h e .
^ k m i h h c m u ii> i r V v /^ v /o w ^
Ecfamor. I.nx.wy
oimncdVfu
$uu
m iconct uuutrintiutnj mftr
iui>inu»utuuii)rtannniui|[
IMCrtMJ IMMlf (t lllfxmi moA
iHct.-ct fdnnn'Suxiicnf.'viuif
mi/ma£t>mr>j rtTtMttrtnjityi'
rtit. iti)i«o»jct,xxiim»»jcf(fffit
G o th ic b a s ta rd sc rip ts
T h is p a g e is fro m a B o o k o f H o u rs
p r o d u c e d in F r a n c e a fte r th e in tr o d u c tio n
o f p r in tin g . O w n e r s h ip o f a h a n d w ritte n
b o o k a t this tim e w'as an in d ic a tio n o f
h ig h so cia l statu s. T h e e le g a n t s c rip t is
a late B a t a r d c h a n d k n o w n as L ellrc
Boiirgtiigiioiine (p p . 7 0 - 7 1 ) , w h ic h
c o n ta in s a m i x t u r e o f cu rs iv e and
T e x t u r a e le m e n ts .
I he Bdtarde letter I often has
a distinctive forward lean, as
does the long form o f s
M o d e rn c a llig ra p h y
T h is th r e e -d im e n s io n a l w o r k , w h ic h
m e a su re s 2 4 b y 3 5 b y 5 c e n tim e tr e s (9 'C
b y 1 4 b y 2 in c h e s ), w a s c r e a te d in 1 9 9 3
b y D e n is B r o w n . E n title d P h o en ix , th e
p a g e o f In su la r le tte rs - r e m in is c e n t o f th e
g re a t m a n u s crip ts o f K ells a n d L in d isfa rn e
[pp. 2 8 - 3 1) - has b e e n p e n e tra te d b y
e le c tr i c w ir e s as a m e t a p h o r o f th e
p h o e n ix cre a tin g new ' life fro m th e old.
T h e D evelo pm e \ t o f W e ster s S c r ip t
I t a lia n a n d H u m a n is t scrip ts
In Italy, the formal Gothic scripts
never really secured a footing. Italian
letterform s o f this period generally
known by the name o f Rotunda
(pp. 8 4 —85) were rounder, with a
much more open aspect than their
Gothic contemporaries.
By 1400, a revised version o f the
Caroline Minuscule script known as
the Humanist Minuscule had become
the established writing hand o f the
Renaissance (pp. 90—91). Eventually,
its adaption for type made it the
pre-eminent letterform in Europe,
and its use continues to the present
day. A variant o f the Humanist
Minuscule that also remains in use
is the Italic (pp. 94 95). Devised as
a manuscript hand in 1420, it was
adapted for type by 1 500.
P o s t -R e n a is s a n c e scrip ts
The final script o f significance
is the Copperplate (pp. 102 103).
As the name suggests, this was
originally a hand engraved or etched
on sheets of copper. Typified by
delicately joined loops and exotic
proportions, this cursive letter could
be engraved with far greater ease than
it could be drawn. However, in its
simpler handwritten form , the
Copperplate did have the advantage
o f being very fast to pen and, bv the
19th century, it was the standard
script of business and education.
M odern c a llig r a p h y
A modern calligraphy revival began
at the beginning o f the 20th century
with the pioneering work o f Edward
Johnston in England (pp. 42 43) and
Rudolf von Larisch and Rudolf Koch
in Germany (pp. 74—75). Since the
1950s, interest in calligraphy has
proliferated in many cultures, both
those with and without Latin-based
alphabets. During the last 20 years,
as calligraphers have explored and
redefined letterform s, calligraphy has
becom e an art form in its own right.
11
S c r i p t T im t u n e

u ace (a . d . j

Script
tjH rx re N
Timeline 200
O ld R oman
C u rsive
c7r eek U ncial

Key
Grey line: C h ie f lin e o f influe nee
Dolled line: D uration o f script for text
piLlUSTIOT
11 hire line: D uration o f script for use 300
U ncial
o th e r than fo r text

figHificciT: formord
400
N ew Roman
C u rsive
X
T
!
1
n H alf U ncial | |
u i e

C u r siv e H alf U ncial

500
I nsular M in uscule |

600 Jtecffkietccnpccciji rm ct6dtmuf.ipft£mtr

i mrjftfua ttie-
VlSIGOTHIC B eneven tan M in uscule L u x eu il
700 Minuscule M in uscule apjctusJij
I nsular
------------ 1
800 M ajuscule

C a r o lin e
P A p c if f r ■>o ic h .\ i I —
900
M in u scu le
r

1000

1100

J I

1200 bom im lupcrui tuJcnS-fLmuncufl1

E arly
G othic : I
J
R o tu n d a
1300 pontificrmtunmm- rnpus (Etrinutant-
T extura T ex t u r a
1400 P rescisus Q uad rata

j . ■
■
■
I
1 1
15 0 0
1 1
* *

1600 ^

1700

1800

19(H)

Foundational H and
2000 (B ritish C alligraphic
R evival ) w i t h the h o u
12
 S c r ip t T im eu se

SEN A T V SP O P 'tj f d n m m c O : 1I
Im p er ia l R u s t ic I
C apitals
C apitals l
1 l
i I
I
i
i
l
elid'd im p r o b it d v k i
S q u a r e C apitals

m
1 fM
1IfiT W
AU*ifulF F IlP
w«ilJ 1/1luuIW
he’ftjfiM-l I^^^CAPmuTl

JI
- U m i t E M
I n s u l a r D isp lay |
C a p ita ls |

1
+

i 1
i c q ; : e s t : i n : t 1-i 1
7
Lo m u a r d ic C apitals

1
H u m a n ist M inusc ULF.
T&t?' TXntr
U / U .1 L L O 1 I U L L U O IC A ^ L
B a st a r d
Se c r e t a r y

- f/\/loltOjlinnnrmi
ALIC
fl'J/lli/l till 1

Venerable fcxtui fce-Stymiitc a{>afoin

v /?
B atar .d e Fka k tu r o f

r mmmJ
■ C o pperplate |

i 1

i
■
1
i
1
2
» G erm an
1 C a ll ig r a p h ic
1 R evival
■

S t ifle v e c g c b fy lfa 1 7
4 r

13
G e t t in g S tarted

/
Getting Started
begins with the tools
h e a r t o f c a llig r a p h y

T and materials, and these should be selected

with great care. O ften, a struggle to achieve
a good result is an indication that the chosen
surface or writing tool is unsuitable. Owing to
a widespread revival o f interest in calligraphy,
there is now an enormous range of pens, paper,
and other equipment available. Here, basic
information is given on the types o f surfaces
and writing implements you can use, and also
on how to make the two traditional types o f S u rfa ce s

pen —the reed pen and the quill. F o r p r a c tic e

a n d tr y in g o u t
in itial id e a s, a
T h e reed p en l ig h tw e ig h t d e s ig n e r ’s
T h e re e d p en an d th e quill (opposite) h av e b e e n used sin ce an tiq u ity . A lth o u g h la y o u t p a p e r is id eal. F o r
b o th h a v e n o w b e e n su p ersed ed b y o th e r w r itin g im p le m e n ts, th e re e d p en m o r e fo rm a l w o r k , g o o d -q u a lity
re m a in s an ideal to o l f o r e x p re ss iv e ca llig ra p h y . It is usually m a d e fro m a p a p e r is im p o r ta n t - p re fe ra b ly a
h o llo w -s te m m e d g a rd e n c a n e ( Phragm itis co m m u nis), b u t s o m e ca llig ra p h e rs s m o o t h , c lo s e -g r a in e d a n d a c id -
u se a s y n th e tic m a te ria l, su ch as p lastic tu b in g , in stead . A sh arp c ra ft kn ife f re e ty p e . V e llu m , m a d e fro m
is re q u ired to m a k e a re e d p e n - alw ay s tak e th e g reatest c a r e w h e n u sin g it. calfsk in o r g o a ts k in , is th e finest m a te ria l
f o r w r itin g , w ith p a r c h m e n t a c lo s e se c o n d . and machine-made papers

W R I T I N G IM PLEM EN TS
In a d d itio n to th e re e d p e n an d qu ill, th e re is a h u g e ra n g e o f Use a small
w r itin g im p le m e n ts fro m w h ic h th e c a llig ra p h e r c a n c h o o s e . pointed
F i b r e -tip p e d p e n s a re ideal f o r tr y in g o u t ideas, w h ile , fo r sable brush
fle x ib ility a n d e c o n o m y , d e ta c h a b le nib s a re a n e x c e lle n t Jo r drawing
o p tio n . T h e use o f a fou n tain p en g u a ra n te e s a co n s ta n t supply built-up
o f in k , a lth o u g h a sp rin g -lo a d e d dip p en is m o r e letters
c o n v e n i e n t f o r c h a n g in g ink Spring-loaded
c o lo u rs easily. A b ro a d -e d g e d dip pens are
b ru sh is essen tial f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g The calligraphic idealf o r large-
Im p e ria l fountain pen is scale work
C a p ita ls (pp. A standard one o f the most
1 . C u t a le n g th o f c a n e a b o u t 1 8 2 . O n th e reverse side o f th e ca n e , 1 1 0 -1 1 9 ). pen holder can convenient tools
c e n tim e tr e s (7 in c h e s) lo n g . U s e a d irectly u n d ern eath th e first cu t, J i t a variety
stro n g craft knife to m ak e a c u t ab o u t m ak e a sh o rter cu t to cre a te th e flat o f detachable
4 ce n tim etres (1 '/> inches) lo n g to to p o f th e pen nib. N e x t, r e m o v e Afibre-tipped nibs (opposite)

reveal th e h o llo w ce n tre o f th e can e. an y pith from th e c o r e o f th e ca n e . pen is ideal jor

preliminary ivork

OJ
>

3 . R e tu r n to th e underside o f th e pen 4 . Finally, m ak e a longitudin al c u t

and ca rv e sh ou lders b e tw e e n th e tw o a b o u t 1 .5 ce n tim e tre s ('/• in ch ) lo n g
cu ts. M a k e a square o r o b liq u e cu t th ro u g h th e ce n tre o f the nib - this
across the top o f the nib as desired (see will m ak e the flow o f ink easy. T h e
“ Straight" and “slanted” pens, opposite). reed pen is n o w ready to use.

14
 G e t t in g S tarted

T h e q u ill
A lth o u g h th e quill is p ro b a b ly th e fin est o f all w r itin g to o ls , it is n o t as
c o n v e n i e n t as o t h e r im p le m e n ts a n d re q u ire s m o r e p r a c tic e in h an d lin g .
B e i n g o f a s o fte r m a te ria l th a n a steel n ib o r a re e d p e n , it re q u ire s g e n tle r
p re ssu re th a n y o u w o u ld e x p e c t , b u t th e su b tle ty o f lin e th a t it p ro d u c e s
is far s u p e r io r to th a t o f o t h e r p e n s. T u r k e y , g o o s e , o r sw a n feath ers are
th e m o s t u sefu l, a n d d u c k o r c r o w m a y also b e u sed fo r fo rm a l w o rk .

U s in g a w h e ts to n e
T o sh a rp e n a steel n ib , h o ld th e p e n
at 4 5 ° to th e w h e ts to n e an d stro k e
th e to p sid e a lo n g th e s to n e .

D etach able n ib s

Pointed Copperplate
steel nib .
1 . C u t th e sh aft o f th e f e a th e r to a 2 . H o ld in g th e shaft firm ly, m ake a
le n g th o f a b o u t 2 0 c e n tim e tr e s lo n g , sw e e p in g c u t on th e underside
Speedball . . ,1
( 7 ’A in c h e s) a n d ca re fu lly strip th e o f the quill. C arefu lly m ake a secon d
oblique-cut nib ___ '__
b a rb s f ro m it u sin g a scalp el o r cu t to shape th e sh ou lders and pare
sh a rp cra ft k n ife. the edges to form th e tip.
Mitchell
square-cut nib .

Detachable reservoir
jor Mitchell nib

Parchment is made from

sheepskin, and is tougher

\\
and more fibrous than vellum
A long, broad-
, Use a reed \

\
.1 broad-edged edged sable or
I pen for
synthetic or synthetic brush
expressive

m
sable brush is is usedJo r
calligraphy
essential for large-scale i The quill
Imperial Imperial is the most
J Capitals Capitals traditional 3. M a k e a sh ort longitudin al cu t 4. P lace th e tip o f the quill on a
of tools th ro u g h the c e n tre o f the nib to ease cu ttin g surface and carefully cu t across
th e flow o f ink. R e m o v e th e pith the shaft to create the nib edge. M ake
from th e c e n tre o f th e pen and an y a square cu t for a “ slanted” pen and an
re m a in in g m aterial o n th e outsid e. oblique c u t for a “ straight" pen (below).

“ St r a ig h t ” and “sla n ted ” bens

T h r o u g h o u t th is b o o k , th e r e a re re fe re n c e s to “ s tra ig h t” a n d “ sla n te d "

p e n s. T h is ca n ca u se c o n f u s io n , as th e m e a n in g o f th e s e te rm s a p p e a rs to
b e c o n t r a d i c t o r y . T h e “ str a ig h t” p e n is h eld h o r iz o n ta lly , p r o d u c in g th ick
ste m s a n d th in h o r iz o n ta l stro k e s. T h e “ sla n te d ” p e n is h e ld a t an a n g le o f
a b o u t 3 0 ° , c r e a tin g h o r iz o n ta l a n d v e rtic a l stro k e s o f sim ilar w e ig h t.

A “straight ”pen has an oblique-cut nib, A “slanted"pen has a square nib, cut
cut at an angle o f about 7 0 ° to the at right angles to the shaft it is ideal
shaft it is ideal for scripts such as for scripts such as the Caroline
the H a lf Uncial (p p . 4 0 —4 1 ) Minuscule (p p . 4 0 —4 1 )
 R o m a n <£l L a t e R o m a n S c r i p t s

Rustic Capitals
o f today is sometimes
F T H E C A L L IG R A P H E R

I confused by the rich variety o f scripts available,

both modern and historical, then the opposite IllAAVSVAlAlMJUXVtVll
must have been true for the scribe o f the early M AlOAEXW ECAOVN1-All1
Roman period, who had only three basic hands.
The first was the magnificent Imperial Capital
the most com plex o f all scripts, used in stone-
cut form on the great monuments o f state (pp.
108—109). Secondly, for everyday needs, there
was the cursive script — the quickly executed
hand used by everyone writing in the Latin
language. Thirdly, there was the Rustic Capital,
an elegant alternative to the Imperial Capital
and popular with both sign w riter and scribe.
F r o m t h e the fifth centurv,
f ir s t to
J 7

the Rustic Capital was used for de luxe

manuscripts, particularly works by The nib would have been
held at a near verticalfor
Virgil. After the fifth century, it lost
favour as a manuscript hand, although
the upright strokes .
.
' I0E1A
its use for titles continued for centuries
afterwards. As far as is known, the
:0i l OKAYON .'V AYCO.V: DON
V e rg iliu s
script was not used for Christian R om an u s, OtLlClA5P0AY I N IN I GOJ
E c lo c a II
literature, and the conversion of
Rome to Christianity in A . D . 3 1 3 ,
T h is m a g n ific e n t a n d I AN 1VAY1N1FADf N 5A5Y
r a re e x a m p l e o f a

with its attendant use o f the Uncial V irg il m a n u s c r ip t in

R u s t i c C a p ita ls d ates
A 051PVAE-VEN If 5AU &Ft]
(pp. 2 4 -2 5 ), may be one reason for the fro m th e s e c o n d h a lf

demise o f the Rustic as a bookhand. o f th e fifth c e n tu r y .

T h e w o r d s a re
Rustic Capitals also served as stone- sep arated b y a p un clu s
cut letters, often used in conjunction ( m i d - p o i n t ) , in stead
o f th e scriptura continuet
with Imperial Capitals on the less (c o n tin u o u s scrip t)
prestigious monuments. ty p ica l o f this p e r io d .

T h e h ie ra rc h y o f s c rip ts
R u s t i c C a p ita ls w e r e u sed f o r titles ls ic ir ir LlRflU TfMTVS-
un til th e late 1 2 th c e n tu r y as p a rt o f
a s o -c a lle d “ h ie r a r c h y o f scrip ts” .
R u s tic s w e r e u sed fo r c h a p te r S A .N C n S S I a T V c n A R 1 7 e p X e M l T e N T T S h l S T O R l X C ( U 7 e :T l )

o p e n in g s , U n cials fo r th e first lines, I n o H n in U icx m c*f>uzr.&bbn - Ccfw bLxborem l e g en a um mtnuenJam

fo llo w ed in this e x a m p le b y a fine
C a ro lin e M in u scu le te x t (p p . 3 8 - 3 9 ) .
\nouoindr>oxcurpcortito rtrumra^men fecundtLbn necrurxfhnem rtfptcrr
> J.xm qu iA .fu p eriu f (metfcperfon*.euxn^elifb^e-. fiuce^dntGliujrtyrtfucciittb;

16
 R u s t i c C a p it a l s

The pen or brush is
held at an angle o f
4 0 ° for the broad
diagonal stroke
.Uv\'L\UN.VtVAl.\N:
W i:o v S V \ iK .U . R u s tic : C a p ita l R
T h e e x e c u t io n o f
th e le tte r R b e g in s
w ith a tw ist o f th e
p en a t th e h e a d
o f th e s te m .
The feet of the letter turn slightly downwards
before finishing with an upward flick
. The portrait illustration shows Virgil
sitting beside a lectern, with a capsa
fo r storing scrolls to his left
Calligraphic flourishes
P occur on the F, X, and L
W ritin g m a t e r ia ls
The fact that we have evidence of the
Rustic Capital in both manuscript and
signw ritten form shows that two
different writing implements were
used. The script would have been
written with equal fluency with either
a reed pen — or after the fourth
century, a quill — or a brush. The
brush used would have been a broad-
edged, flexible sable, held at a near­
upright angle to create the thin stems
and broad horizontal strokes.
A s im p le du ctu s
The basic difference between the
Imperial and the Rustic lies in the
complexity o f the stroke weight.
The strokes o f the Imperial are even,
with no sharp contrasts in weight.
This effect requires numerous changes
in tool angle (pp. 110—1 1 9). The
ductus o f the Rustic is simpler to
pen, with a pronounced difference
in stroke weight betw een the
thick and thin strokes.

>.V.VJvOEoAhUtXlN
f c d l - t f Af>£ b \ T _ .
■sacacva u MA lAGQ5
fim m m iiv is
NOONOn.V5'Ol^’5
<V5

P a p y ru s le a f
P a p y ru s w a s th e p rin cip al
w r itin g su rfa ce fo r o v e r 3 , 0 0 0
y e a rs u n til th e la te R o m a n
p e rio d . It w as m a d e b y
The interlinear gloss has been p o u n d in g t o g e t h e r
written in a modern Italic
hand (pp. 9 4 95^ m m m mP A S JO M l
t w o strip s o f
p a p y ru s l e a f laid
a t rig h t a n g les
P e t e r H alliday VIMU to e a c h o th e r .
T h is m o d e rn v e rs io n o f V irg il’s Eclogue V II>
written in black ink o n cr e a m p a p e r, w as p e n n e d
by P e te r H allid ay in 1 9 8 3 . N o t e th e c o n tr a s t he
a ch ie v e s b e tw e e n th e b ro a d h o riz o n ta l and
d ia g o n al stro k e s an d th e th in v e rtic a ls. D e ta il fro m V e rg iliu s
R om an u s, E clo ca II
A?

!\ 5 * 0 .v A i\0 : 5 ,\ * U f >T k
17
R o m a n 8^ L a t e R o m a n S c r ip t s

Rustic Capitals There is no

crossbar on the A

the Rustic Capital is different from the other

T
h e D U C TU S O F

hands shown in this book in that the pen angle can be as steep
as 85° to the horizontal for the thin vertical strokes. This angle
is relaxed to nearer 45° for the foot serifs and diagonal strokes. T h e B is a
tall letter and
Therefore, from the top of the stem to the beginning of the foot, rises above
the pen must twist as much as 40°, and this transition is the key to the headline

well executed Rustic Capitals. With its serif, thin stem, and broad
foot, the L (b e lo w ) typifies many Rustic letters. The letter height is
generally between four and six pen widths, but can reach seven.

r
V

1 . U sin g a sq u a re -cu t pen nib, 2 . Pull th e p en d o w n w a rd s to the

begin the serif o f th e le tte r L by righ t, w hile tw istin g th e nib fro m 6 5 °
pu shing d o w n w ard s w ith th e b road to alm ost v ertical at th e line o f the
edge o f th e nib. T h e p en angle stem . W ith o u t lifting th e p e n , begin
should be a b o u t 6 5 ° fo r this stroke. d raw in g th e fine stro k e o f th e stem .

3 . A t a b o u t h a lfw a y to th e baseline,
anticip ate th e fo o t serif by gradually
tu rn in g the pen to a b o u t 5 0 ° . T h is
will cre ate th e distin ctive R u s tic
th ick en in g o f th e stem base.
T h e second
stroke o f the
tall F rises
above the
headline
4 . Lift the p en , tu rn it to 4 5 ° , and add
th e fo o t s e rif in o n e firm , d o w n w a rd
diagonal sw eep . T h e fo o t is a m a jo r
e le m e n t in th e scrip t fo r it leads th e
ey e forw ard to th e n e x t letter.

G
This form of
G is most j
commonly used
T his broad sweeping
curve is draum in one
smooth stroke with a
p en angle o f 4 5 - 5 0 °
This alternative
fo rm o f G is
D ia g o n a l sw eep used on the
It is the rep etitio n o f the bottom line o f I
d o w n w a rd sw eep in g a page o f text
strokes, co m b in e d
A lte r n a tiv e G
w ith th e n ea r-d ia g o n a l
strokes o f th e feet,
that gives th e R u s tic
C ap ital its ch a ra cte ristic
r h y th m . T h e s e stro n g
strokes p ro v id e a
c o u n te rp o in t to the
fine v ertical stem s.

18
 R u s t ic C a p it a l s

1J u
T he stem
This is the 1 o f th e] is
modem identical to
fo rm o f ] that o f the I

£ A
I r
T h e serif o f
This is
the tall L
the modem
rises above
fo m t o f U
the headline

AT
A\ /
F F or the V ,
use the same
ductus as the A

NI
0 1C X
2 I I T his fo rm o f Y is
used fo r all text
except the bottom
line o f a page I

Use this fo rm
o f Y only on
the bottom line

A lte rn a tiv e o f a page o f text

L z
T h e Z could
1 • alternatively be
12 completed in a
single stroke

19
R o m a n &_ L a t e R o m a n S c r i p t s

Square Capitals
AS A L A T E F O U R T H - C E N T U R Y Roman hand without
i x p r e c e d e n t or descendents, the stately Square Capital
( Capitalis Quadrata) falls awkwardly into the evolutionary
pattern o f Roman scripts. Because very few examples survive
from this period, the duration o f its use and the development
o f its stvle are subject to con jectu re. The script remains, Small serifs arc S q u a re C a p ita l ill
drawn with the T h e b ro ad d o w n w ard
however, one o f great dignity, its grace owing largely to the corner o f the pen nib strokes o f th e M typify
the Square C apital letter.
openness o f the letterform s and the clear letter separation.
Parchment was stretched across a woodenJram e and
the residual flesh removed with a circular knife

I t i s o f t e n b e l i e v e d that the Square

Pa rch m en t m aker

Capital originated as an attem pt to In R o m e , p a r c h m e n t w a s an estab lish ed rival

to p a p y ru s b y A.D. 3 0 0 a n d w a s th e p rin cip al
interpret the brush-drawn Roman
s u rfa ce f o r w r itin g late R o m a n m a n u s crip ts,
Imperial Capital (pp. 108—109) in s u ch as th e C o d e x Vaticanus 3 2 5 6 (opposite).

pen-drawn form. However, the thick It w a s in v e n te d in P e r g a m o n , A sia M in o r ,

downstrokes and hairline horizontal
strokes o f the Square Capital point to
the use of a horizontally held pen, in
contrast to the angle o f 30° required
to produce the visually balanced
vertical and horizontal strokes o f the
Imperial Capital. This suggests that
the Square Capital may have been
derived from another source.
C o n te m p o r a r y in flu e n c e s
It is perhaps more likely that scribes
writing in Square Capitals looked for
inspiration to contemporary carved
lettering, rather than to the brush-
created capitals o f their predecessors.
O ne such exam ple is the fourth-
centurv plaque in the Church o f San
Sebastiano, Rom e (right), in which
stroke angle and letter proportion
coincide with the manuscript hand.
in re sp o n se t o an E g y p tia n tra d e e m b a r g o in
1 9 7 - 1 5 8 B.C. th a t c u t o f f th e su pply o f papyrus.
S a n S e b a s tia n o p la q u e
T h e in s crip tio n o n th is p la q u e in th e C h u r c h
o f San S e b a stia n o , R o m e , d a te s fro m b e tw e e n
th e y e a rs 3 6 6 a n d 3 8 4 . N o t i c e th e im a g in a tiv e
lig a tu re s o f c e r ta in le tte rs, su ch as N - T , H - R ,
V - A , a n d T - E , a n d th e w a y s o m e letters
h a v e b e e n in s e rte d in sid e o th e rs.
V S M A R T Y R C R V D E I IA T V S S A T Y R A N N I |
C A R f IF iC V M Q y iA SP A U reR T V N C M IT IT -N O ffiN Jn T
VI N< tit>V O l >P.( >r V IT M ON S I R I V IT(
I S I N lV V I EM SE QVTTVUN OW P o T n A PER AFOVS
.TEST/ iy M F R A GMb N TAPA.RA SfN ES Q M NVSAD1RET
B I$SE R A N SI E R E D 1E S A L T M E N T A N E Cx AN T V R
M IT T R IN B A E ATHRVMSAN <£VSLAVVTOM NI ASANSIS
V VLNER AQW EIN T V LE R ATM O RTISMET VENTAPOE SlAS
!T
N O CTE SO PO R1FE RATVRBA N T IN SO M N IA ME N TEM
O ST E N D IT L A E B R A IN S O N T IS Q M E M M B RATE NER E T
Q W E R 1 T VRTN V E N V S<§ LITVRFOV ETC) iVIN lAPRESlAT
EXPRESSITDA&4ASV&M:RI1VMVENERA RESEFVLCiRVM j

! s MS AT I MS I N f A R
LSI P R O P \ ll>S AISSV R
20
 S q u a r e C a p it a l s

C o d e x V a tic a n u s 3 2 5 6
T h is m a n u s c rip t o f V ir g il’s Georgies w as
w ritte n in S q u are C ap itals in th e late fou rth
c e n t u r y . P e rh a p s o n e re a so n w h y it has
su rv iv e d is th a t it w as w ritte n o n p a rch m e n t
in ste a d o f th e m o r e frag ile p ap yru s. B e c a u s e
o f th e sca rcity o f e x a m p le s o f S q u are C apitals,
it is d ifficu lt t o assess th e d u ra tio n o f th e
h an d , and th e re is n o e v id e n c e to suggest that
a K J \ l I V ^ l A I Y .A l S V M H AM I
|\ \ \ \ L |’> t A A I
it su rv iv e d b e y o n d th e e a rly fifth c e n tu r y .
A llA l'l 11 N S i'L l At A K V A l.IV S r .lM 111 V M 11 >A L I \ \
I A A ll I AR.I A K IO R A K IA A O X l.Al l.W IM I A A S t A A AI
NAAl f AI AI K \ A t ISSC I N HI P>,\\ I f I s s l l l ! IGXV.M S u rv iv in g e x a m p le s
1 A \ IY A A I X I Y LN MAE AAI I S i A ftO A O A l V I A\ Ik'l I Only two known surviving examples
impnor>11nv.iissv rcissin af r>\i c;isj \s o f Square Capitals exist, compared
I’ A I . A l A C M l l M I A A O . A I O A I A M s A M i l Mi l I f l A W to some 4 0 0 of the other late Roman
<N S I I I \ I I t A A11 AM C. I A X O FS A K 1 A il 1'A ? A S AC A " bookhand, the Uncial (pp. 2 4 —25).
P i l l t ' l A t N I S 11VA11 I Y I t ' 1Y M I X ) l ' t ) A A \ l C \ A I Both manuscripts are dc luxe texts
Al t >A» I I it A Al l V I I s L. Af t O A A I > I > I 1 Y S A I M A ! \CVLlM> o f Virgil dating from the fourth
I ‘-SI I l O I M C O S l C . N I S C l | i O A AI A f 7 1 X AAA I s centurv. One is the Codex Vaticanus
J
t AAI >A A S I A I I AI V N I S f t . l I I S ^ V I 11 A s P MAASlF 3 2 5 6 (left), housed in the Vatican
l AI' TA 11 'J 1 AI ftc >1 I t ) I S I f AVI N i l ! M 11 A t ' A t IA Library, the other a text from the
I S 1 I A LOl l A ' A U I S 1 1 A l L l S D O M
i 1 I N A V 1 V .1 A Y I N monastery o f St. Gall, Switzerland.
0 \ t > l ' A M I I \l >Sl l >A I S U A A A A I I X S K IAF>f IERa From this scant evidence, it is clear
l i s O M I M AI I I l >l S A Y t S I 1 R Y i l l S O P A L ' I
l that the Square Capital was the
I A l t ' t r A I A 1 1 s V A l ft ft A S Y O I I S O \ O t A Y I A I S I A \ f » R , most shortlived o f Roman scripts,
I I ? A N . A t'.V A A i A l I f A l Y s f A Y S 1 A A S P 1 1 ' I A f t I SA C I >
and palaeographers are forced
t t'A ’S S A tl-f AAI f .M 1 N S 1 l A ' I S S O l A A ' t RF O X f A to conclude that in term s o f
O K I N I A M f I O V A * S I N 1 1 > A ftIS A C .R I S 1 1 IVA AMA
the evolution o f calligraphy the
hand represents a blind alley.
T im e-co n su m in g w ork
One reason for the short life of the
Square Capital is the time it would
have taken scribes to w rite each
letter. The multiple angle changes and
difficult serif constructions require
considerable patience (pp. 2 2 - 2 3 ) .
D e ta il fro m C o d e x V a tic a n u s 3 2 5 6
W hile such time-consuming labour
Instead o f the more common In this d e ta il, it is c l e a r th a t th e sc rip t is w r itte n may have been acceptable for titles, it
thickfirst stroke o jth e letter R, w ith o u t w o r d d iv isio n a n d p u n c tu a tio n . O n th e fine
a hairline stroke has been used u p rig h t s tro k e s o f A , N , M , R , a n d V , th e p e n is
would have been highly uneconomical
tu rn e d f ro m h o riz o n ta l t o v e rtic a l, w h ic h p ro d u c e s a for text, particularly in comparison
str o n g c o n tra st in stro k e p ro p o rtio n s . T h e tria n g u la r
with the more practical Uncial
The tall L is often found in serifs th a t te r m in a te th e h a irlin e s tro k e s h a v e b e e n
inscriptions and manuscripts a d d e d w ith th e c o r n e r o f th e p e n nib . or the Rustic Capital (pp. 16—17).
fro m the latefourth century

1st A B O R O M X I A V I O
I N S S X Af ftA IC L S IA S
21
R o m a n S ^ L a t e R o m a n S c r ip t s

Square Capitals
is characterized by a combination of
\
T
h e S q u a re C a p ita l
Use the comer o f the nib
broad strokes - both straight and curved —delicate hairlines, to add the serifs o f the A

and neat serifs. Of the dominant broad strokes, the diagonal is

the most difficult to draw, involving a pen twist as great as 45°.
The simpler vertical strokes are made with a single movement
of the pen, held almost horizontally. Upright hairline strokes
occur on the letters A, M, N, R, W, and X and can be made
Use the corner o f the nib
by skating the wet ink from the main stem stroke. to add the serif o f the C

c Begin the
curve o f the C
with the edge
o f the nib
j /

D rag the tail o f the C

with the comer o f the nib

Most Square
Capitals are
T h e corner
o f the nib
B a s ic e le m e n ts
T h e Sq uare C ap ital le tte r is a b o u t fo u r
D
about fo u r pen is used fo r pen w idths h igh, w ith th e letters F and
widths high adding the L d raw n slightly h ig h e r than th e rest.
serifs T h e scrip t is best d raw n w ith a reed
p en o r a s q u a re -cu t steel nib.

C o m p l e x le t te r s
t
T h e p erfectly b alan ced
le tter N is o n e o f the

F
m o st c o m p le x letters in
th e hand. It consists o f T h e F is a tall
o n e broad diagonal, tw o letter, rising
h airlin e v erticals and slightly above
th ree serifs. A series o f the headline
angle changes is required
fo r its co n stru ctio n .

1 . B eg in th e N w ith a 2 . M a k e a small

pen angle o f a b o u t 4 5 ° ,
progressively tu rn in g
th e p en to th e vertical
as it reaches the baseline.
G
h o riz o n ta l stro k e o n the
head lin e, th en pull the
w e t ink d o w n w ard s
w ith th e edge o f the nib.

3 . R e tu r n to the
headline and build
up th e serif u n d er
the horizontal stroke.
4 . N o w d raw th e
lead in g v ertical stroke
w ith th e c o m e r o f th e
nib and add th e serif.
H
5 . Still using th e co r n e r This letter J / / Drag the tail o f the
o f th e nib, add th e se rif is a modem J with the comer o f
at th e h ead o f th e
diagonal stro k e .
U the nib

22
 S q u a r e C a p it a l s

Use the comer o f the nib

to draw the serif o f the K
Twist the pen from 4 5 ° to
almost horizontal fo r the
T
T his letter U is a
diagonal stroke o f the K modem construction

L T h e L is a tall letter,
rising slightly above
the headline

Twist the pen slightly fo r

u
Twist the p en fro m 9 0 ° to 4 5 °
I
the diagonal stroke o f the M f o r the diagonal stroke o f the Y

Use the corner

M
o f the nib to
draw the serifs
o f the Y

Twist the pen from 9 0 ° to 4 5 °

f o r the diagonal stroke o f the W 5
<-------- Use the
Twist the pen from comer o f
4 5 ° to the vertical ' the nib fo r
f o r the diagonal the serifs
stroke o f the N o f the W
4
Use the comer o f the nib to T h e two diagonal hairlines o f the
draw the serifs o f the N W can extend below the baseline

Use the comer

o f the nib to
draw the serifs
o f the X

P IP
Use the comer

□L
o f the nib to
add the serif
o f the Y

The Q is madefrom the O , with

an additional strokefo r the tail
2 Slightly
twist the Use the comer

a Z
p en fo r o f the nib to
the tail add the serifs
o f the Q 5 o f the Z

T h e elegance o f Square
Capitals is assisted by
T h e third and
Use the comer o f generous inter-letter

VIRGIL
fourth strokes o f
nib f o r the spacing and by interlinear
the R can be
serif o f the R spacing that equals the
combined
letter height

Use the comer o f the nib to

s
add the top serif o f the S

GEORGICS
F or the fin a l
^ stroke o f the S ,
twist the pen
anti-clockwise
towards the T w o lin es o f S q u a re C a p ita ls
y
main stroke

23
R o m an & _La te R o m an S c r ip t s
Uncial &
Artificial Uncial
script (Littera Uncialis)
he R om an U n c ia l
T
A.D.,
originated in the second or third century
possibly in N orth Africa. Although its
beginnings are subject to con jectu re, there
are noticeable sim ilarities with the G reek
Uncial a-curved, functional script that had
been used since the third century B . C . and
was the official hand o f the Christian Church.
By the second century, Christianity was
increasing in influence throughout the
Roman Empire, and it is likely that the early
Christians consciously adapted the Greek
Uncial to the Latin language as a script
appropriate for their new religion.
T h e U n c e a l s c r i p t was brought to
southern England from Rome by the
missionary St. Augustine in the year
597. Its name, meaning “inch” or
“inch-high letter”, is attributed to
St. Jerom e, a translator and compiler
o f the Vulgate (com m on) Bible. He
possibly used it as a term o f derision,
in objection to the common practice
o f wasting parchment by using large
letters for de luxe books.
O rig in s o f m in u scu les
The beginnings o f our modern lower­
case letters can be discerned in the
Uncial script. The letters cl, h, and 1
rise above capital height while i , f n,
p, q, and r drop below the baseline. A
further departure from the capital
form is the absence o f anv J
elaborate
serif constructions. This simplicity
makes the Uncial, together with the
Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38 39) and
the Foundational Hand (pp. 4 2 -4 3 ) ,
ideal for learning the basics o f pen
handling and calligraphy.
24
A rtif ic ia l U n c ia l a
B r o a d d ia g o n a l a n d v e rtica l
stro k e s , c o n tr a s te d w ith
d e lic a te h airlin e s, ty p ify
A rtificia l U n c ia l le tte rs.
The Artificial Uncialjorm o f A
is drawn with the pen held
near to the horizontal
Hairline strokes should he
drawn asfinely as possible, ejsc.NptiulAquxc'iNicoa'icnoK'iio
Riopn.\csesj icpuxi ucercocpscv
using the left corner o f the nib nosmwjj .w u si ino se O crp n x cs
iy>pcm|>l>iUppu^CT\scRcissccv-
xorulouuN t COtLcciASVN’oOllS
DetyocjN!secuNdcuR,\ci\uioius
- cri/VimtMOetoRcpeRWXsoBisnity
Paragraph openings arc preceded coM ium cm \uTSiNONiNuemx:»(
pjerwoT s i I.c ih w i •
by a larger letter in the margin . DXMlbCl.NOl^UHlSRCCITXtnr
fj ie x e s ico n cj tu pi Oci puopessio.
ueLcKiscivoitnx ri.vsetoxueNr
u T S upcR iusLccru coesi *i iicil.ixx
q u o s in o r Oihc rcc ijx Uir
<2TCUCOROCjTXRCy
a ;hxucNUi
uR eU u sep iso * £>’ bxccuxxpiiiN©*
U n c ia l s c rip t h cycccn pLvRIXSixt u iojy*
T h i s e c o n o m i c a l U n c ia l scrip t
q u x c i U N C O M U C S S J O S f K lC t C C O S
c iU o jo ic \ e » « a o s c c u o S c > c io l.C R u f l
C U » U S P O U C W \ < V > S C JH » X i z i d i .w ir e
w a s w r itte n in a b o u t 4 5 0 . T h e
p e n is h eld a t 3 0 ° , g iv in g a
cjuxcsecuM toRcoN Si n u i x x n o w s
o r ^ io O iu s iu n
Oe^Ri>ja.vrc
w e l l - m a n n e r e d , f lo w in g q u a lity M W 'C J C R S u a ' s c o s J c i b u c o ^ v O o o r s
pi n o pxuipR opcssioN cpR cs; '
to th e t e x t . T h e t e x t is w r itte n
i'ci.esixsTicxquxcpcRNOsa itv. Ilijl
as scriptitra continue (w ith o u t
sp a ce s b e t w e e n w o r d s ) , w h ic h
w a s c o m m o n f o r th is p e r io d .
The revisions in the first line
seem to have been made by
a later, untutored hand
I ■!■c < vobkjqtC oc\ icnii c o c u r r o
CICNJCR\ml Ct;xI.O\TOK'lS
C|ciccn expert tx x lc s iy e The dedicatory verse from the C od ex
Am iatinus shows typically fine serifed
Ch O k yi \I. t \ | ; k> c s Artificial Uncial letters
r c n - R o s l\N C O B J J5 tx > R u c x >
C o d e x A m ia tin u s
C.VTRtXPlStV-piN lli-.YBRxs T h e C o d e x Aim atim ts Bible
w as w ritte n in W e a r m o u th
cX a i o t i \| |x:c: rcis
a n d j a r r o w b e fo re 7 1 6 .
In itiated b y A b b o t C o e frid ,
piCN OR.x o x n r o c n c i
this im p o sin g b o o k is th e
earliest k n o w n B ib le in
CTXX|CIC OSCJ'OpTANS
Latin an d w as p ro d u c e d
fo r p re se n ta tio n to P o p e
IAN 11 l\T C R C \C lO l.\ pX .T R IS G r e g o r y II. A lth o u g h
m istak es o c c u r in th e first,
INC ACI.IS CPCCOORCOX se c o n d , an d fifth lines, the
re m a in in g scrip t is a lour
SC X lxp C R I >\BCIK.* I.OCXJCD deforce o f th e A rtificial
U n c ia l. T h e finely d raw n
hairlines an d d e lica te sents
are o f a su p e rio r quality to
th o se in th e Vespasian
P salter (opposite).
 OA.no ■
icy0v'*nn
\ q u o -m e p i
D (lin x O j)R O p i XN T S tip O K u iO NOCUXTCS UTVOW
i:\ K \ e s (|<iiTRir>ul..\N r o i c : i x i m i c i r n e i
Wf - .......................‘ I f , ,■I - , , l I ,1M
i p s i iN | :iR (o v n s(iN ’T o c i Ol u u j x t -

ic O N s is ’IANTXOUCRStlOO OH': Q £T R X N O N T IU H -
...... "rt,' ,-.e .
im t c o R m e u o n s i iN ’S iu u c w iN c m ; p R o e l ju m
ix h o c d c o s p o n x n o -
1 x x o r p e / r u \O N ohxN c. rc:C|(i i r \(o ( i i ixT w i s i T e m
i x o o m o b k i o c h x i i u i s o i e h u s u r r x t u m & e • '«*»•
( l o l i i N T M c m o x i iffp R O 'fe cx R v rc p lp sd o
xR H C oxO rruH - ik t x i s o r n x c u I.o s u o ix d io m x lp
luun n u o m v n o n ix x o s c o N O iT o i xnCRN xcul.iSdi
tryxi.T .virrm cT
tw x l r x u n c .x p c rr o ie u o ) s u p o i u k u o i
try i!' .i$ftfu.r»rFV*sr I iMu<iptMuylrojpr
OIRCdllU) OTIIVK n o I.M*>0 I>S a ISCRN\CcAjly>
'"A .. . VJQ(
c i u s h o s T i x m id isi I:\t i o v i s c\ xTiA fto e ip s.O > .H ib ic^
.m im p- talf -
v x d D io x e iio a iiu iD C M i) q u \ cL \cn \ u i \o rc
d>ISC3KHU';cn m crro v x tiO io >c

T h e V e s p a sia n P s a l t e r The interlinear gloss ivas

T h e V esp asian P sa lte r w a s w r itte n a t S t. A u g u s tin e ’s added in the ninth century I A r t ific ia l U n c ia l
A b bey. C a n te r b u r y , in th e early e ig h th c e n tu r y . T h e The Uncial hand was well established
in terlin ear gloss c o n ta in s th e earliest k n o w n c o p y o f
the Psalm s in E n g lis h . T h e o p e n in g D fro m Psalm in Britain by the time the twin abbeys
2 6 , s h o w in g th e fig u res o f D a v id a n d J o n a t h a n , is D e ta il fro m t h e V e s p a s ia n P s a l t e r o f W earm outh and Jarrow were
th e earliest e x a m p le o f a h is to ria te d in itial in T h e serifs in this d e ta il a re slig h tly b o ld e r
W e s te r n m a n u s crip ts. T h e illu m in a te d title is th a n th o s e in th e C o d e x A m iatin us
founded in 674 and 682 respectively.
w r itte n in b u ilt-u p R o m a n cap itals. (opposite), w h i c h in d ica te s th e use Soon, the monks o f Wearmouth,
o f a less sh a rp ly c u t qu ill.
Jarrow, and Southumbria (England
I » » • < \ / V / V/ V ' V / h. r | / v / » v » % *
south o f the River I lum ber) were
producing manuscripts o f a quality
N \ O V | > C T II X O N ’O 'h x N C R O q U I R M equal to that anywhere else in Europe.
Their work included the landmark
i x o o m o ONi o n S x n s u s o i e i i u s Bible the Codex Amiatinus (opposite).
"11
However, the hand thev were using
T U l D c \ U > d o L U N T V r U O D O V ! C l was not the Uncial o f St. Jerom e, but
a highly intricate and serifed version,
with thin horizontal and thick vertical
u r n A i s s c o N O r m n - i n t m s c r n x c
strokes, and serifs reminiscent of those
on Square Capitals (pp. 2 0 —2 1 ). This
R u m p R O T C X l 'I C T > e I N X I S S C O M O n extrem ely beautiful calligraphic hand
•41 1 •1 a * *1 0 - is known variously as Artificial Uncial,
( X | H :T R \ C \ \ I .T ,\ U I T t r > ( j• Late Uncial, or Romanising Uncial
o f the Canterbury Style.

25
R o m a s Sl L a t e R o m a n S c r i p t s
Uncial & Artificial Uncial
h e U n c i a l IS A
T no d ifficu lties to p en . T h e A rtificia l U n cia l, how ever, is
s u b je c t to co n sid erab le e la b o ra tio n involving m any p en tw ists
and chang es o f ang le. B o th fo rm s o f the s crip t are reg ard ed as
bilin e ar — w ritte n b e tw e e n tw o h o rizo n tal lines — b u t thev
show th e beginn ing s o f a te n d e n cy that u ltim ately leads to the
d ev elop m ent o f o u r low er-case le tte rs : F, I, N, P, Q_, and R d rop
belo w th e b aselin e , and D , H , and L rise above th e head lin e.
Uncial
B a s ic d iffe re n c e s
T h e U n cia l letter is
w ritten w ith a pen angle
o f 3 0 ° . S im p ler in
co n s tru ctio n than the
Artificial v ariety , it
can b e qu ickly and
26
p ractical w ritin g hand and as such p resen ts
AU n c ia l A
A
A r tif ic ia l U n c ia l A the hairline loop
with the corner o f the nib
B B
T h e second and
third strokes of
the B can be
combined
U n c ia l B A r tif ic ia l U n c ia l B
F or the second
c c
stroke o f the C ,
twist the nib anti­
clockwise and drag
the ink downwards
U n c ia l C A rtific ia l U n c ia l C
Pull out the tail o f the C
with the comer o f the nib
Artificial Uncial
easily p en n ed w ith a
steel nib. T h e m o re
c o m p le x Artificial U n c ia l D A rtific ia l U n c ia l D
U n cial letter is w ritten
w ith a pen angle o f 1 0 °. T h e Artificial Uncial
For the serifs
It can be p e n n ed w ith E could be enclosed
o f the E,
a steel nib o r a quill.
twist the nib
anti-clockwise
P e n tw ists
** ji and drag the
In th e Artificial U n cia l, the
ink downwards
ch aracteristic pen tw ist that U n c ia l E A r tif ic ia l U n c ia l E
o ccu rs o n th e serifs o f letters
C , E , F , G , K , L , N , and T can
be e x e c u te d sim ply and qu ickly.
To draw the serifs
o f the F , twist the
P P
nib anti-clockwise
1 . B eg in by d raw in g a and drag the ink
h o rizon tal hairline stro k e, downwards
using th e full length o f th e nib.
U n c ia l F A rtific ia l U n c ia l F
J
2 . O n reach in g th e en d o f the
s tro k e, gradually tw ist the pen an ti­
c lo ck w ise from th e h o rizon tal to
n ear v ertical and lift. T h e resultant
serif is in d en ted , w ith a small b lo b
visible at th e to p rig h t-h a n d co r n e r .
Complete the
curve and tail
U n c ia l G A rtific ia l U n c ia l G
o f the G in a
Blob single stroke
. Indentation
h
U n c ia l H
b
A r tif ic ia l U n c ia l H
lb
The serif can be left with the
blob anti indentation still visible M o d e rn M o d e r n A rtificia l
U n c ia l J U n c ia l J
T h e I and J are drawn
‘ J )) I
3 . T h e s e rif can be n eaten ed in a single stroke
b y using the c o r n e r o f th e pen
nib to d raw a hairline stro k e
b ack up to th e head lin e. T his J
e xten sio n is then filled in w ith ink. U n c ia l I A r tif ic ia l / Drag out the tail o f
U n c ia l I the I and J with the
comer o f the nib
 U n c ia l 8 c A r t i f i c i a l U n c ia l

s s
O n the third
T o draw the serifs
stroke, twist
o f the S, twist the
the nib to the
nib anti-clockwise
horizontal
and drag the
ink downwards
U n c ia l K A r tif ic ia l U n c ia l K J D rag out the tail U n c ia l S A rtific ia l U n c ia l S
o f the K with the
corner o f the nib
V ie Uncial L V ie Artificial 3

I T T
resembles
resem a version retains For the serif o f
minuscule
mill11 letter the appearance A t the end o f the the T , twist the
of a capital second stroke o f nib anti-clockwise
the L , twist the and drag the
nib anti-clockwise U n c ia l T A rtific ia l U n c ia l T ink downwards
U n c ia l L A rtific ia l
U n c ia l L and drag the ink
downwards

a u o
Both forms o f M have a
minuscule appearance

onoo
U n c ia l M A r tif ic ia l U n c ia l M U n c ia l U A r tif ic ia l U n c ia l U

N
These forms o / V are
O n the first
modem constructions
stroke o f the

N v v >?
N , twist
the nib to
the vertical

U n c ia l N A r tif ic ia l U n c ia l N U n c ia l V A r tif ic ia l U n c ia l V
Begin the first stroke oj the
N ill 4 5 ° and twist to a
These forms o f YU are

o o
near vertical angle
modem constructions

U n c ia l O A r tif ic ia l U n c ia l O
ip
U n c ia l W A r tif ic ia l U n c ia l W
co
V i e bowl o f the Uncial P is more
open than that o f the Artificial fonn For the serif o f

P P X X
the X , twist
the nib anti­
clockwise and
drag the ink
downwards
Drag the tail o f the P to the U n c ia l X A rtificia lI
U n c ia l P A rtific ia l left with the corner o f the nib U n c ia l X V ie Y is
U n c ia l P

r y
V i e second
and third
strokes o f the

9 9
Q may be
dram i as a
single stroke U n c ia l Y A rtific ia l
U n c ia l Y
U n c ia l Q A r tif ic ia l U n c ia l Q
Viis alternative
A lte r n a tiv e Artificial Uncial
fonn o f Q has

Q O
A rtificia l

2 2 , ^
U n c ia l Q the appearance
o f a capital letter

U n c ia l Z A rtific ia l
U n c ia l Z
F onn both serifs o f the Z by
V i e simpler twisting the nib anti-clockwise and
Uncial Z can dragging the ink downwards
Drag the tail be penned in
to the right a single stroke

with the corner

o f the nib
U n c ia l R

27
 © eu puupeRraspu gnoinuin
ipsor>irmeso ixfrmiinaidouni n=- *

<gtru nrnrsqiiouunn ipsipossi

>& & ocbiJUTc Trimin \c^ d a ,

©on ujnii i;c/pncruiiicqiiouiain

!*#««• ipsi coiisu(xr6uuan>—
f u u quicssiiBinur; ^siauuG
uiso iuin qiiomain ipsi saai
>> p > <# *»R(vbimcu»v. «: *s *% <* *i
©erxi n nsanrounes quoi nan
ipsi nussem* twDMmicoiiseqiithf
Q i i (11117111' J o v . )1X?K C JU O U IU lit .

ipsi chniiidebm— rcr *t ■-

■•'Qpa i pern pa uiioiuain phiiiV
=.«» t» -$uooudbuuam—-s •-< «*.
qinpcRsecuuauem pca^U'
liinm.piioi xriGiirftxciam quoiti
 In su la r M a ju s c u l e

Insular Majuscule
(Insular Half Uncial) derives its
he In su la r M a ju sc u le

T name from its origins in the islands o f Britain and Ireland.

“Insular” is from the Latin for “island”, and “Majuscule” refers
to the height o f the letters, much larger and bolder than those
of the com plem entary Insular M inuscule (pp. 3 4 —3 5 ).
As a prestige hand, the Insular Majuscule is characterized
by letters drawn slowly and carefully, with many lifts o f
the pen (pp. 3 2 —3 3 ). In early medieval Britain and Ireland,
it was the favoured hand for sacred manuscripts w ritten
The thickened base is created by
in Latin, including two o f the most beautiful books ever moving the pen slightly to the
right o f the stem and then pushing
produced, the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book o f Kells. it up to the midivay point

B e a titu d e s page fro m th e B o o k o f K e lls If e v e r t h e r e w as a golden

T h e b o r d e r o f this p a g e f r o m th e B o o k o f K ells c o m b in e s
th e e ig h t initial i s a n d in c o r p o r a te s b o th z o o m o r p h ic an d
age o f calligraphy, it was the
a n th r o p o m o r p h ic d e c o r a tio n . T h e h o r iz o n ta l s tr o k e o v e r “ spit’' beginning o f the eighth century,
in th e first lin e d e n o te s an a b b re v ia tio n o f “ spiritn” (“ b re a th o f
when Northum bria was one
G o d ” ). T h e h o riz o n ta l s tro k e is a d e v ic e u sed b y sc rib e s f o r o f t -
re p e a te d w o rd s . A lso ty p ica l is th e le tte r n in th e 13 th lin e , w h ic h Careful study o f the thinner o f the most flourishing centres
has b e e n e x tr a v a g a n tly e x te n d e d in o r d e r t o fill s p a c e . T h e u se o f inlt on the f gives clues to o f art and scholarship in western
red do ts to o u tlin e initials an d o rn a m e n t t e x t is m o r e sen sitive an d the construction o f Insular
re stra in e d h e r e th an in th e L in d isfarn e G o sp e ls (p p . 5 0 - 3 1 ) . Majuscule letters Europe. Interaction between
scriptoriums o f the twin Augustinian
monasteries Jarrow and Wearmouth
(see the Codex Amiatinus, p. 2 4 )
and that at Celtic Lindisfarne (see
the Lindisfarne Gospels, pp. 3 0 -3 1 )
led to the production o f some o f the
greatest achievements o f medieval art.
T h e B o o k o j K e lls
The Book o f Kells was written at
some time in the second half o f the
eighth century and the early years of
the ninth century, probably by Irish-
Northumbrian monks. Its place of
origin is shrouded in uncertainty and
the first record we have o f its existence
is an account o f its theft in 1006 from
the monastery o f Kells in Ireland.
The four illuminated Gospel texts
in the Book o f Kells were written
by at least three scribes in insular
versions o f Uncial (pp. 2 4 - 2 5 ) and
T h e G osp el o f S t. M a rk
Half Uncial (pp. 38—39) letters. These
T h e In su lar M a ju s c u le is w it h o u t cap itals as th e y a re u sed in The ascender o f the letter
th e m o d e r n sen se. C h a p te r o p e n in g s , s u ch as this d etail fro m b slants to the right, with would have derived from characters
th e G o sp e l o f St. M a r k in th e B o o k o f K ells, c o m m e n c e d the wedge serif balancing originally introduced into Ireland
w ith a lin e o f display cap itals, a V ersal (p p . 5 8 - 5 9 ) , o r a over the bowl o f the letter
c o m b in a tio n o f b o th . V erses w o u ld o p e n w ith a la rg e r
from the ancient region of Gaul by
c h a r a c te r , w h ic h w as o fte n d e c o r a te d o r filled w ith c o lo u r . St. Patrick and his missionaries.

29
I n s u l a r <5l N a t i o n a l S c r i p t s

T ara urooch

T h is in tr ic a te ly d e c o r a te d b r o o c h
w as fo u n d in Ire la n d in 1 8 5 0 n o t
far f r o m a n c ie n t T a r a . T h e d a te
o f its c o n s tru c tio n is u n k n o w n ,
a lth o u g h s tr ik in g d e s ig n
sim ilarities w ith s o m e d e c o ra te d
initials in th e L in d isfa rn e G o sp e ls
su g g e st a n ea rly m e d ie v a l d a te .

These curvilinear patterns are

very similar to those in the
Lindisfarne Gospels (Yightj

D e ta il fro m th e C h i-R h o page

T h e in te r la c e d b ird s a n d c u rv ilin e a r
p a tte rn s in this d e ta il a re a lm o s t
id e n tic a l t o d e c o r a tio n o n th e T a r a
b r o o c h . T h is sty le o f z o o m o r p h i c
in te r la c in g is o f G e r m a n ic o rig in .

C H I - R H O PAGE
T h e s e o r n a te display cap itals o n th e C h i - R h o
p a g e o f th e L in d isfarn e G o sp els m a k e this o n e
o f th e m o s t im p re ssiv e leav es in th e b o o k . A
v a rie ty o f in flu e n ce s a re e v id e n t, in c lu d in g
G r e e k , R o m a n , H a l f U n c i a l , a n d r u n ic .
E a d frith ’s use o f th e capitals is h ig h ly cre a tiv e .
T h e r e are th re e differen t form s o f th e le tte r A o n
this p ag e: t w o o n th e s e c o n d lin e , a n d a th ird ,
O C f o r m o n th e b o t t o m lin e (p p . 3 2 - 3 3 ) .

T h e L in d is fa r n e G o sp els
The richly illuminated Lindisfarne
Gospels date from the end o f the
seventh century, J 1
when the scribes
o f the Northumbrian monasteries
were entering their most productive
phase. The Gospels were written
in Latin by a single scribe, Eadfrith,
who became Bishop o f Lindisfarne in
698. An interlinear gloss, providing
a translation of the text into English,
was added in the tenth century.
T h e D u r h a m G o sp els
In addition to the Gospels from
Lindisfarne and Kells, there are a
number o f other books and fragments
from this period that reveal well-
II1*W
executed Insular Majuscules. Among inUi*t*u -
the most outstanding are the Durham
Gospels, which are contemporaneous
with those o f Lindisfarne and
mav J
even have been written
in the Lindisfarne scriptorium .
The elegant, well-balanced hand is
markedly similar to Eadfrith’s. Other
examples include the Echternach
Gospels and the Book o f Durrow.

30
 I n s u l a r M a ju s c u l e

M a n u scrip t d e c o r a tio n
The scholar Giraldus Cambrensis,
writing in 1185, remarked: “...you
may J
sav
J
this was the work o f an
angel, not o f man. .. the more I
study, the more 1 am lost in fresh
amazement.” He was describing,
in all probability, the decoration
of the Book of Kells (pp. 28 29).
This, along with the illustrations
in the Lindisfarne Gospels and other
works from the earlv medieval
& ^ byyd\
period, represents the highest
S S O Q U I C U G t l J
achievement of Western manuscript
U tf decoration. From the carpet
t C l l CL S C T 1 I £ > S C T V U TY G 7 ’ pages (pages without text and filled
-1 X&' s p ) yyytAXTfy*-£- entirely with intricate designs) to the
decorated initials and display capitals,
C ttU G C C R e X IC L T JX J^ lftlX
j^ r v v y * n w> e v c $ 0 t 5-
and from the shields, trum pets,
spirals, and knots to the labyrinthine
'o e f t jx c u n - c i i c e n s interlaces that dissolve into fanciful
^>-v ?i>n y c»M iC P " animal forms, the craftsmanship
q u o t h c u n Q u r o c x n has remained unsurpassed. Today,
^ c u n v l a r f • p v n r
we view the work with the same
wonderment as Cambrensis, often
T n i J C a c p u c t i a s u i t e *
requiring a magnifying glass to study
5 e- e n a t4 > ^ y j i g ?
the fine detail.
o n t n u c a i e , u c i n n o c a o u f c ’
> m p v \ \ m u f i c
In this Insular Majuscule text, the distinctive
wedge serifs have been executed with
n e u u m q u c u & t u u o 6 t s
a hori/.ontal flick of the pen
iy'infcu*'v y u *e ~
S t . J e r o m e ’s p r e f a c e
T his b e a u tifu lly d e c o r a te d p a g e fro m th e
Lin disfarn e G o sp els sh o w s th e p r e f a c e to
the te x t o f S t. J e r o m e . T h e a b u n d a n t use
o f red d o ts a r o u n d th e initial le tte rs is a
c o m m o n d esign fe a tu re o f th e b o o k . The interlinear gloss,
As w ell as o u tlin in g th e le tte rs, th e d o ts written m an Anglo-
p ro v id e a b a c k g ro u n d o f d e lic a te c o lo u r . Saxon minuscule
O n e fo lio in th e L in d isfarn e G o sp els is fpp. 14 15;, is the
d e c o ra te d w ith o v e r 10 ,(X )0 s u ch d o ts. earliest surviving
T h e r u b ric a te d le tte rs at th e to p o f translation into
the p ag e in d ica te th e e n d o f o n e Anglo-Saxon o f
te x t a n d th e b e g in n in g o f a n o th e r . the Four Gospels

In this work by Denis Brown,

the medieval Insular Majuscule letters
have been recreated in a modern context

D e n is B row n

T h is ca llig ra p h ic p ie c e , e n title d C u ltu ra l D ecom position,

w as c r e a te d b y th e Irish c a llig ra p h e r D e n is B r o w n in
1 9 9 3 . A t 1 .2 b y 1 .6 m e tr e s ( 4 7 'A by 6 3 in c h e s ), it is a
w o r k o f g re a t sca le a n d p o w e r . T h e m e d ie v a l artistry o f
th e In su lar M a ju s c u le le tte rs a r e se e n t o b e sy ste m a tica lly
c o r r o d e d b y th e sy m b o ls o f m o d e r n ity , th e e le c tr ic cab les.

31
I n s u l a r <Sl N a t i o n a l S c r i p t s

Insular Majuscule Push the T h e howl of

first part the a should
the stroke
h e In s u la r M a ju s c u le is am o n g th e m o st p restig io u s o f

T scrip ts. M o st le tte rs in this hand are b u ilt up fro m a serie s

o f c o m p o site stro k e s and involve m u ltip le pen lifts. A scen d ers
O r fo rm o f c I h r r \ r M rin a/ i"c a l f e i i n e n n

and d escen d ers are m in im al. T h e s crip t ten d s to be b o ld , w ith

a le tt e r heigh t o f b e tw e e n th re e and five p en w id th s. C le a r «k
T h e second stroke of
spaces should be allow ed b o th w ithin and b e tw e e n le tte r s , and the a finishes with

in te rlin e a r space is g e n erally equal to ab o u t tw o m in im heights. 2 a skated hairline

U n cia l f o r m o f a

T h e stem o f Balance the top of

the b should the stem over
curve to the left the bowl o f the b

T he second
stroke of the
c is a separate,
pushed stroke

P e n a n g le a n d w e d g e se rifs that o n the />, is m ad e by d ra w in g a

Insular M aju scu le letters are w ritten
w ith an o b liq u e-cu t nib, w ith the pen
angle b etw een the horizon tal and 15°.
T h e distin ctive w e d g e serif, su ch as
sh ort d o w n w a rd stro k e at a b o u t 4 5 °
Twist
in to th e m ain stem . T h is can be
down
p re ce d e d o r follo w ed by a hairline
stro k e alo n g the to p o f th e w e d g e . U n c ia l f o r m

A lte rn a tiv e d

H o r i z o n t a l d a r ts
T o cre a te th e darts th at app ear o n
letters d, g , t, and c , use the back o f the
pen nib. B eg in by d ra w in g a diagonal
stroke to the right, follow ed by a short
The hairline
o f the e can be
extended to the
d o w n w a rd stro k e, th en pull th e pen right and finished
to the right to m ake a lo n g horizontal with a dan
stro k e. L etters g and t h av e a se co n d
d art; cre a te this by tw istin g th e pen
d o w n w ard s to an angle o f a b o u t 1 5 °.

} Complete the

T h e comer o f the nib can he second stroke o f the f in

used to draw the short dart a single movement

Draw the am
o f the f low
on the stem

A lte rn a tiv e d a rt
An altern ativ e te ch n iq u e to Draw the two
horizontal darts
th at d escrib ed ab o v e is to use
o f the g with the
th e c o r n e r o f th e pen nib to
hack o f the nib
define th e dart b efo re filling
in th e o u tlin e w ith ink.

32
 I n su la r M a ju s c u l e

'V t
T h e second and T h e serif at the
wr
m
third strokes top o f the q is
o f the h can a variation o f
be combined the wedge serif

Skate the tail o f the j

j
T h e arc o f the
k can be made in
two separate strokes
8 y

r- 1 T h e second and third

t r
T h e fin a l stroke
stroke: can be combined
strokes
o f the t is pushed
Jg )

m A fter drawing the serif the m can

be completed without lifting the pen
U T h e v takes
the form o f a
modern u

T1 IT Either o f these two

form s o f n can be used
111
f

14
A lte rn a tiv e n
T h e cross stroke o f the n can be T h e hairline o f the

extended to the right to Jill x is skated or drawn

o
space at the end o f a line the nib corner

T h e o is
composed o f
two single
opposing strokes

P
A fter drawing Draw the third
the serif, the Swivel the nib upside down stroke o f the z with
p can be fo r the long horizontal stroke the edge o f the nib
completed in
a single stroke

33
I n s u l a r <£>. N a t i o n a l S c r i p t s

Insular Minuscule
ALONGSIDE EACH OF THE MAJOR prestige formal hands,
P o i n t e d m in u s c u l e />
i Y there has usually developed a functional complementary T h e n a m e d eriv es from
th e ch a ra cte ristic lo n g
hand for use in everyday transactions and for writing non- s w e e p o f th e descenders.
T h is is in co n tra st to the
sacred manuscripts. In the case of the Insular M ajuscule, the sq u a re r descen d ers o f
com plem entary script is the Insular Minuscule, which dates th e set m in u scu le.

from the late fifth or early

J
sixth century.
J
Its use continued , The descender
topers to
in England until after the Norman Conquest of 1066, and in j point

Ireland it has survived for Gaelic use into the 20th century, J '
making it one o f the most enduring of all Latin scripts.

T h e I n s u l a r M i n u s c u l e was
L in d is f a r n e
brought to the British mainland
T h e P r io r y o f L in d isfa rn e w a s f o u n d e d in 1 0 8 3 ,
from Ireland by St. Colum ba and o n th e site o f th e e a r lie r A n g l o - S a x o n m o n a s te r y .

was taught at the monasteries ol Iona

and Lindisfarne. As with the Insular m v B o L v e S A l o a i o w i ^ f ^ tlf u m m p f lM C

M ajuscule, the script was then

disseminated on the Continent by
missionary Irish monks. The term f d t fm y t U y b tm o fu t m a lo f v u
“insular” is applied by palaeographers
•f /.V PhtOl
l.\ P rovhl rlilllA
iu a SA
aLlA
aUmO
oXx IS
is
to indicate a shared culture between
Ireland and Britain, free from
I ii Prot/eibia Sithititoitis, a w o r k
by th e g re a t A n g l o - S a x o n
h isto ria n B e d e , w a s w r itte n in
r O n .rc v
Continental influence. an In su lar M in u s c u le s c rip t th a t h ad b e e n fry
Vk p i'ir m s obikxno pipplec oimrci*
A n g lo -S a x o n h a n d p e r f e c te d in W e a r m o u t h - J a r r o w b y 7 5 0 .
pixdakif smwnnny ixyL'tvw-MnN
After the Council o f Whitby in 6 6 4 , i cnuUyitrrdv A ,crqs Inch-rum
M e r c ia n p r a y e r - b o o k
the influence o f the C eltic Church S| InDunstiaeqjm tm rartf alm ttttr#
T h is p a g e o f se t m in u s c u le f ro m a M e r c ia n
\ c me.tnnsifstimlnbiQitimq: bumiuicuhnn
weakened in England, Scotland, and p r a y e r - b o o k w a s w r itte n in th e e a rly n in th
c e n t u r y , p o ssib ly in W o r c e s t e r , B rita in . exiU ib m e S i ;; cu p - v>m onw ipcraw w
Wales and a more distinctive Anglo- C o m p a r e th e relativ ely restrain ed d e c o ra tio n p .r tp e m Dfprt econ- q w cpenutc- caelum,
Saxon hand began to em erge. Its o f th e initial le tte r w ith th a t o f B e d e ’s c\ TOM 'arrs m a n e «orrm ia quae liieis Tip
H istoria Ecclesiastica (opposite), w h ic h qul—Inoiimibu^ orSupih om nia t>$ k h rtic
quality is classed in four grades:
fe a tu re s spirals, frets, an d k n o t in te rla ce s. \ q c aimrccuT miht omnia p n * In se cu re
hybrid, which contains half-uncial p& citca m e a arqu.- ciumitw q u ae f a i •.
elements and the o c form of a; set, CUTmalnilip Uuilrvattif tneae tl»q: Iti hatlO
a r c a r y h o n a try l^pactyIrM tM rtjTm nkt
a carefully executed, formal hand;
lnniau InQjeqn hiaiiSrni Irraurco o lcacrw
cursive, the basic, functional udWty notldid p i d y nycuryq: limMt He!
,- O T O
sv
hand; and currens, the quickly In con p o p e Definquuy coinmuJV
penned, informal hand. By the early R .o fo p r n ilr a n aevthmmN Si piltuti
omniponfrroix, qtll it*- cc ,1111 m a r
ninth century, the most favoured hand
in southern Britain was the pointed
Dot stipple and colour arc
cursive minuscule, and it is this that often used to decorate the
first letter of a verse
we use as our model (pp. 36 37).

D e t a il f r o m a The cross stroke of t is frequently

— v The central stroke
- ...r of
/ the large e forms
M ER C IA N P R A Y E R -B O O K y / used to link letters the leading stroke o
f/jc off thefollowing
theJollowing p

p vtq \ e m ^ (p tv e c o n
> 14

|Mdr- ^rr^tnvciyc'nfrn cfaxicfotfc!
locyixc
•iMspccmixe'-TTvv^WTnj' etmoycnr--
p K l^ i p .
xttilW ftjvfcifitUo \\dtiih£a:<fncc£?fJ
•ptunt^cv lmm^ W t'Ccc lnbw tfl
am tprcjc •I aTfnidi niyfccd^railjwi
/ CC•-xctpcT]- drmi vxscu? gndpac
' ]ubti|-duwi]v*mm5 pnon'oircowo
mini Tnccctibnj-«...______ •
Oui bnp fvpcrom. ■itranai«B|*4'yjr
- aiKvdnazjij* oCqes- (.vn *miiicc ci
p( ecur.-h x kh - canducfi&i ifdLfecn:
bdzjcccm c m p pvoxtmnn frctip
Tticcirj-njecnrtjtn a-pt'«ir citfTrcts wwiv-l
drcittm wmil’i pQfrnjjv,-'*
dXpVa*' coT^onuni' p-.mc amttt
iJ^ccox^tijv tio arcOK'f ' 4
p iptctupoGnomapi
' ^ /g ’K0TUTX’™rrn yfaj'lr&flt-pnovinxv
i'k xtialfcn;m?!«fm oipncrmtama*-
v
y- 6iu<v itrqtnciaTn fa;ip^n(^tro:di
jom m vcccd/
de'C»C<KV!IOjDpmrO £
^'^Tf!r^h-tTt)>
* fvafaoticccdeef- \n~iiUx[hc&frr-< £
Opjnvcptrsjit^ oF'fft'-ocnK'nifew
txconffef'
'.vrpo*Atrj' /s
ryatTfy )ttjVr>u qpftdimk' nub
The boxed capital letters The short s is used both
demonstrate runic influences medially and terminally
D e ta il f r o m th e H is to ria E c c le s ia s tic a
N o te th e t w o d iffe re n t fo rm s o f r th a t o c c u r a t th e e n d
o f th e first a n d s e c o n d w o rd s o f this d e ta il. T h e u se o f
the u p rig h t fo rm o f th e le tte r d in th e s e c o n d lin e is a
d e p a rtu re fro m th e U n c ia l fo rm (p p . 2 4 - 2 5 ) .
Compare this form o f a with the o c form
used in the Historia Ecclesiastica
iiiH cjv e a u T G c c
The decoration around the
initial b resembles that found
in metalwork on a hoard in
Trewhiddle, Corn wall
I ItSTO RlA E c c l h s i a s t i c a
In B e d e ’s Historia Ecclesiastica
Gcttlis A n g lo ru m , w r itte n in
s o u th e rn E n glan d in a b o u t 8 2 0 ,
th e d e s c e n d e r s a re m a d e in a
sin gle s tr o k e a n d te r m in a te d
by an u p w a rd flick. T h e p en
is lifted b e tw e e n e a c h stro k e .
o p j p p i f o p v p l h m m j-ipre p o jtu ta
vjnhra inlittltjjm M ir Fifrnun afagin o n flria .^
wfrt^am of-jiulj.il p(>i‘ on op)i mvt-um
tnWiirqmm nvUv^'J-n him
w p o-nrr^ pw f-p Iw ^ p m
gmta- f^ji onpjrw pinli'S jnmlo jijfr
jr c tjr u tjh U bjm p tp u n f n p p l w
p p ilc - n aWjrtit-o M o
Inrmw irwln •gflipdcum font* pliWnn jijppu-pJ
/ i D S l © MAf)0 LAI>
p jr o fjopt- o n ltb c p f o nMj-r. m-ift ftt op}i
1 ibjij-un p l c u ^ n ? p | » w o p r ! *
ro.rm* li c it * m sj^ om K m * pporn mrji^m^ntn 4 *
!e onjptt* nrnrrotblltliibp p4j* pjuV^tt p&an
|f pjimnn yi^r Irrn’?* ftwnjjj, hamppltx^ *jwi
° f cn& * J bjfin ctspnb^
ppn ippdon pin Kmma 31^02 [*■
■nw p i t pliyrtc faipmi timni
cfpnm ptf^iui p^Inj-
E x e te r B ook
W r itte n d u rin g th e s e c o n d h a lf o f th e
te n th c e n tu r y in a fin e A n g lo -S a x o n
s q u a re m in u s c u le , th e E x e t e r B o o k
is an a n th o lo g y o f v e rn a c u la r p o e tr y .
I n s u l a r M in u s c u l e
This whimsical decoration, W
with letters transforming into 1
animals, is less form al than that
used fo r capitals in the l indisfarne
(iospels (pp. 30 31)
C aro lin cjia n in flu e n c e s
ByJ
the tenth century, J 1
the Insular
Minuscule was undergoing changes,
first becoming angular and upright
and then, under the influence of the
Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38 3 9 ),
becom ing m ore rounded. By the
11 di century, the script had entered
its final phase o f change, with the
letters gaining a squarer aspect.
^ C h a n g e s o f p e n a n g le
m» p ^ rw p *
Throughout the development of
p-FVtjr^ n a n c the early Insular Minuscule, it was the
Tthr-; \<p*f changes o f pen angle that allowed the
scribes to express their calligraphic
virtuosity. This element of play seems
progressively to have diminished
as the hand became squarer.
To the modern eye, the long, spiky
descenders o f the pointed cursive
minuscule are made all the more
dominant by their appearance on
letters r and s (pp. 36—3 7 ). The
other minim characters are rounded
and compressed, which gives a more
flowing texture to the page than any
of the later Insular Minuscules.
A decorative sweep on the
fin al leg o f m may occur at
the end o f a word or line
I n su la r <&_N a t i o n a l S c r ip t s

T h e a is pointed
at the top

Insular Minuscule
C
ALLIGRAPHERS MAY w e l l find th e d u ctu s o f th e Insular
M inuscu le o n e o f th e m o st satisfying to acco m p lish . In the
a WWSS____

A nglo -Saxon p ointed m inu scu le show n h e re , the ch aracteristic

T h e stem o f the
po in ted asp ect - m o st n o tice a b le o n th e d escen d e rs — is created
b could be more
by p rog ressively tu rn in g th e p en to a s te e p e r angle as th e stro k e upriglu than this

is d raw n. T h e pen b eg in s at th e head lin e at an angle o f ab o u t

4 0 ° and o n re ach in g th e b o tto m o f th e d escen d e r has tu rn ed
to a near v ertical. T h e m inim height is about five o r six nib w idths.

T
1C o. Of}
2

10I I ft
Os
, ^ 2

1 . U sin g the ed g e o f
a sq u a re -cu t nib, begin
at the head line w ith
2 . R e tu r n to the
headline and begin
the d o w n w a rd stroke
3 . C o n tin u e to pull
th e pen d o w n w ard s,
gradually tu rn in g
e T h e ascender o f the f could
rise above the headline

a sh ort d o w n w ard w ith the pen at an th e nib in an an ti­

diagonal stro k e. angle o f a b o u t 4 0 ° . clo ck w ise d ire ctio n .
, < >

T h e crossbar o f the
f should be on the
baseline

T h e bowl o f the
g could be more
open than this

4 . A t th e baseline, the
pen angle should be
a b o u t 6 5 ° , reach in g
7 5 ° at the tip o f th e
descen d er.
►
1
I
5 . O n c e th e d escen d er 6 . O n re a ch in g the
has tap ered to a p o in t, headline, the pen should
/
begin re tra c in g the be at its original angle. I t * 4 1 ^,e^,!eri
is a modem
stro k e b efo re sep arating N o w p ro ce e d w ith the
at th e baseline. n e x t p art o f th e letter.

36
 I n s u l a r M in u s c u l e

<?
-r

< i
T h e stem o f the 1 can
be completely upright

m Create the letter w by

combining the u and v

V '<*
------ to ’^ I 2

0
T h e o can be

1 drawn with one

stroke or two

<4

Use either one

or two strokes
to draw the z

This modem fonn o f

r is more recognizable
than the historically

6c
T ra d itio n a l correct form
fo rm
of r

T h e tall e was commonly ligatured with

f, g , i, m , n , p , r, s, t, u , x , y , a nd z

Long 5
T h e modem
6c
E - t lig a tu r e
s is often prefened

37
 C a r o l i n e <Sl E a r l y G o t h i c S c r i p t s

Caroline Minuscule The ascender is equal

in height to the minim

A t first sight, the differences between the Caroline Minuscule

C a ro lin e
i\ (C a r o lin g ia n Minuscule) and the late Half Uncial scripts M in u s c u le h

T h e C a ro lin e
(see Vatican Basilicanus, below) arc not clear. The main distinction M in u scu le is
w r itte n w ith a
betw een the two is in the pen used to w rite them , the Half s q u a r e -c u t nib ,
Uncial using a “straight” pen and the Caroline a “slanted” pen w ith th e p en
h eld a t 3 0 °
(pp. 4 0 —4 1 ). In fact, the Caroline Minuscule was developed (p p . 4 0 - 4 1 ) .

in the eighth century as a reform ed version o f the Half Uncial.

It survived in this form until the 11 th century, before evolving The minims adhere strictly
to the headline and
into the Early G othic (pp. 4 6 —4 7 ) and Rotunda (pp. 84—85). baseline, creating neat,
legible lines of text

B y t h e l a t e eighth century,
Charlemagne (Charles the Great,
King of the Franks), had created
a Frankish Empire that stretched m p p r* li» ’ CtHUTfcli u l r i r p l e M i r u c b 'h c i b u IWCpO
from the Baltic to northern Italy. r i u e T 'o p c i T T 't r e t r - e d p i e c j u o m c K l o c o t 'p o r a L p - e r
S' a
Inspired by the glories o f antiquity, iSK 'X '*
b a a ciM C 'o iv ib u b t—e -c p l evuT-iicIo lie N i m c o r p o r a f i
Charlemagne instigated a great m o c l o p c i r r 'e r n i N T it|C*C-i'©aU« p a r e r r N y i l j o f i t i f i i r c t j q
cultural revival. The prominent Nbruvtzr-afivriwrtM e.< Uuei'otjUocle*T-po-riurcor'po
scholar Alcuin o f York was made C t E '/ l t ' t 'c i t j i r e e i m p o m u N e w r d i u t m m r e w c r c u r a e i M e - o
JITi T1 Ci c c r r u a r - r r a T r e m « c l ( i r r H N e o c l r < ? T i r
d r .e r c d o f i z ;N
Abbot of St. Martins in Tours, France,
N o w m ir p e r M
c h4 1j;H
Z 7 1 a i~ io H e iT i * a u p e i vu o lu rn rc rc e m
where he established a scriptorium
ttM p e r g e w P ’t 't i T M c m e - m • t i e r - t u 'e - i r r o T - u r c o r ^ > o t N j
and Court School. It was here that the
ncI ii rn i v- plewvr ucli netim n*aw i <dutruyuod
existing Half Uncial was reform ed
jpit* 'v iclairiunipe-r'Na'ci arraremdTiHcltn si a
to create the Caroline Minuscule. cttime-tfc♦ n c tj u ed iu eri a.u~di jpr'T'e** ral| rjuid*
A d o m in a n t s c r ip t . f rid b e - } i u o d c o i v-p o r a 1jT -e i 4 i a u ii'C ir l M x :p b
Characterized by its clarity and e i t r j u i d t y u i c l l H b c i l j t 'r a T c c o r ^ o r 'o l j i r e ^ r ' i d i r f i i n e t u i w

uniformity,J 7
the Caroline Minuscule c f i j r n d t h im r r - c t r i r e i - r p l e u i z - u d i w e-t riu td f iu m cL N a
gradually became the dominant r e c r -o r e 't r t e i d t w a N t u m t l e e e ^ r i o w u m J o c m

script in Europe. It arrived late in R t i i i w b e r e i ' rj u J d Jr u b Ia d p e e F L tM im i T 'c t t - e m ?

England, but was adopted in the < jtfH C o t“ d i c i r o * C f s a c t r u r 1 m i* p l e M i c u d o d i u r N i c c i

tenth centuryJ for Latin texts,7 such o < P T 'p o r ^ u l j C M . r e w tiiT - a u r i rr>
ar-tCltM t n boodi-j-bxVY oIn r - p ' • Tucttd « ; e m i u-rcor-’
as the Ramsey Psalter (pp. 4 2 -4 3 ).
■ p o e a iy r a ii^ J w p c p e V ia liiiru i s -p t e w r r u 'j i N e m c f i u i
Over 4 0 0 Jyears later,' it was
iM lii C t a j f i l o c M ^ t n s - r j ^ v u v l u w i r m e t r ii m p t u m p i d t H
rediscovered by Renaissance scribes r&rMViocfi^Crde-T'-er * preealT'eeiui'N J r u r a e iN
and, in turn, adapted by Nicholas r a l l a p t*n t let m -pirianni*-efjE;Tofart*i'•umpe r e r
Jenson and other type designers ni t-NiTXidodiutwir-ciT-ircor
in Venice for their early p t>rvd Ljrce-r'- lijhietorl - i <*err'n e e re pa r-a.fi d jje i r
printing types (pp. 90—91). J i t m r w i c r e y u r . >i t u r M i r i t « ^ ' p p e c t l j p L e N i r u d i N e

C.orvpor->:rljT',piaw-in'daMt v f i i -rH iirum piechafii

V a tic a n B a s ilic a n u s
'"eaNKd»uiM!c<tri‘ret*-tptct(ivjTreL‘e^ ip or-eirc{iu iN irf
T h e H a l f U n c ia l is u su ally d e fin e d b y its cap ital •rit bafire r-yytif;r; -a/vp. e-I’ruircor-por
f o r m o f N an d b y th e o b liq u e -c u t n ib u sed to
w r ite it (p . 4 0 ) . A lth o u g h la c k in g in s u b tle ty , this
early e x a m p le , p ro b ab ly fro m th e late fifth c e n tu r y ,
s h o w s c le a r a n d u n a m b ig u o u s le tte r fo r m s . N o t e
h o w v ertical th e scrip t is c o m p a r e d to th e slan ted
C a r o l in e o f th e G ra n d v a l B ib le (opposite).

38
 C a r o l in e M in u s c u l e

These modern Caroline letters Capital letters, loosely derivedfrom Uncial

have been written in gouache and Roman models, have been created to
on a background o f watercolour harmonize with the minuscule hand

_
S h e ila W a t e r s
C o m p o s e d in 1 9 9 0
letheriands
b y th e E n g lis h -b o r n
c io u o eoNCtmoHt
Germany fAO
MAM
OYt *rb icee u 'h iTETRees. ca llig ra p h e r Sheila
Frame W a t e r s , this w o rk
Austria eq u i d i s t a n t : ,A i i s & i i k c p l u m e s
Switzerlc is p a rt o f a trip ty ch
promtire g r a y - w h i t e f t a o r o f m i s t - e n title d C lo u d
Be t w c e n d)£'mount\rnd r* .in s Conceptions fro m

In m o m i n g s u n . w h i c h s l o w t y h u m s A bo v e. T h e te x t is
arran ged asy m m etrically
\i\Lley |r^AWAy.
in a s tr e tc h e d , m o d e m
T U e 't b r e e t r e e s c h x n g e h r s i n i s t r r m u s h r o o m e iv x p c B v e rs io n o f C a ro lin e
j.-.. M in u s c u le . T h e e v e n
w h i c h s t x y A .w h ile & u ,d - th e n d i s s o l v e .-
h e ig h t a n d straig h tn ess
I n m o m it r g liy ljC ,.\ s n o u r fiid d I c o u l d \v.\I/i up on.
o f t h e lin e s a llo w
F r a n k i s h E m p ire
^ A i v tree s A rvg p n c-S m i le s p.vet. su btle c o lo u r ch an g es
T h e e x t e n t o f C h a r le m a g n e ’s F ra n k ish
E m p ire in th e e a rly n in th c e n t u r y is m a rk e d K c t u m e d to p .x r e n t VApo*ac_r t o b e m a d e t o th e
le tte rs w ith o u t
in re d o n th is m a p o f m o d e m E u r o p e . A s
th e o v e ra ll design
the e m p ir e e x p a n d e d n o r th o f th e A lp s,
Latin a n d G r e e k le a r n in g w a s c a r r ie d w ith it. b e c o m i n g t o o b u sy .

A s q u a r e - c u t n ib
The m ajor difference between

1 N C I P I T LI BER- the Half Uncial and the Caroline

Minuscule is the cut o f the pen nib.
The earlier hand is written with an
EXO D VS oblique-cut nib, which produces
an upright letter with contrasting
thick and thin strokes. The Caroline
A C -C S U ^ T
is w ritten with a square-cut nib,
which produces letters with strokes
j; i L 7 o R u o f even proportions (pp. 4 0 —4 1 ).
j s R ^ e L T ex tu ral c o lo u r
W hen viewed as a page o f text,
q u
the textural colour o f the Caroline
Minuscule is quite distinct from that
A eqypxu o f the Half Uncial. W hile the Half
C um i\coB Uncial letters have a static aspect, the
Caroline letters have a slight forward
51>tC U L i
J thrust, an element most noticeable on
cam D o m 7 the ascenders and descenders. Minims
B U S 5 U 1S adhere sharply to the headlines and
IN T R O l e baselines, which emphasizes the
script’s ordered and logical aspect.
JIU H T7
k e -n . { y - m e v n ■ t e x i t l a c /.v . f X c k . \ ~ r c 2 C s - b a L c m ---------------- The square-cut pen nib gives the Caroline
Minuscule letters a slight forward thrust
C vben 1x m 1 n d \ n £ m e p s r ls s -L tm jjx c f £ "r-v fe -r~ ' ’
T he G randval B ib l e
0 t T V r i - r y ^ p ttli r - o r r u i e T . x n 1 m N d -cx > t~ iim cj u o x C T r^ r~ e -/~ T h e r e is a su b tle fo rw a rd th ru st to th ese e x e m p la ry
C a r o l i n e M in u s c u le le tte rs. T h e y a re w r itte n
{ x e f e t t r c d e - f i r m o r ~ e - t N x a b . { e jy z t t.N c p n z x c j u i r i c j u t r
b e tw e e n f o u r im a g in a ry lin es: th e m in im s

~ Jo fe p h .\ x t-z e -m . CJu o m o r ~ z u o C z:
a d h e re t o th e c e n tra l t w o lin es, th e a sce n d e rs
re a c h th e to p lin e , a n d th e d e s ce n d e rs re a ch
th e b o t t o m lin e . T h e a sc e n d e rs an d d e sce n d e rs
u n l u e - r iiC fr & c r - t b - . e - t u f o m m c p c o c ^ n . v r i o n e Y i « ;v .
a re e x a c t l y th e s a m e h e ig h t as th e m in im s.

39
C a r o l in e E a r l y G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Caroline Minuscule
h e C a r o lin e M in u s c u le is o n e o f th e e asiest hands fo r a

T callig rap h er to m aster. As a re fo rm e d s c rip t, its o rig in al

fu n ctio n w as to co m m u n ica te legib ly (pp. 3 8 —3 9 ). T h e le tte r s are
w ith o u t e m b e llish m e n ts, th e w o rd spaces clear, and the ligatures
m inim al. A lthough closely related to the H alf U ncial, from w hich it
d eriv es (b e lo w ), the C aro lin e is always w ritte n w ith a “slan ted ” pen
w hereas th e H a lf U n cial is usually w ritte n w ith a “straig h t” p en.

A forward slant o f about

1 0 ° is characteristic o f the
Caroline M inuscule letter

T h e p en angle f o r the
hand is about 3 5 ° T he third
stroke o f the
B a s ic e le m e n ts d could be a
T h e m in im h e ig h t o f continuation
th e C a ro lin e M in u scu le o f the second
is b e tw e e n th re e and
five pen w id th s, w ith
a fu rth er tw o o r th re e
fo r th e ascenders and
descen d ers. T h e serifs T h e sweep of
o n th e ascenders o f b, the third stroke
d, h , k , an d I h av e a _ , o f the e could
*3 . .
clu b b ed ap p earan ce. continue upwards
O th e r letters, su ch as i, to join the bowl
m , and n , h av e slightly
w e d g e -sh a p e d serifs.

3 T h e stem o f the f
can also be made
with a single
C a ro lin e M in u s c u le H a lf U n cia l
downward stroke
The Caroline
Minuscule a is This o c fo rm o f a
a two-storey, is characteristic o f
open letter the H a l f Uncial

XT —
T h e Caroline
n takes a
recognizably
lower-case fo rm „ P
B
B ____ T h e H a lf Uncial

—
band retains the
Uncial capital n
T h e bowl of
the g should
be left open

inward sweep
T h e H a lf Uncial or with a foot (see
is written with a alternative n, opposite^
“straight” pen
(oblique-cut nib)
T h e Caroline
Skate the tail o f
Minuscule is written
the i to fo rm a j
with a “slanted" pen
(square-cut nib)

40
 C a r o l in e M in u s c u l e

Pull the fo ot o f the 1

along the baseline
a
v
Use one continuous stroke fo r the
second and third legs o f the m

Finish the
m with an inward sweep
or a fo ot (see alternative n,

w
b e lo w right,)

r r Finish the n
with an inward
sweep or a foot
(see alternative
n, b elo w right,)

2—
Alternatively,
the p could
be drawn in
two strokes,
with the second
stroke continuing
to the stent

XL
T h e stem o f
the q could be
a continuation
j o f the second
stroke

This is the
traditional long
fo rm o f s

Long s

s
it alternative
This
foot fo r h, m ,

n i n
and n can be
used instead
o f the sweep

A lte r n a tiv e n

41
C a r o l in e &_ E a r l y G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Foundational Hand
O BO O K ON TH E mechanics o f calligraphy is com plete
N w ithout a reference to Edward Johnston’s Foundational
Hand and its simplicity and integrity. Historically, it belongs
to the early 20th century. However, the basis for the script is
al p
a manuscript dating from the year 9 6 6 , the Ramsey Psalter. WFi tohu thn ed pa et ni ohneld at
Believed to have been produced by scribes at W inchester, 3 0 ° , th e w e ig h t o f The strokes arc drawn
e a c h F o u n d a tio n a l with a broad-edged
the RamsevJ Psalter was w ritten in a hand now known as le tte r a p p e a rs to be "slanted”pen
e v e n ly d istrib u te d
the English C aroline M inuscule, an Anglicized version b e t w e e n h o riz o n ta l
a n d v e rtic a l stro k e s.
of Frankish Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38—3 9 ).

B y t h e e n d O F the 19th century,

under the influence o f the Arts and
Crafts movement in England, a whole
1O icqurc dric die \fto
new philosophy was emerging among fine pcccito nofcuftodire *
artists and craftsmen. The basis o f
this philosophy was that the honest c o tfcrar nri driem i feverc nn *..
construction o f an artefact was
achieved only by the co rrect
p iac mifmcoidu a t \ drie
interaction o f tool and material. fup n o f qucm ^clrnodurn
Medical student Edward Johnston
readily endorsed this idea and began,
fpenunmuf tnee*
in 1897, to experim ent in writing
letters with a broad-edged pen. In
I rice drfe fpemui nonconfun
1899, his work came to the attention cU rt nxddemum *
o f W .R. Lcthaby, Principal o f the
Central School o f Arts and Crafts in hyiUsJUS Tuum. [ u £ BvOBJiJiK •
London, who invited him to teach
classes in Calligraphy and Illumination. cncdiatc am'\ opcm dm dno *
In 1901, Johnston also began lecturing
at the Royal College o f A rt, London.
| Liudare<5efuperpciluicr
cum tnfecuLv .
B e n a n q y ii d m d n o .fe c d i d n o ..

L u id u B cnaqiueomfqiacrfupodof
In this detail, the "lumped" serif on the 1 has
func dnat> omf airaizefdriidno *-
B en folselunx dno /
hecn completed after the stem has been drawn

b c n c d i a c c f t d L i c edi d n o * .
T h e R am sey P s a lte r
T h e C a r o li n e M in u s c u le o f th e R a m s e y P sa lte r
w as o n e o f th e h an ds o n w h ic h J o h n s t o n ’s
c a llig ra p h ic w o r k w a s b ased . In W riting and B c n o m iftm b e r < 5 ^ r o fd n o
Illum inating a n d Lettering, h e sta te d , " i t has all th e
qualities o f g o o d w r itin g in a m a rk e d d e g r e e , an d
1 c o n s id e r it, ta k e n all r o u n d , th e m o s t p e r f e c t
a n d satisfa cto ry p e n m a n s h ip w h i c h I h a v e s e e n ” .

42
 F o u n d a t io n a l H a n d

tV*l !«■Uu^J ojf

w3fS*)r!
mAiull.Vu
tWMTTR-i ,
SE .

w y i P
DEVELOPMENT OF"SUNTtD-PEN"HANDS: .
I Hw pofiaon c f che tin.'k oiti thmitnkcs u annwimatdy thuT ~ U n i wnnnaej du totfi Century J dmw dfrm the turfy Rwwantand HoIf-UnMO
!i may fc* »\uwJ f fr Afjirrm Kar-is. 6 j! in m w W duuU hf n<arfv cansan:. Jbim i medtfie! 1y die FitaJi o» Cenany'Csrt!uu'kasJs*'(u wtiiift it is ditdf hLmA)
2 . Tk/ s t r o n g iuvkt sb.-uU «n/isJly b< unthuuieitci.T'JtOUcJ*«in®
rfuMTAK suxist siiauli cnurnU«\ tuparcaej and iW a e Jy a J a p « « C r lu m tn x re m im jC jac f5-ccc-nocn cdxclLvl'
j . TJw btt<n>air wtwjcoUv mtouplftJ a n d n b r Jw t hooks-<uu»dtfWeh C no-
art .<MAU. h£AW fniishi'ivj.strokfS (ycr tccr<fdhi t o ), tneft in | w tot the and ir u itnrtcoonVr o f otc onastralt\s< jromvdndi how hem dosbfti TH Rlf
fuakf aiT essentia; parci \<f. l.t .w it n rfioranauiuLfL jC ,) ■ ■lii.-.iuT ind'jiip'rtoetf TTPEi -fn so c f which may be n^aidei K v te J pn turw n tj,

blackItnerlis, Mi italic and"roman’small ktters

| 7 if rarjy frutf ij’tKis m f raj Si b J C C W air ihf xrt U>«A))I

It.

ninojH jq r s tu w ^
v ^ -
A m I T A L I C H A N D 4 rr;w J a n e J Io n t ie r . x j J j t i m a l lu r J y I ) A i r | H i i «OJiu*\t ii nuadt W v toAjnv die corner! of dit ptn (see Grenl N.t/J
Tty cW'diaraaovftw; . f we ITALIC HanWan- ! lateral compression.: t-..u I Ya.-vui ihare.-:<u eunhe irrrUTed £w»it * ) W tftr^ m a tir j raiuflrr
•Vtiie f it t s in u S u ) Sa-.t.laiy c.i vnmnsucsair 1. EUaatrJ.<!eu'o.2 .a rf.eli: 0 - Oi'c' tc ) Icnatheniiuaw (dlrfewWiai^ < c -| J I I. P / . r *
(TKsla a c .pirhiNytlieka>; eseiitia.'. 'vo ecaiu'Uiiiy Ma^rrasd in nusicTi; ;>r 1 L<t^oapluv^tlttleCetf(mitffjmnal Vnanjl I ' l l U i \ i p 'r * .f E d w a r i >J o h n s t o n
T h r o u g h his ca llig ra p h y , d esign , w ritin g , and
^ 111
te a c h in g , E d w a r d J o h n s to n b e c a m e o n e o f th e

abbcdefaKijkllmnopcjS th e m o s t in flu en tial p e n sm e n o f th e early 20 th

c e n t u r y . H e is p ic tu re d h e re usin g his favo u rite
w r itin g in s tru m e n t, th e quill.
m«ie u«K allUntcd poi ’'^cT,arr\' ef IU leJ& ds )

“S la n t e d ” p e n le tte r s
Johnston was encouraged in his work
A ROMM , MALI’LETTER. HAND aenirl fromtKe fvanianorj hand {l.)tk»t.eni WWitllatrftoAt lealunFermo! J5-l6GniueyMff
veiu 'jj chanteffis may ^-'^Se lUvdapaijromthistuinpe Vyvakyio^dx waght Scdirectionof pEN(_ej die ronutt inpiaa a nearfyttn^Mrpe*type)- by Sidney C ockerell, the former
GENERAL NOTc $» A
A wryhroai mbsornaL smtrtis theletter^ tend; tor-vc it a “character- dueBthe abnept chanetjrrri midctothui— ,.♦ ! rS/lS 1^
Anmwmbismm ueider 'the canar! ofdie mwerandit>(^raiua*^d>t-^t>^\<tRlibHill ju c mmnrnanehametortoletttfsfthehei<hskemje^oi)* I IbJ
secretary to William M orris, who
I’ la tk 6 .— “ S L A N T E D - P E N ” S M A L L - L E T T E R S . a * v . • •• U ' j. - h ?<«■■/>rm * j / tt t * n t : </. put<i 10, u .
introduced him to the Ramsev J
Psalter.
1. FoundationalHanA: an excellent formal hand for M S. work and to develop into later forms (R ef. W . & L . collo. V I I I .
& PP - 3 « > S - 3 i«)•
It was then that he wrote to a friend:
II. Italie H an d: a rapid and practical hand for modern M SS. (Ret. W . & I., collo. X X I . &: pp. 3 1 1 - 3 * 5 )-
111 .Roman Small-latter H a n d : suitable for the most formal modern M SS. (R ef. W . & I . . collo. X X . &: pp. 3 10 , 48 1). “And so the idea came to make
II. and III. may be taken as M S. models for practical adaptation to printing, painting, carving, & c .: ct'. Pis. 10, 1 1 , 14, 16.
living letters with a formal pen”. In his
St-uol Ccfin 4»e t.u a ftn . K«. S. Si» I m t r u n n tr S»«i. W , I'j'in Se»ert. K n (irir. tl'.C.I
great instructional work Writing and
Illuminating and Lettering, published
in 1906, he explained his preference
W o rk sh eet
In 1 9 0 9 , in c o lla b o r a tio n w ith th e a rtist E r ic G ill,
for “slanted” pen letters, such as
J o h n s t o n p r o d u c e d a series o f s tu d e n t w o rk s h e e ts those in the Ramsey Psalter, over
o n w h ic h h e d e s crib e d th e F o u n d a tio n a l H a n d as
the Half Uncial letters written with
C t haec scribtmus “ e x c e l le n t fo r fo rm al M S w o r k an d t o d e v e lo p in to
later f o r m s ” . O n th e sh e e ts, h e m o d ifie d th e R a m s e y a “straight” pen (pp. 38 29). Drawn
vobis ut^iudcam. P s a lte r sc rip t b y m a k in g it lig h te r an d m o r e u p rig h t,
an d h e in c lu d e d his ch a ra c te ristic “ s h a rp -h e a d e d ” serifs.
with a broad-edged pen held at 30°,
the “slanted” letters had the greater
&<£iuduun wstrum strength and legibility, and the text
sit plenum. thcv produced was of an even weight.
tfr hiuvcsran 11undn nb.Qiicim— . Careful consideration of text sire, letter “S h a r p - h e a d e d ” s e r ifs
aiidmmusabaitiamiiiutianuis weight, and spacing is demonstrated in
The most marked difference between
wins : Qiumiam Dais hxcsr. this mature work by Johnston
Johnston’s letters and those o f the
& taicbmc in iv mm sunt ulluc.
Caroline Minuscule is the serif on
ascenders. Regarding the “pushed”
St u d y sh eet
T h e m ain t e x t o f this stu d y s h e e t fro m 1 9 1 9 is w ritte n pen strokes used for “lumped” serifs
in J o h n s t o n ’s o w n fully d e v e lo p e d F o u n d a tio n a l H a n d . as forced, Johnston advocated the
T h e a sc e n d e rs a re m o r e o r d e r e d an d s h o r te r th an
th o s e d e m o n s tr a te d 011 th e e a rlie r w o rk s h e e t (above).
use o f “sharp-headed” serifs made
J o h n s t o n ’s m a s te r y o f Italics (p p . 9 4 - 9 5 ) is also c le a r. from “pulled” pen strokes.

43
C a r o l in e <SlE a r l y G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Foundational Hand

A
lm o s t a s im p o r ta n t in calligraphy as the le tte rfo r m s is the
l m a n n e r in w h ich th e w o rd s a re laid o u t o n th e page and
the te x tu ra l e ffe ct that they achiev e. W ith its reg u larity o f d u ctu s,
a
b
in w h ich a rch e s, c u rv e s, w idth s o f le tte r s , and in te rn a l spaces all v
2 *
re la te , the Foundational H and d em o n strate s a p e rfe c t evenness o f T o draw the serif
te x tu re (see In te r-le tte r spacing, b e lo w ). T h e pen angle is ab ou t 30°, and stem o f the b,
see letter 1
increasing to about 4 5 ° for diagonal strokes. M inim height is fo u r o r
five nib w id th s, w ith a fu rth e r th re e fo r ascen d ers and d escen d ers.

c Pull the first

stroke o f the c
along the baseline

I
d . To draw the
serif and stem
o f the d, see
letter I

U
T h e key le tte r
As this co m p o site ch a ra c te r o f a, d, e,
ii, and <] sh ow s, th e o is th e key letter
o f the hand. T a k e tim e and care to
co m p o se its tw o c u rv e d strokes. It is
e
useful to exp lo re th e co n stru ction
o f Fou n d atio n al letters by d raw in g
th e m w ith tw o p en cils taped
to g e th e r. T h e p en cil points relate
to the co m e rs o f a pen nib.

In te rn a l sp a ce s
T h e eleg an t oval
o f space w ith in the
le tte r o p ro vid es the
m od el to w h ich all
o th e r spaces in the
h an d sh ou ld ideally
c o n fo rm .

v f
To draw the serif
and stem o f the
I n te r -le tte r sp a cin g
T h e spaces b e tw e e n letters sh ou ld be as
co n sisten t as possible. M a n y scribes train
h , see letter 1
A 1 ;
th eir eyes to stu dy in te r-le tte r sp acin g as
k een ly as th e letterfo rm s them selves.
♦ ♦
To draw the serifs
A * ^ o f the i and j , see
letter 1
A
J
44
 F o u n d a t io n a l H a n d

k t
T o draw the serif
j
and stem o f the
k, see letter 1

Pull the second stroke o f

Push the edge o f the t along the baseline

u
the nib downwards Return to the top
1
to the left (\) 2 ' 3 and pull the pen
doivttwards to draw

I
To draw the ^ '
M ake an inward curve to the stem (3 )
jo in the main stem ( 2 )

T o complete the letter, pull the

serif o f the
u, see letter 1
*1
stroke along the baseline (3 )

m
To draw the serif o f the
m , see letter 1
ii V
1

w
To draw the ^ I

n
serif o f the n,

see letter 1 I

o X
P
T o draw the
serif o f the p,
see letter 1
^ ^

Ur
3 1
3 5
)4
T h e fifth stroke o f
the p can begin to
y
q z
Turn the pen
nearer to the
horizontal to
broaden the
second stroke
o f the z

r
i &

f
To draw the ^
serif o f the r,
see letter 1
&
This alternative g may prove
&

s
easierf o r beginners to p en
than the traditional form

9
To avoid the s tilting,
stretch the first stroke
horizontally

3
A lte r n a tiv e g

45
C a r o l i n e S c, E a r l y G o t h i c S c r i p t s

Early Gothic . The p ic k at the head o f the stem

can either be drawn as an initial
script (P roto-G oth ic, Late Caroline) stroke or added on completion

T
h e EARLY GOTHIC
was used widely in m ost o f western Europe from the
late 1 1th century to the mid-1 3th century, a period that fell
between the end o f the Caroline era and the beginning o f the . The bow is quite
Gothic. In retrospect, the script can be seen as transitional compressed, gii'ing
it an oral aspect
between the Caroline Minuscule (pp. 3 8 —39) and the Gothic
Textura hands (pp. 5 0 —5 7 ), for it contains characteristics o f
E a r l y G o t h ic b
each, including the rounded bows o f the Caroline and the T h is E a rly G o th ic
split ascenders o f the Quadrata. le tte r is w r itte n with
th e p e n a t an angle
o f about 4 0 °.
T h f. E a r i . y G o t h i c script
T h e W in c h e s t e r B ib l e
evolved directly from the Caroline T h e illu m in a te d in itials in th e W i n c h e s t e r
Minuscule. It was more compressed B ib le r e p r e s e n t a h ig h p o in t in m e d ie v a l
a rtistry a n d a re th e w o r k o f six d iffe re n t These rubricated capitals
and oval than its predecessor and illu m in a to rs. T h is initial le tte r P fro m refect the use of Rustic
greater attention was paid to such th e B o o k o f K in g s sh o w s E lija h b e in g C apitalsfor titles, (see The
c o n s u lte d b y th e m e sse n g e rs o f A h a z ia h . hierarchy i f scripts, p. 16)
details as serifs and the feet of minims.
Its development was possibly the
if
simple result of scribes altering their ~
3 a t . v i. / > ./M
pen nibs from square-cut to oblique- Hciru’ lterR w an A.\xOB..'Sn.Mf6i«IaHfH
SIS .Mwlnffiscofi u r .u is ii'r — u r ’
cut. This produces more angular
siv i* it— — p iia t----------- C»ts .
letters and gives an upright aspect
o motultlutf eendianum fatnonon
to a page o f text. The difference
1 kilummtf- aim xtct v.utl.uviv.rtt acita-
between letters w ritten with a ttppticrbioinin Icqcraiturptwpta-ur
I Infmforman atep itiftrcott .xIKutXl'mi
square-cut nib and those written r maujram m<tvcdi ut«S -ccrunKp test*
<M.vmdirtranVit d etail |»:!i
(1)"
with an oblique-cut nib can be seen (i/ f.itirV” carpers •.ic duumf cW ttx oractiUS:quo
' d ■ '' '■ •' '• : r
-•.VI I n n ’Jd -ra it,iVfurr.ltl. rciwtwn per bapnfoutm- ct urns ufitm rt
when com paring the W inchester : iikifatnMrttimJ* i,*ir.nlr'trtiv<Yifc
ncrcnC cytij aWtttof dccet-cr. Hutic dctnvfc
B --’ri\ir;u-r: rn ritf chare otxtptif admoticr. arc;: ipfam t:mo
Bible with the Grandval Bible (p. 39). f
t.\ j ntnun cniuro Rtnlmnitrfu .nlin
<H*iHifrt"'pi>>di mum itlti i u ..Ytpirqua
A-on fiictamentorum cdcrc-xjuam amebapnfomm fxptirafiexmri'mfi
T h e W in ch e s te r B ib le mtc.i cuti •ifd'Tt'.vftrtrll r i K.-.n«!-,r * n-.iandttn ootidum uitctanf: pttxhdiffc pocxttS quatn cdidtffc dbtna
rcmur- Ocmdc qd ttioptnamibuf mcbuf ic tpCt Itir oryfknortmi ittfa
The W inchester Bible is one o f
dent: qoam fieam (cmw aliqutf-pwcumffic ■Apcrtte iqruir aurcf.
The initial illuminated P
the most outstanding books o f the bemtm odorem uttc ctcmc llLtrr xtobul rmtncrc Cxcmtiturrriim
is extended to f i l l the
capos- qd’uolni ftyxtfxcattttmif com apuomf cdcbrantsf m rfen a
Early Gothic period. Commissioned length i f the column i f text
dicoxrouf- epbera ■qd’eft adapenre ■o r ucttruruf umrfqurfq: ad jr.tm
by Henry o f Blois, the Bishop o f qd mterroqai’crur cxsyneforer- qoid rcfpondcrer mommflt dehcrcr-
l*i oc myftenum cvdcbrautr xpc m euanqtio ftcttr Icymxtf- cnm -muni
W inchester, Britain, it dates from S t . A m bro se, cutxtrer A'hmfam-bcd tUc »* tenqtr-.pita murttm ctttabjr A'ferdu-
about 11 50. W ritten with a “straight” D f. M i s t e r i i s I 1 natrmi xirat efmfrfc forwxtocrfaperutr: m ateto quia,tacniftftr
T h i s p a g e is f ro m a otrttm doeb.tr- femmam non deoUtr- poftbo ixfcramfotirr feafcoo-.
pen held at an angle close to the th e o lo g ic a l tr a c t myrtfiif cf rcgctictttnoruf lactnnutn •Kcpcrs cpnd m mwgar'ftf -
rarjuofce quid trlpondate ■kcnunoafc dtabolo efopcnbufetuS-
horizontal, the script features short, p ro b a b ly p e n n e d at
mmdo cylxmmc ct actwlupmakif-Tcrionr uertuu-ootuntu
R o c h e s t e r P r io r y ,
neat ascenders and descenders. These B r ita in , in 1 1 3 0 . T h e
tttulo tncrcuorum •'1cd itilibro tnucrrturm-S'tdtft: tlltc Ltttram •
xttdtfe faccrdetcm- tudifti fummu ftccrdorcm. f^olt conltdcrarc
create m ore interlinear space than E a rly G o t h i c h a n d
corporutn fiqwai•fed mmxfrcnord .warn •Ptyfcnnbuf jnyshs
u sed is in c o m p l e t e
longer ascenders and descenders W c5 ftcor fcnpcxvm eft •quia Ubta laordonf cxifbdrottr fem
c o n tr a s t t o th a t o f th e
would, and so aid the reading o f p t V S 'E W t V '
W i n c h e s t e r B ib le
f BRI T A .V
the line. Many o f the Lombardic (above). A lth o u g h th e
n ib is s q u a re , th e p e n ItG- S. p |' ) ^ -f 1 •
Capitals in the W inchester Bible, is h e ld a t a n a n g le
used both as display capitals and as c lo s e t o 4 0 ° , w h ic h
resu lts in a s tr o n g
capitals within the text, arc among h e a d lin e , r e in f o r c e d
the finest o f their kind (pp. 6 2 -6 3 ) . b y a stu rd y b a se lin e .

46
 E a r l y G o t h ic

PAI’E K m a k e r
Tilt* e a rlie st E u ro p e a n
This Versal letter I departs from p a p e r w a s m a d e fro m
Gothic conventions in the extreme rags o f c o tto n o r lin en ,
informality o f its decoration The pen is held at a shallower angle w h ic h w e r e c h o p p e d ,
than in the St. A m b ro se, De so a k e d , a n d laid o n a
M isteriis I manuscript ('opposite), sie v e b e f o re b e in g
resulting in less legible lines of text p ressed a n d d rie d . In
B rita in , re la tiv e ly fine
p a p e r w a s av ailab le by
th e 1 2 th c e n tu r y .

T X P IL IB X X
M o r a l ia in J ob

T h e A lornlid in J o b v o lu m e s w e r e c o m p le te d
I N C I P I T A X I; in 1 1 1 1 b y sc rib e s a n d illu m in a to rs at C i t e a u x ,
F r a n c e , o n e y e a r b e f o re S t. B e rn a rd a rriv e d
a n d im p o s e d th e h a rd d iscip lin e fo r w h ic h th e
C is te r c ia n o r d e r b e c a m e k n o w n . T h e h u m o u r

iT lG lX E G T V B a n d v ib ra n t c o l o u r in th e illu stratio n o f this p ag e

f ro m th e m a n u s c r ip t a re in sh arp c o n tr a s t to th e
w o rk p r o d u c e d in th e au stere tim e s th a t follo w ed .
i n x e r 'T e x v u c X i i n f l b :

m u m z z u t m d b l i b n m o n c p e n lk t ft fc These letters arc less compressed than

is typical jor Early Gothic script
irr i t m u f q - r p a v a f l a n c e m o d e m t z i

b u t i c n e c p t n t n i f d i t c i t f l w n i p o n d t t s

d e p m t n a v f i e q - , m
r t f i i d c u u r e k m
pc etuf fetttctm f catnzi aXlegpmtqz
conceptions furrr cftm ndf:itrqfcp
eu5 dd icldtn vctierc bpfhrrm nttrc*
tiorm a p fud tncurtdm puer>
IIottnullfuero rtziexxxvtortb; peep
n f mieruiutnr•ux ft qtu f eas fubn
Imf penctinrcdeftdem r- urc’quibe
tut imictnarT&i hoc ftbt eaZquod
foitf loatnzar abfconddcfjnde be
tic quoq: tidrtm ouc htfbucd p er
\tgnthcdnotic dtctmr- Tollctif ucob
utrgdf populcdf atttdcfezam ufdfc
Im af (StexpLirdinf s p a r e r deem
cicduiv eaf'decmcafq: cam cibufm
b tfq q c cxpolidm fttcmnr om doi
apparent* ITLi a
t n r t d t u p f r i d p f c r x m
ttiodw color cffeJh tf'S varmfjVbi
f u b d i n x r ; P o f u w
r f u s v o i p o r m a t -
D e v e lo p m e n t o f E a rly G o th ic
The Early Gothic script originated
j u d x r ,A X u t c p q u t p
in the areas that were subject to
Norman and Angevin influence
mainlv England and France before
spreading to northern Germany,
Scandinavia, Spain, Sicily, and part of
Italv. As a result o f English influence,
more attention was paid to the feet
o f the minims, which were formally
applied, as opposed to the upward
flick favoured on the C ontinent.
As the script developed, minims
generally became more compressed.
T h e d e m is e o f th e h a n d
The hand is perhaps best regarded
as the mid-point o f the pendulum
swing between the Caroline
Minuscule, with its clearly defined
letterforms, and the Gothic Textura
hands, in which the overall textural
effect is o f the greatest importance.
Although influenced by the Caroline,
scribes quickly realized that if they
q q c m r a p d c m t f - increased the compression o f letters,
thev could alter the textural colour
c ' d z q : m h u n c
o f the page. This reached its extreme
form in the Gothic Textura hands,
c f : e a f m c d t w U b :
which quickly grew in popularity
and displaced the Early Gothic.

47
C a r o l in e & _ E a r l y G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Early Gothic
d
T h e bowl on the
a should be large

GOTHIC S C R IP T is written with a “straight” pen and

a rly

E has an upright, compressed aspect. The wedge serifs on

the headline of the minim characters help create a strong /

b
horizontal stress to the text. The minim height varies between
approximately four and six pen widths, and ascenders and T h e ascender height

descenders frequently equal the minim height. Because of the

great variation in pen angle —between 10° and 40° —various
o f the b can equal
that o f the minim :
tvpes of serifs are included in the hand. The most distinctive of

c
all is the split serif on the ascenders of letters b, d, b, k, and /.

S p lit se rifs
C reate the split ascender w ith a pen angle o f 4 0 ° ,
“ F i l l e d ” s e rifs
A th ird m e th o d involves
e
draw ing the left serif and m ain stem first, then “ filling” th e split s e rif ( Q .
Om it the crossbar
adding the th in n er right serif (A ). A lternatively, T h e pen is held at a constant
o f the f to create a
e x te n d the thin serif in to th e stem (B ). 3 0 ° for th e w h o le letter.
long form of s

1/

Alternatively,
the g could bt

iL 1
T h e fe e t on the completed in
straight strokes o f three strokes
the minims terminate

b 1 1)
with an upward
turn o f the pen ______________ « .A -
T h e h could
alternatively have
a serifedfoot

Early Gothic F l a t - h e a d e d a n d w e d g e se rifs

letters should be A fo u rth serif v ariatio n is th e flat-h ead ed ty p e (D ),
written until an cre a te d b y o v erlap p in g tw o strokes, w ith a pen angle T h e j is a ^
oblique-cut nib o f a b o u t 1 0 ° . A fifth serif ty p e is th e w e d g e s e rif ( £ ) , m odem
w h ich appears o n th e le t t e r s », m , n, p , r, and n, as w ell
construction
as the m o d e rn letters j , v, and w. T h is can be d raw n
in o n e o r tw o strokes, w ith a p en angle o f a b o u t 4 0 ° .

48
 E a r l y G o t h ic

k z c T he first stroke o f the

t could extend above
the headline

t
Pull the first
stroke o f the 1
along the baseline
u t ct i

4 - <« 4
3 4 T h e v 15 <3 modem
construction

<*
n - V / n 1/ T h e w i5 modem
construction

The second and

:o T h e x has a
' third strokes o f the
x can be combined

distinctive tail

<• V
f
1/ J
z z.
This ligature between
the long s and the
This h a lf r can be used The half r is constructed
3 t is a distinctive
after letters b , o , and p 3 with a single stroke
feature o f the hand

.< #
Z

F u ll r H a lf r S -t lig a tu r e

s VJ

C - t lig a tu r e

49
G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Textura Quadrata
o f the 1 3th century, the Early Gothic
B
Y T H E B E G IN N IN G

script had evolved into a non-cursive, angular hand known as

the Textura Quadrata (Black Letter, Old English). The name
indicates the woven appearance o f the lines o f tex t, “Textura”
meaning “an even effect in weaving”. The script represented
a revolutionary change in calligraphy — after centu ries o f
emphasis on clear letter recognition, individual letters were T e x tu r a Q u a d ra ta n
T h e s c rip t’s m o s t d is tin ctiv e fe a tu re is the
suddenly subservient to overall textural effect. d ia m o n d -s h a p e d te rm in a ls o f th e m in im strokes.

W i t h i t s d e m s e , angular strokes and

m w
diamond-shaped heads and feet, the
Quadrata letter is to many people a
graphic embodiment o f the Middle
Ages. In northern Europe, it was used
into the 16th century for high-grade
liturgical manuscripts, second only in
&uimftrauoncfinnmtr.jX§ccma.
prestige to its twin script the Prescisus Oglouam Drictiu nomine
(pp. 5 4 -5 5 ) . The Quadrata’s decline
as a de luxe bookhand may have annua ftfta ttptnm s fa rx
been partly due to its large size; the
demand for smaller, hand-held books totalis ccccDtt. luftiam no t laudr
meant that more modestly sized
scripts such as the Schwabacher
offtunuts. fuipltanrccm aiitrs ;
(pp. 7 4 -7 5 ) and Humanist Minuscule u t anus nuiuftm i u iu tim (mu
(pp. 90 91) were m ore suitable.
However, the Quadrata did survive p n u is im ium n.fuflragus m e no
into the 20th century in the form of
cut letters, stained glass letters, and tm nuracrrpti ♦£. ju fia canonou.
titles on deeds, as well as being
much favoured in Europe by
aunguuroUlatioucfcm t
signwriters, shop owners, and tu tis m ctqiiam tUiioffr
designers o f newspaper mastheads.

The outlines o f Versals and illustrations were

to ego fam ulus m us ob Own m
drawn in the spaces provided by the scribe: here,
they have been outlined in metalpoint, with the q uo me Dignatus cs m nuiuftr
gold and colour still to be applied

T h e M e t z P o n t if ic a l
no fano couftitucrrfacrrtotcm •
T h is b ea u tifu lly c ra fte d p a g e f ro m an early
1 4 t h - c e n t u r y F r e n c h m a n u s c r ip t s h o w s T e x t u r a oofcno tn u p latan is acnpias.cr
Q u a d ra ta at its finest. T h e e v e n , te x tu r e d e ffect o f
th e p a g e is c r e a te d b y th e s c rib e ’s m e tic u lo u s
re g u la tio n o f s p a cin g an d m in im h e ig h t. T h e
sc rib e m a y h a v e u sed an o b li q u e - c u t n ib , w h ic h §c *3y o^
w o u ld h av e m ad e th e p ro d u c tio n o f fine hairlines TV °
p articularly easy (pp. 1 4 - 1 5 ) . N o te th e ru b ricated ' tA?
cap itals .S' an d /, p r e c e d e d b y th e cap ital P . T h e
stro k e th r o u g h th e s te m o f th e P d e n o te s th e
c o n t r a c ti o n o f “ p a r ” , “ p e r " , o r “ p o r ” .

50
 T e x t u r a Q uadrata

P a in t in g in C h i c h e s t e r C a t h e d r a l
T h i s p a in t in g s h o w s B i s h o p S h e r b o u r n e
a s k in g K i n g H e n r y V I I I t o c o n f i r m th e
c h a r t e r f o r C h i c h e s t e r C a t h e d r a l . B y th e
t i m e t h e w o r k w as p a in te d in 1 5 19 , th e
Q u a d ra ta w o u ld h a v e b e e n o b s o le te as a t e x t
h a n d , a p p e a rin g o n ly o c c a s io n a lly in b r u s h -
d ra w n f o r m . T h e artist has p ad d ed o u t th e te x t
o n th e to p lin e w ith a w k w a r d w o r d b reak s.
T h e in e le g a n c e o f th e s e b reak s is p ossib ly
e x a c e r b a te d b y th e r e q u ir e m e n t to p lace
th e w o r d " R e x ” a b o v e th e K in g ’s h ead .

The text on the booh

The split ascenders includes the alternative
and descenders have Gothic a, whichfeatures
been exaggerated, a double crossbar
particuarly on the through the
descender o f (he p

D e t a il f r o m P a i n t i n g in D o ttin g th e i a n d j
C h ic h e s t e r C a t h e d r a l
The characteristic uniformity o f the
T h e split a sc e n d e rs a n d d e s c e n d e rs are
p a rticu la rly d e v e lo p e d in this b r u s h -d r a w n Textura Quadrata letter produced
v e rs io n o f Q u a d r a ta , b u t th e y h a v e c a u se d an interesting innovation that remains
th e artist d ifficu lties - th e a sc e n d e rs o f le tte rs
d an d t clash w ith th e d e s c e n d e rs o f th e ps.
in use today. Having been easily
mistaken for other letters, the i was
Many strokes, such as those
distinguished from other letters by a
on the s. terminate with (lick (by the late 14th century, this had
hairlineflourishes
developed into a dot). The letter i also
evidence o f the scribe s
virtuosity .d .a ii.c .t i. doubled up as a j , acquiring a tail
when so used. This change, along with
The counter oj this large i . f g . t y i . k . the late medieval inclusion o f the w
Iersal P is used to display
the coat o f arms of the
d'Orgemont family
.w.o.p.Q.r.i.f. and the differentiation of v and u, gave
us our 26-letter modern alphabet.

G o t h ic a lph a bet
.p.ct.s. S crip t s ta tu s
The status o f a script is generally
T h is p ag e fro m a determined by the number of
ca le n d a r-, h y m n -, and K r .r jM
separate strokes and pen lifts used in
p ra y e r-b o o k b e lo n g in g
to G u illa u m e its creation, a distinction particularly
d ’O r g e m o n t d ates discernible in the Quadrata.
n o ftfi
f ro m a b o u t 1 3 8 6 . It
g iv e s us an a lm o s t
Generally, the m ore angular and
c o m p le te a lp h a b e t o f compressed the letters, the more
T e x t u r a Q u a d ra ta
letters, in c lu d in g tw o
(J u its strokes will have been used in their
v ersion s o f a, r, a n d s. construction. A useful indicator of
C lo s e e x a m in a tio n o f ct the status o f a script is the bowl o f
th e le tte rs su gg ests
the letter a, which can range from
that th e p en m a y h av e
b e e n c u t o b liq u e ly .
c rtu rn o a low-status, almost cursive form
T h is w o u ld e x p lain
th e r e la tiv e th ick n e ss (sec the Painting in Chichester
o f th e ste n t stro k e s, Cathedral, above) to a high-status,
c o m p a r e d t o th e
d ia g o n a l and
rigidly geom etric form (see the
d ia m o n d stro k e s. Gothic alphabet, left).
G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Textura Quadrata T h e bowl o f the

a can be more
rounded
HE ESSEN C E O F Quadrata is the formal, upright letter
T
th e

with strokes differing as little as possible from one another.

Curves are practically eliminated and the formality is only
broken by the use of hairlines. These include the skating strokes
that occur on letters a, e, and r, created by dragging the wet
ink with the corner of the nib. The Quadrata’s other distinctive
features are the split ascenders and the diamond feet on the
minims, applied with only a small space between each one.
B a s ic e le m e n ts
A “ slanted” pen
(sq u are-cu t nib) is • W T h e fin a l stroke

t
used fo r th e Q u a d ra ta . * o f the c can be
T h e pen is held at finished with
an angle o f b e tw e e n a hairline
3 5 ° and 4 5 ° fo r stem
strokes, adjusted to
a sh allo w er angle for
c o n n e c tin g strokes.
M in im h e ig h t is

b
g en erally a b o u t five
p en w idths. T h e
relatively large size
o f the letters m akes
th e use o f a reed
p en ideal.

f / Jo in the third stroke

t 1
2
o f the e to the stem
o f the minim

t i
D ra w in g a rig h t s e r if A d d in g a le ft s e r if
T h e ear of
T h e split ascen d er is draw n in tw o T h e p o in ted left s e rif sh ou ld b e a
the g could
strokes. B eg in the righ t se rif ab o v e the little sh o rter than th e righ t o n e . T u r n
be drawn as a
headline, pulling th e pen d o w n to the th e nib o n to its left c o r n e r and use
separate stroke
left to co m p lete the stem in o n e stroke. th e w e t ink fro m the p rev iou s stro k e.

T h e upward stroke
above the i and j can
T e x tu r a l effe ct be substituted fo r a
T o a ch iev e the ideal textu ral effect o f Q u ad rata, Inter-word space should f u ll diamond stroke
in n e r-le tte r spaces and in te r-le tte r spaces should he equal to about two
e a ch equal the w id th o f o n e stro k e. nib widths

52
 T e x t u r a Q uadrata

T h e cross stroke

t
4 o f the t can be
“ 1
finished with
a hairline

u r 3
M ake sure that
a small space is
left between the
^ two diamond
M ake sure I heads o f letters

m | .

6
* *
9
g that a small
space is left
bet ween
each foot
o f the m
I U
5 u and v

n
M ake sure
4
that small
$ spaces are

m left between
the three
diamond
heads o f
the \v

Drag the tail o f the

o .71 f
x with the wet ink
o f the second stroke

P
>i A

1 D rag the ink

with the comer
o f the nib to
£ t t

complete the
split serifs at
T h e hairline diagonal
the feet o f
o f the z can be drawn
letters p and q

■Q
as a separate stroke

r Skate the hairline

o f the r with the
corner o f the nib

01 O -r
lig a tu r e
T h e right-hand /
T he half r
can be used
to follow a
right-hand
bow

bow o f the p can

5 Skate the
iC
J
be jo ined with

3
hairline o f the s
the left-hand
g with the comer
* o f the nib

I bow o f the e

C o n jo in e d p a n d e

53
 T e x t u r a P r e s c is u s

Textura Prescisus
Prestissa, Black
se o f t h e T e x t u r a P r e s c i s u s ( Textualis
U Letter) paralleled that o f the Quadrata (pp. 50—51), both
in its duration as a bookhand and in the development o f its
textural style. The two scripts even used the same Capitals
and Versals (pp. 58 5 9 ). The chief difference between them is
indicated by the adjunct to the Prescisus’s name, vel sine pedibus,
T e x t u r a P re s c is u s m
which translates as “with its feet cut o ff”. This refers to the T he square-elided
T h e flat fe e t o f th e
Prescisus feet contrast
P re scisu s a re th e sc rip t’s
square-ended bases o f the minims and descenders in the hand. with the diamond feet
o f the Quadrata m o s t c h a ra c te r is tic fe a tu re .

T h e W in d m il l P s a l t e r
T h e W in d m ill P s a lte r w a s w r itte n in E n g la n d in a b o u t
1 2 9 0 . In this fo lio fro m T h e J u d g e m e n t o f S o l o m o n , th e
imimoamiccm
lit i i> a aatM aV iV tii B o t h t h f . Q and the
it a d r a t a

Prescisus evolved from the EarlvJ

fine filig ree w o r k is d o n e w ith a sh arp ly p o in te d q u ill. T h e jrtommtquiatun Gothic script (pp. 4 6 —4 7 ) and date
(mimbcfmmrmel
steep p e n a n g le used f o r th e t e x t p r o d u c e s ty p ica lly a n g u la r
letters w ith s tr o n g d ia m o n d h ead s a n d n a r r o w m in im from the end o f the 12th century.
stro k es. S tr o k e w id th a n d i n n e r - l e t t e r s p a cin g a re eq u al.
liairigmsmfpime Palaeographers are uncertain which of
the two came first. It is possible that
imaitint&ftimm( the Prescisus originated in southern
m ’ y 4
[mpttlftioaicrftioft
pocopue commquiOftraljuntT nntifftifccpirtne4
England and spread to France, where
scribes were inspired to develop the
ttiidiicipuOOommumrtqtii Io m n ito m m iim o Quadrata. The arrival o f the Prescisus
^ fliim ir m d ld a o u c rfu e d iim u m i* was most likclv the result of a creative
leettiicbitnfaittti J

jmemiEESSSE burst from a calligraphic virtuoso.

Q t t u p o m m r O o m m c fa rm ra l <2
OTitanomecrfa But, whatever its origins, the script

ptoptrrnoftirntuumrquuifuduio, cullsttifbmm-H rapidly became a more prestigious

bookhand than the Early Gothic.
4
cihmfmcoididtud A p r e c is e h a n d
gibnumcquid cgnuistpdii As a script, the Prescisus was a
tour de force. It was as precise as its
p tftjg o f u im t f o t m c u m corttm iw
name suggests and scribes needed a
^tiini cUmtrd T h e O r m e sb y P sa lter
T h e O r m e s b y P s a lte r, w r itte n in particular dexterity to use a “slanted”
0 laitumbidami Ocdimrtdbld E a s t A n g lia in a b o u t 1 3 0 0 , re v e a ls a
m o r e re la x e d f o r m o f P re scisu s th an
pen to produce the artificially
tiiofum:t crailFuefumfirutIo th a t u se d in th e L u ttre ll P salter. constructed feet that imitated the
work o f a “straight” pen (pp. 56—57).
T he L u t t r e l l Psa lter
The length o f time it took to write
•©aiudincdmfirmmaftmtdif T h e L u ttre ll P s a lte r, w r itte n f o r a
w e a lth y L in c o ln s h ir e la n d o w n e r in the script meant that it could be used
a b o u t 13 2 5 - 3 5 , is Prescisus w ritin g at
its finest. T h e lines o f t e x t a re u n ifo rm
only for large, prestigious books.
a n d c o n d e n s e d , e a c h s tr o k e n e a t a n d Use started to decline during the late
p r e c is e . T h e t h ic k e n in g o f m in im s
to w a rd s th e ir base m a y in d ic a te a
Gothic period, and the introduction
tw is tin g o f th e p e n (p p . 5 6 - 5 7 ). o f printing saw its final demise.

The h a lf r is used when The diamond heads o f minims arc D eta il f r o m t h e

follow ing a curved stroke /% characteristic o f both
o f both
Textura
Textura
scripts
scripts % LUTTRELL
L u it r e l l PSALTER
Ps a l t e r

pioptcrnonmi fuunuqutd fua

 G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Textura Prescisus

T
between the Quadrata and Prescisus
HE PRIN CIPA L D IF F E R E N C E

is the latter’s absence of diamond feet on letters a ,f, h, i, k, I,

a D rag the ink with the
comer o f the nib to
complete the fo ot o f the a

b
m, n, r, t, and u. The split ascenders on b, h, k, and I are reduced
or flat-headed (square-ended) and, in the extreme form of the
0

i
T h e split serif o f the b
script, letters a, c, d, and e are even deprived of a baseline stroke. can be replaced with
Prescisus has a more clearly delineated base than the Quadrata and the flat-headed type ^
interlinear spacing is approximately equal to the minim height.

c
T h e Quadrata foot
is diamond-shaped

C o m m o n e le m e n ts
T h e Q u ad rata and Prescisus h av e a
T h e Prescisus foot
is square-ended

ap p ro x im a te ly five p en w id th s and
b o th are w ritten w ith a “ slan ted”
b
e
n u m b e r o f elem en ts in c o m m o n . p en (sq u a re -c u t n ib ). A pen angle o f
B o th have a m in im h eig h t o f 4 5 ° is usual fo r b o th T e x tu r a scripts.
The hairline of
Outline Twist
7 the pen Twist from the e should touch

t
the foot by 4 5 ° at the bottom \ the top of the main stroke
o f the stem \ the stem

drawing along H
\ oj
=\
F ille d f e e t
the baseline
and up to join
P e n tw is t
H p ri- f o Drag the ink with the
3
Omit the cross
stroke to use
T o m ake th e square A se c o n d m e th o d I cor
comer o f the nib to
the stem WzrCCL
fo o t, draw th e stem at in v o lves tw istin g the this letter as
complete the fo ot o f the f
an angle o f 4 5 ° , then p en fro m 4 5 ° to the a longs
add th e o u tlin e o f the h o rizon tal in a sh ort,
I •
fo o t by drag gin g the swift m o v e m e n t (above).
ink w ith th e co r n e r A ltern ativ ely , begin / Numerous tools are suitable
o f the nib. T h is is tw istin g at th e to p o f fo r writing Prescisus letters,
then filled in w ith ink. the stem (above right). . The sixth and
including the reed pen
* seventh strokes

8 s
I . o f the g can be
X combined

Use the comer

D rag the ink with

fr
o f the nib to
the comer o f the
complete the split
nib to complete the
^ ^ ascender o f the h
square feet o f the h [

'" * ——
F l a t - h e a d e d s e rifs Alternatively, afull
nib b efo re filling it in w ith ink (above
Like th e square feet, th e flat-h ead ed left). A ltern ativ ely , add th e se rif by
J 2 diamond can be used
to dot the i and)
serifs are cre a te d artificially w ith a tw isting the pen dow nw ards fro m the
“ slanted” p en . O n e m e th o d is to ho rizo n tal o f th e ascen d er line to the
outline the serif w ith the c o m e r o f the 4 5 ° angle o f th e stem stro k e (above).

56 ' “
 T e x t u r a P r e s c is u s

k I
.'a
Complete the
split serif o f
the k with the
comer o f the nib t
T h e 1 could alternatively Leave spaces

I feature an elongated
diamond foot
U 3 between the
heads o f u, v,
w , and y

J ^ J
m " 3 ----------------

m m 4 6
I n:

n nt
.4 7

UJ f
4
N
Pull out the tail

0 rtr J t" I
o f the x u^t/i (fee
comer o/- the nib

77ie y should be

p II
dotted with afu ll

P
diamond stroke

t?
a
The hairline

T i stroke o f the z can

6e thickened by
twisting the pen

i?
T
T h e fin a l hairline
stroke o f the r
i'j a useful space filler
2

a o f P r e s c is u s
In this extreme form of
Prescisus, letters lose
their baseline strokes

Letters d and o are among the

k bowed Prescisus letters that

can be easily conjoined

T w o fo rm s o f h a lf r C o n jo in e d d a n d o

57
G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Gothic Capitals & Versals

h e betw een G othic Capitals and
p r in c ip a l d if f e r e n c e Exuberant flourishes o f this

T Versals lies in their construction: Gothic Capitals are written

with single strokes, whereas Versals are com posed o f several
hind are limited to opening
letters or letters on the top
line of a page o f text

built-up strokes. A Versal is a single initial letter, drawn larger G o t h i c C a p it a l P

than the te x t script and used to indicate a title, chapter, or D e c o r a tiv e d iag o n al
stro k e s a n d hairlines
paragraph opening. The size o f the Versal and the amount o f gold r e d u c e th e a m o u n t
o f w h ite sp a ce in th e
and colour used to decorate it is directly proportional to the l e tte r ’s c o u n t e r and
e n h a n c e its statu s in
perceived status o f the initial within the tex t. Although less a p ag e o f te x t. In this
impressive than Versals, the G othic Capital is far from plain, P , th e th ick diagonal
is c o m p l e m e n t e d
with elaboration in the form o f hairline verticals and diagonals. b y h airlin es a b o v e
a n d b e lo w it.

I t m s i n G o t h i c text that capital

and minuscule letters of the same
hand first appeared together. Gothic
Capitals, which used the same ductus
as the minuscules (pp. 50—5 7 ), were
used within tex t script to begin a
sentence or denote a proper noun.
In important sentences or verses,
G othic Capitals were frequently
usurped by Versals. In its simplest
form , a Versal can be an outline
letter filled with a splash o f colour.
In more sophisticated form s, it can
be historiated (see the W inchester
Bible, p. 4 6 ), zoomorphic (see the
Book o f Kells, pp. 2 8 - 2 9 ) , or
floriated (see the Book o f Hours,
p. 84). Alternatively, the decoration
can be abstract, with spirals, frets,
and interlaced knots (see the
Lindisfarne Gospels* pp. 30—31).

Rounded bulges have been added to the

stems to give extra emphasis to the letter

The counter o f each letter has been decorated

with vertical and diagonal hairlines

Sa m ple a lph a bet

T w o sets o f G o th ic C a p itals h a v e b e e n d ra w n
o n th is i n c o m p l e t e sa m p le a lp h a b e t, w h i c h
dates fro m a b o u t 1 4 0 0 . A lth o u g h th e letters are
n o t th e finest e x a m p le s o f G o th ic C ap itals, e a ch
s tr o k e is c le a r ly s h o w n , m a k in g t h e m u sefu l
m o d e ls f o r th e m o d e r n c a llig ra p h e r to f o llo w .
N o t e h o w th e scrib e has cr e a te d e x tra w e ig h t o n
s o m e b o w e d le tte r s b y a d d in g a n e x t r a s tr o k e .

58
 G o t h i c C a p i t a l s Sc Ve r s a l s

T h e S t . V a a s t B ib l e
W r itte n in n o rth e rn F ra n c e
in th e e a rly 1 1 th c e n tu r y ,
th e S t. V aast B ib le is a
p r o d u c t o f th e F r a n c o -
S a x o n sc h o o l, w h ic h had
b e e n p r o d u c in g b o o k s
o f th e h ig h e s t o r d e r sin ce
th e m id -n in th c e n tu r y . A t
first g la n ce , th e m a n u scrip t
lo o k s a h e a d o f its t i m e ,
s o s o p h is tic a te d is th e
p a g e d esign . H o w e v e r , th e
plait a n d k n o t d e c o r a tio n
a r o u n d th e V ersal b e tra y s
th e m a n u s c r ip t’s S a x o n
p e d i g r e e (p p . 2 8 —3 1 ) .

The suggestion o f a bracketed

serif shows that these capitals
were modelled on Imperial
letters!pp. 108 1 09;
C V S SIT U Al.FX7\ND'<rRI’hl
In this Versal, the initial letters
i iit im actH — I K > q Y T r K l M < .R
E and T have been combined
^RI 6N A U #|||[r IN G R EC IA ^ (this combination is the origin
of our modern ampersand)
E to R E S S V ^ ^ ! O F TERRA CETH
IMHARIVM-RC S im p l e V e r s a l s
g em persa rv m
•T « » ( u a «• *«». T h e s e V ersals m a y b e
t » it K .« m m vLW
o n .n v iT lO !v e S 4 ' f >Nn ‘ by th e scrib e responsible
r « * T M « r» M » » * < * * f o r th e s a m p le a lp h a b e t
C tp iT S P o liA cm rlT l l ' i (opposite). T h e y h a v e b e e n
■*ix^Atwwnp/«Ttf l . ' l \
fre e ly p e n n e d , w ith
th e le tte rs d r a w n first
a n d th e d e c o r a t i o n
a d d e d a f te rw a r d s .
M odels J o r Versals
Over the centuries, Versals have been
modelled on a variety o f letterforms.
During the G othic period, they
were generally based on Lombardic
Capitals (pp. 6 2 —6 3 ). In both the
Caroline and the Renaissance eras,
Imperial Capitals were often used as
models (pp. 108 109). Possibly the
most ornate Versals ever drawn were
those in the de luxe Northumbrian
manuscripts o f the early medieval
period (pp. 28—3 1 ). These were
derived from Roman, Greek,
and runic models.
Cadels
The other significant model for
Versals was the Bastard Capital
(pp. 78—79). Enlarged and embellished
by a series o f interlacing strokes, this Fa tte r n boo k
D e sig n s f o r V ersals w e r e c h o s e n b y
type o f Versal is known as a Cadel th e p a tr o n fro m p a tte r n b o o k s su ch as
(pp. 8 0 -8 1 ). Cadels were later revived th is o n e fro m th e 1 2 th c e n t u r y . T h is
p ag e sh o w s a final w o r k in g p a tte r n , in
for use with Italic (pp. 9 4 —95) and w h ic h th e in te r tw in in g ste m s h a v e
Copperplate (pp. 102—103) scripts. b e e n a c c u r a te ly w o r k e d o u t.

59
 G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Gothic Capitals
C the same ductus as the minuscules
G
o t h ic a p it a l s u s e

(pp. 52—53, 56—57) and are written with the same “slanted”
pen. However, the capitals have a wider, rounder aspect than the
rigidly formal minuscules, and the two forms contrast strikingly
when used together. The number of calligraphic flourishes in
each Gothic Capital make it an unsuitable script for writing a The bowl
whole word or a full page of text. For this, Lombardic Capitals o f the B can
be strengthened with
provide a less flamboyant alternative (pp. 64—65). an additional stroke

F or the serif of
the C , twist
the nib anti­
clockwise and
drag the ink
downwards

strengthened with an

L e tte r h e ig h t
T h e letter height o f the G o th ic Capital
is app roxim ately seven pen w idths, tw o
h ig h er than th e m in u scu le h eig h t.

H a ir lin e s
T h e in n e r-le tte r sp ace is red u ced by A lte r n a tiv e D
the use o f hairlines, draw n w ith the
c o m e r o f th e nib. T h e r e are usually
o n e o r tw o v ertical hairlines, and a T h e curve o f
single diagonal hairline o n either side the E can be
o f a th ick e r diagonal stroke. strengthened
with an
additional
stroke

The pointed
the bulges by beaks o f the

4B
weaving the hackles are drawn
pen in a single with a jagged
downward downward stroke

A lte r n a tiv e E

B u l g e s a n d h a c k le s
Use a pen angle of
T h e v ertical strokes o f
about 3 5 0 to draw
G o th ic C apitals can be
the spiky hackles
g iv e n add ition al w eig h t
an d in te re st in th e fo rm
o f bulges o r hackles, w h ich
p ro tru d e to th e left o f the To draw the
stem . U se only o n e o r the serif o f the G,
o th e r an d alw ays m ak e twist the nib
th em consistent. G enerally, anti-clockwise
calligraphers add th ree and drag
bulges o r hackles. the ink
downwards

60
 G o t h i c C a p it a l s

T h e curve o f T h e bowl o f
the H can be the R can be
strengthened trettgthened
with an with an
Finish the
additional additional
H with a
stroke stroke
hairline curl

The sixth
stroke o f the
J could be
drawn from
right to left,
finishing
with the
hairline curl

T h e bowl o f the T can

be strengthened with an
additional stroke

T h e foot o f the L
can be adapted to
jo in on to the
following letter

^ T h e curve o f
the V can be
strengthened
with an
additional
stroke

T h e curve o f
the N can be
strengthened
with an
additional T h e curve o f
stroke the W can be
Finish the (, strengthened with
N with a an additional stroke
hairline curl 4 T h e bowl o f the
or Q can be
strengthened
with an
additional
stroke

Pull the tail

o f the Y
below the
baseline

A lte rn a tiv e O a n d Q

T h e bowl o f
the P can be
strengthened
with an
additional
stroke

61
G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Lombardic Capitals
L o m b a r d ic CAPITAL is a bu ilt-u p le tte r ch aracterized
A bv
J
cu rv ed stem s and d istin ctiv e m o n o lin e serifs.
Unlike Gothic Capitals (pp. 5 8 —5 9 ), Lombardic letters
worked well in sequence and so were used for whole
words and phrases. They were successful both in penned
form as display capitals and carved form for monumental
work. The script was increasingly prevalent by the mid-
The letter M can
1 1th century, and finally ousted by the Humanist Capital alternatively adhere to

in the 16th century (pp. 98—99). However, it enjoyed a L o m b a r d i c : C a p it a l M a baseline cross stroke,
A s q u a r e - c u t n ib is used to making the right-hand
resurgence, particularly as a monumental letter, during d ra w L o m b a r d ic C a p ita ls, stroke a mirror image
w ith th e p e n h eld c lo s e to o f the left-hand one
the 19th-century Gothic revival in England, under the th e h o r iz o n ta l (p p . 6 4 - 6 5 ) . ('pp. 6 4 65)

influence o f the architect and designer A.W.N. Pugin.

T h I RI among
IS A R E L U C T A N C E Dot s are used on

some authorities to use the adjective ,hc le"er N,'°

give the strokes
“Lombardic in relation to this exlra weight
script, because the letters have little
specifically to do with the northern
Italian region o f Lombardy. However,
over the centuries, the term has
been widely used and accepted by
calligraphers, typographers, and
lettcrers, and has come to represent
the particular combination o f Imperial
and Uncial elements that make up this
distinctive hand o f capital letters.
A s im p lifie d I m p e r i a l
Lombardic Capitals can be seen as
simplified, pen-drawn versions o f the
Roman Imperial Capital. The multiple
strokes o f the Imperial (pp. 110 119)
are reduced to a minimum, producing
a letter that is relatively easy to execute
(pp. 6 4 -6 5 ) . The Lombardic script The text is
usually includes Uncial forms o f written m a
J
A, D, E, M, and T (pp. 2 4 —25).
__ very fin e harly
Goihicscnpt
(pp. 4 6 47>
- i \ T i n o .i n q u m n v m q u m r a T n e n t i r .c u m
nEESKIK
c a n

T h e W i n c h e s t e r B ib l e c a p a u a m m u p x a flu u iu m c b o b a rw ip c rn fu n c
T h e V isio n o f E z e k ie l, f ro m th e W i n c h e s t e r
B ib le (]>p. 4 6 - 4 7 ) , in c lu d e s a series o f m e tic u lo u s ly cra fte d u ifio n c f d a l n q u m m m c n f i f .i p f o c j b
L o m b a r d ic C a p ita ls. In c o m m o n w ith o t h e r w o rk s f ro m th e
m i d - 1 2 th c e n tu r y , th e s c rib e has s h o w n little c o n c e r n a b o u t a m m r q u in u ir a a n T f n ig r a n o n if T tq if lo a c h im •'
b re a k in g w o rd s at th e e n d o f a lin e: f o r in s ta n c e , “ I N C I P I T
E Z E C H I E L " read s “ I N C 1 P 1 T : E Z E / C H I E L " . In th e illu m in a te d f a f tn m c f tu e r b u m d m a d o e c b ic L f tU u b u z i
in itial, E ze k ie l is d e p ic te d d r e a m in g b y th e R i v e r C h o b a r . T h e
fa c c T d o ra n -iT ic c rra c b a ld c a u n n tc c x if f L im c n
f o u r in te r lo c k in g w h e e ls are sy m b o lic o f th e fo u r E v a n g e lists.

62
 L o m b a r d i c C a p it a l s

In this early example These display letters read: “IN NM DNI T h e G ellon e S a c ra m en ta ry
o f a historiated Versal N R IIH U PS INCPT LIB SACRAMTR’’. In th e title le tte rs o f this e i g h t h - c e n t u r y t e x t
fpp. 58 S 9), the Virgin This is an abbreviation of: “IN NOMINE fo r C h r is tm a s E v e M a ss, p r o d u c e d in n o rth e rn
is shown in the form DOMINI N O STR IJE SU CHRISTI. F r a n c e , w e c a n d is ce rn th e c r u d e b e g in n in g s
o f a capital letter I INCIPIT LIBER SACRA MATRIS” o f L o m b a r d ic C a p ita ls. T h e sc rib e has used
Im p e ria l C a p ita ls as his m o d e ls , d ra w in g th e
o u tlin e o f e a ch le tte r in a sin g le stro k e w ith a
n a r r o w p e n n ib . In th e first th r e e lines, letters
fe a tu re in te rn a l d e c o r a tio n . T h e w o rd s o f th e
title h a v e b e e n co n s id e ra b ly a b b re v ia te d . O n
th e s e c o n d lin e th e a b b re v ia tio n o f “ D O M I N I "
as “ D N I " has b e e n in d ic a te d w ith a m e m ia id
in stead o f w ith th e tra d itio n a l h o riz o n ta l stro k e .

B u ilt -u p le tte r s
Unlike most other capital scripts
included in this book, the Lombardic
letter is not the product o f a natural
movement o f the hand. While each
basic component o f the Gothic-
Capital, for instance, is made
from a single stroke (pp. 6 0 -6 1 ) ,
a Lombardic component is built
up from several composite strokes.
The sides of the stems curve inwards,
usually drawn with the pen held
horizontally. The monoline serifs
are also the product o f the horizontal
pen; they are generally slightly
concave and are not bracketed
to the main stem as they are in
the Roman Imperial Capital.
E m b e llis h m e n ts
The Lombardic Capital forms the
basis for many Versals (pp. 58—5 9 ),
and the amount o f embellishment
and decoration is limited onlv J
bvJ

the scribe’s imagination (p. 64).

However, the stone-cut Lombardic
letterform is often modified as a
result o f the nature o f the surface -
for instance, the fine serifs are either
thickened or omitted altogether.
The Lombardic has been used
extensively on other surfaces:
textiles, metals, glass, and ceramics.

Below the title capitals, the chapter

opening has been written in rubricated
Uncial letters (pp. 2 4 252

Below the chapter opening, the text

script has been penned in a Half
Uncial hand (pp. 38 392,
recognizable by its upright aspect

63
G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Lombardic Capitals

T
precedent for a full set of Lombardic
h e r e is n o h i s t o r i c a l

Capitals and those shown here have been compiled from a

a E ither o f these
variety of sources. Unlike Gothic Capitals (pp. 60—61), they are two form s o f A
can be used
used for writing complete words and phrases and so consistency
is of great importance. Concentrate on making the weight of
stroke, the level of compression or expansion, and the serif
construction exactlv the same in each letter you draw.
U n c ia l
T h e concave line o f the fo rm o f A

T> 3f¥ V' 0

serifs can tenninate at
each end with a
decorative blob

13 1Hi 1 M
-------- *
’

W a iste d ste m s
W a isted stem s can b e cre a te d by o v erlap p in g tw o b ro ad ,
cu rv e d v ertical strokes and th en ad d in g the hairline
horizon tals at th e to p and b o tto m (above left). A m o re
precise m e th o d is to d raw th e w h o le o u tlin e w ith a
Use a narrow
pen nib to add
the decorative
blobs at the end
o f the serifs
C
n a rro w nib and th en fill it in w ith ink (above centre).

T>
R o u n d e d le tte r s
D efin e th e form o f Outer circle Inner circle
rou nded letters by
d raw in g eith er the U n c ia l Either o f these two
o u te r o r in n er circle fo rm o f D form s o f D can be used
first. T h e latter o ften

0
D
proves m o re practical
(see letter O , opposite).

E x p a n d e d and
c o m p r e s s e d le t t e r s
T o regu late th e ch osen
level o f exp an sio n o r
co m p ressio n , use the
spaces en clo sed w ithin
ch a ra cters as guides.
C o m p ressed letters
have sh o rter serifs than
exp an d ed letters. B o w s
can be fully rou n d ed
E xp a n d ed letter
k-
Compressed letter
G
o r p o in ted .

Basic form
o f letter

Caseline
and
shadow
D is p la y c a p i ta l s
S in ce the 12 th ce n tu ry ,
th e L o m b a rd ic C apital
has o ften b een heavily
elab o rated w h e n used
F I7

as a display capital.
D e c o ra tio n can range

G
Floral fro m sim ple additional
decoration caselines to c o m p le x
illustrations that are
gilded and in c o lo u r.

64
 L o m b a r d i c C a p it a l s

n
s
€
L O
This

W V
Lombardic V
is a modern
constmction

I? a>
T T h 's Lombardic W is <1
modem construction

O X
J?
a z
-*• 5,

J7

65
G o t h ic S c r ip t s

The top loop of the w

Bastard Secretary should not exceed

minim height

a manuscript hand has becom e,

is t o r ic a l l y , t h e m o r e f o r m a l

H the greater has been the need for a functional cursive script to
complem ent it. Just as the Insular Majuscule spawned the Insular
Minuscule in the eighth century (pp. 2 8 —3 7 ) , so the prestige
Tcxturas of the 13th century (pp. 50—57) gave rise to parallel hands
for the less prestigious work o f the day. A scries of complementary
cursive scripts evolved both regionally and nationally, quickly
developing into fully fledged hands in their own right. They are
classified under the generic title o f “bastard” (bastarda) scripts, B a s ta rd S e c r e ta r y w
T h e w r e a c h e s a s c e n d e r h e ig h t
the term denoting a mixed cursive and Textura parentage. an d is id e n tica l in b o th
m in u s c u le an d ca p ita l fo rm .

The cursive script (pp. 34—35) The illuminated border and ,« /^•ts'- V jjEN
' * ® i Ipro/»cnjiiini'^
Versal are characteristic o f
had p ro bably b ee n re d isco v e red fo r ’***
I Sth-century English
d o cu m en tary use in England tow ard s manuscript work . K)cpro(;auc of jn GooP pflt-ftj cfqj^TCMMrourtf
the end of the 12th century. Although i l f nnttfp f^ptnflint -t orttiam f t t o fh n t:

speed w as th e m o st im p o rta n t
co n sid era tio n , th e s c rip t w as also
designed to im press, as the loops and
linking le tte rs testify. T h e F ren ch
fo rm o f cu rsiv e,7 called S e cre ta ryJ
o r C han cery , w as in tro d u ced in to
England and G e rm a n y at th e end
o f th e 14 th ccn tu rvJ . W h e n T e xtu ra
features w ere in co rp o rated , it becam e
know n as Bastard Secretary in English,
B atard e in F re n ch (pp. 70-71).
M e d it a t io n s o n
tht. L it f. o f C h r is t
T h is m a n u s c r ip t p a g e
sh o w s th e tran slatio n * A \n»
in to M id d le E n glish
b y N ic h o la s L o w e o f
a p o p u lar 13 th -c e n tu r y
L a tin w o r k a ttrib u te d
to S t. B o n a v e n tu r a .
O n e o f 4 9 v e rs io n s
o f th e t e x t k n o w n to
e x is t, it d a te s fro m
about 1 4 5 0 . T h e
sc rip t in c lu d e s th e
A n g lo - S a x o n th o r n
sig n , a c h a r a c te r th a t
r e se m b le s a y a n d
rep resen ts a “ th ” so u n d
(p p . 6 8 - 6 9 ) . T h is sign
re m a in e d in use u n til p ) ' * f r * tmUwtx opftplf rttttf tin? cou w m p latif fo n je v f l« ;u ( f t toff-
th e 16 th c e n tu r y . 4 i y / 'c *
i <o> ( k «t\ * Ht ',c f i ^ n h v t '^ vtU im iM if y clt u- v u v n v fic n ? *^
The Anglo-Saxon thorn
sign has been used
throughout the text .
et
« u r f pfififlm fofcfHconcm fpcftcdmji
L^STomftnOAy v r? oRcfc ficupc ofyc
The downward flick from Xn«r SorttwrHiiS
nfR nttfvcrfbietixtMttJ
the ascenders is known as
^ BBaB=—aieaMiafliiif^uJ^?i«fejh>nt|pfntl(rtin Dcpeoftfic 0ft ;v
an “elephant's trunk" _ Tpfpit it' tc wmc in dn otftrr .W fordftbrnutftc; ■>r®fr
| nf pijKd pnopefti rumofioi attf fh-fii5T«» V'6(fac m manyjt n fan
The feet of the
minims turn upwards -
fi<citmcit6cv'f^rtfto(htn^'C,T)d— — ........................... ^
IvdttJptrtfc^iSs dfbrtfti’9 to ffttd cnmrt fcputar.udt dfiM tiir
)’:ltftcat<3>nfm tn'ftofttftirrftc ditffrcndf; ^mnvPejStftjr
m^c feGcn^trftM toom-c Dxirc )'itCyuanci^xJitimmfe.-tuffto
(It f^mtKd W fidnc [)ap< pflttftofttv ofrfc G-f .*hn>0ftni’ fdt idto co
mut in aiiotGcr^n^ftcrtod<o:9i»iis« •fpt’f o fl«fhnKl«id4?(®
•5»CdfmKtoofman dtiS m firm ftc fitfBt^: )».•»Cw&fictvmtinfrfi SFm
The horizontal stroke over
of
nudS irtf9)'*cruc man _<i9y o mc&i'ritic te fc ntucdd ytitfttt uiBj'
notGc vc id no.virSc ftxc ydt ftit indy ftc y ficft# pvrdfttfe
the ampersand denotes the iiittk*nc|lv: t>f font <fcr te nofonctrft Cote yntCtt mar ftc GcicS
abbreviation of a word 1'0lX»ftfn;d ' .incncc flflDniflfucGot«)*dt Ttir mAp tbw&ilfuictyi
—uox i\i^mon:oticr|tcnd no fVimc c;\Vrffe?ncn'c ftofc )>dtifC/WtlPUktii
tttt*Gc fcpf- fro vc<5lpirl}c ftyG^T knep faftfblc&y
Oftftdtnidi:» » » goScf [one ftf’tu (il^
to/Vd mto cnfdmttpft ofpxQtimfnee fBjcrfiuc mo^K: ftodic men T
d^tmttcn rtufaiiciyddc dn^cnciT^idnrtcof tftid Qfcifeid/hn^hJ
6«tic ftopcof CHtaftrn$r ft'ffi: ftti9 fntftitiftqKdi/9(f?idCtitr»rtCA^ftofi’
lr,,K V** t yu,u u v • i and
- ytfa
>........- j/m ftcn ^htcnSWTp: ftov’fedrtn^tivttco of Sciioiitctncn not
‘v>nW c ^cr&O mPdtrnc* Gate dJftotn ensfypffto fcCfe^c/iicti I f c i
5 k c L rtuf
n u f-N
i itrt
n v afcn
( i iiT
x xk
& .V? v
vfc*
fk Afxv< n o r vno<$ m $ -it mf mO CjcmpAtGcen o f rptttpPc SnjTtgciVtiflerltotSrJc Anioii^tQe
W * N • pcLV CMV fttK <Shy w Rnx (vsrtc tin? lure ttifttttf
•tS# C0t^(ftc01tcfft^tTttii 9 :noirtc mcSrffl^itiicd of cfh» f^f niOfCffomm
•umuTtvtWionc -Sthy(jire. tbwuo® rt? toMclinpj »v ceixerti pflrtfed ydti idcyp)Tcf m vc£»f4>cf(cofrf|c fbttrccithdcftlttS.'aiS1
« c u h m u £ rtu? tenting oiuU to ye e*S«tc crutcimjfAtvSu'op
iR u tlf It l e ji v t t ljv tm «m ? vps-i
tp ft* u if f ttd c .u o t \ x v y c»v u $ (m e Ufa
•u uuu con bttio u <>f .J * o n u n I n w fe n c d u f COfferavu yiir
\f o m tp icb ^ t u r f l m .Tm f U ftfd fir tC n o t ix p w u ctM m
...ft ^ c o m e iu v fa n f fijV y e iiffic -fin v c t c u f v t K t ’k
'fttuffc fijfc Hifi COlltfuu’ fUttffc
V y jc t u S rv u e-'ifvc* (SjJoibc ayftw u H rtu$
fhsd rw tie T o fi m « u rtttb ? o tw u t< i-5 ic ft« u .' '• '0 f
S e n v n tfu tp ftu £ c n V e y u n iB n c i (ifef of H\f
tiuuucu. yilt if 'Of-iL AUtflift An? coK'.n V- * m ii at
L>(rtt\f ( i f t . ^ f 'y t ^ R 'l f f j c v f c v tn rtn y tK tf
^ , n tttiffiv w pn>cvff5 m i t e o r d n ijc Sortom w
(< fo « p ib c £ o u a \ tc m m « m - v i f t b f c of c' n fa f & f t
ftfoufc ptxvcffc afc e jn iw mnuv a m t o n t t m f coni-^nwV
c(v piowrti » n l ! n y in u itfU t nubfiuiuicdf
t to m nnv fiucve*: ueu'yc f k fit it R m w tic mftuwnt
gvew »t»c to m an * ton tunc pfouct Hu? pmpU fonCco\Y<
r< lit O ijlifffi i t tfv tten to at*' n. It (Xi$* oftc \<v|bf0
. . : pftfflu oticv tiltin g \ cf \rtt <Kmcy MofttilGfi fllt?«
t'ipdlhfc tv oiiix jfofs tit yt(. tv m t. 4fTHiu<ftv f ;t if- toyttfw K a n e m e d ie v a l m a n u s c r i p t
/ t fltUibe \*t»t vy ptwcffc o f ye w uau cnU tvc.of'ycf>' bS«vo
D a tin g f r o m a b o u t 1 4 3 0 , th is e a rlie r tra n sla tio n o f S t. B o n a v e n tu r a ’s
ttetul rfSwcf rto(vnc ptxDltot p tx tfv in xb tlnVtodyottft.jH^ M editations on the L ife o f C hrist is also th e w o r k o f N ic h o la s L o w e . In this
/ X c x y u tfitt liilY tvS<yti p n c f . / { * u y \c LiU-t i i yttrtu iiucn v e rs io n , th e s c rib e has m a d e u se o f b o th th e A n g lo -S a x o n th o r n sign and
ftt WftiKk atutim i^C vfiiK fR
c tx m t^ u H y (ovocyte (j-f.ovV:nerfiti} i-oft c .vatvftofcr» th e m o d e r n th f o r w r itin g th e w o r d “ t h e ” . N o t i c e also th e serifs a t th e feet
Pmg of fiuu 0•.tnbpAtvtif
o f th e m in im s , w h ic h a re tu r n e d u p w a rd s a n d n o t b ro k e n as th e y a re in
th e B a sta rd S e c re ta r y o f th e A d a m a n d E v e t e x t (opposite).

66
 B asta rd S ecretary

F ren ch a n d G erm a n f e a t u r e s
m
■* ' - f . There are certain features that
help identify a bastard script by
its nationality. The French form,
_ je T i c £ u « to cjtt.-m p loTS V
for instance, is m ost distinctive
' k it w j^ .^ o f o c w p g i f t S j j c ox c lf c e u ]
for the calligraphic feast made of
s C tp n v o fi(jc f « 4 m t t 6 t j © $ ^ v c t f i w 7T O ®
thef and long form o f s (pp. 7 0 -7 1 ).
tfi<tnne J'ctS«<9® m w W a t « tu $ i t t
Early German cursive scripts were
a^be, fits ^evctTk)>S^) it &> ^ n u o x f r t i ^ n o t B
characterized by bold, expanded
j^ S J ^ t w t o S t e a m : XXXV w © « « f l ttia p
minims and tall ascenders and
fe^ n xc W>&rtT> ffo ttv« f W o f i t t ® ffo
descenders. W hen they were
o f (yut itu tu y clco f> t W fi*/tn «ty f o t o c te t o U ^ 3 l O
contaminated with Textura features
- t y s S & tt £ tf ie o t t t c it«S%r ; c t c « o tM tttfito p c fp l$e
at the end o f the 1 5th century, the
ttfk tfie w^ittta,S^6 - f n tiW c n u £ o f -tr n _
? c Fraktur and Schwabacher hands
<u± i n t t t e o u t t t w ) fa tfe <3?tw
em erged, featuring “broken”
Gwfie tw ttw w jo- t^pr « m te lM > tjd» fo s u ta fc jo tt ’#
letterform s (pp. 74—75).
Lsm J«nt(os ^ o w rt J tn W f r w im *
E n g lish c h a r a c t e r is t ic s
foUtS*Att-mv ffcflfW y<xX itf'to
In English models, it is the letter tv
t t &> f j isfi^tfe fte® t t t j m « < ^ « n ffefftW - ^ t t rtftjc
<&c awV S c tfa Q b c f f P f a t o tjm <r < tn 8 t i e f^ n tt- 0 , .
that attracts the most attention - the
$ c ttogCft t o fetft® ‘S e n t <tt?S> jo g fit 6 l t t p c i
same impressive, looped form is
fm S c ,n w j( tt stfe t W f i v i m m yrttrtS p tt f W e f t f o f c a r
used for both minuscules and capitals
fudfic i $ e t f tn m S c n i t s t t c e t it t t S S 'cfx ce c t m ^ l ^ m
(opposite). Another English feature
u c s c tS fc S S tttu m a f ic < & fo ttrile m tiic f u jJ rt o j^ m fc
is the long, downward terminating
fc & b q 3 8 - f tttd S c S s . < m § fo tt^ m fi'c « $ c m j jtc te -
flick from ascenders, sometimes
y o ttt® I d tS : ty o * ‘ . called an “elephant’s trunk”.
I^tn gy ttty .> ;C "9ivpc6
Generally, the English Bastard
■tjciic iy Q w f t a oSSteyrtt So6 <$ s t”t o
Secretary tends to be staid and
g il lie fe t^ c <&ic t o S fe ttm . v tx v ‘W 9 fcyv t u c
prosaic, lacking the subtle shifts
^ f y x t > W f t c n % m t y ?s § w > fU ntftfc. -jot
o f pen angle that characterize its
t^ c n K f c f : f^ m ic l^ ^ jjo u S ^ t f tt tr
French counterpart. As a result, it
$ k . w a y n o t fuflftCte <*x® o t t t e ptutfcvee fit n o t i c e
was highly practical, and so had a
itn S _ g o 9 t i t x t t t W f a w fro < o s .^ tf ^ c fttO tlC r t t o t
long life as a document hand: it was
-tfiV tt (^ tic fi^ fiV tc ^ f i ' a u u c fu d t y S itm to ^
used well into the 18th centurv.
£ u c .tj^ m a £ fttjfj® j^> « t « i ^ ^ t f t f r o ^ J
^ooft nogfyt 5 - fay t(t® p>"xnmy §oo rt6 ]) ^ itt-
A dam an d E ve
T h is t e x t o f th e s to ry o f A d a m an d E v e w as
w r itte n in E n g lish in a b o u t 1 4 1 5 . A fine u p rig h t
asp e ct to th e letters su ggests th a t th e y w e re w ritten
w ith an o b l i q u e - c u t n ib . In th e b e st En glish
B astard scrip t trad itio n s, th e w is w ell p ro n o u n c e d
an d th e “ e le p h a n t's tru n k s” a re bold ly d raw n .

The text includes a set o f capital letters

mitten with the same ductus as the lower­
case text (pp. 7 8 7 9 )

The impressive height and looping form o f the Bastard

Secretary w make it the most striking letter in this page o f text

D e t a il f r o m A d a m a n d E v e
In this v alu ab le d etail, a split in th e quill
allo w s us t o se e v e ry cle a rly b o th sid es o f
e a ch s tr o k e . N o t i c e p a rticu la rly th e le tte r f:
this is c o n s tr u c t e d w ith a sin g le s tr o k e , th e
pen b e g in n in g at th e v e rtic a l, th e n tu rn in g to
a b o u t 3 0 ° a t m id s te m b e f o r e r e tu r n in g to
th e v e rtic a l f o r th e d e s c e n d e r (pp. 6 8 - 6 9 ) .

67
G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Bastard Secretary
script, the Bastard Secretary is
A S A FU N C T IO N A L , C U R SIV E

A written with as few pen lifts as possible, with letters linked

wherever practical. Consequently, the hand can be penned far
a
more quickly than the formal Gothic scripts, such as the Textura
Quadrata (pp. 52—53). Ascenders are complemented by strong,
downward diagonal strokes known as “elephant’s trunks”, drawn
to the right of the stem at an angle of about 45°. These echo
the downward diagonal strokes of the minim feet.

T h e angle o f the
“elephant’s trunks"
should be consistent
throughout the text

Complete the
T h e tail o f the h is usually
hairline loop
dragged to the left o f the
o f the d in a
letter, almost at a parallel
single stroke
to the baseline

K e y le tte r
T h e h is a useful
letter w ith w h ich to
start practisin g the
T h e e is almost
B astard S ecretary . 2 T h e tail o f the e
circular and can
could join the

t
It includes b o th the
have the appearance
“ elep h an t’s tru n k ” that second stroke
o f a letter o
sw eeps fro m th e head
o f the ascen d er alm ost
to th e head line, and
T h e second
the ch aracteristic
stroke o f the (
d o w n w a rd pull o f
F or the first stroke retraces the first
th e pen at th e fo o t
o f the f, gradually to the headline
o f th e stem .
twist the pen and curves slightly
to the vertical to the right

D ra w in g an u p w a rd lo o p A d d i n g a d o w n w a r d d ia g o n a l
£
W ith its sw eep in g hairline lo o p , the W ith o u t lifting th e p en , m ak e a
d is o n e o f th e m ost distin ctive letters stro n g d o w n w ard diagonal stro k e , M ake a hairline
in the hand. A fter d raw in g th e b o w l, cu rv in g it to th e left to jo i n th e b o w l stroke from the
create a large arc by pu shing th e pen at its m id w ay p o in t. T h is stro k e w ill foot o f the stem to
upw ards in o n e sw eep in g m o v e m e n t. e c h o th e shape o f th e lo op . the headline, before
2 starting the final
downward stroke
B a s ic e le m e n ts and tail
T h e pen angle for the
hand is ab o u t 4 0 - 4 5 °
and a sq u a re -cu t nib is
generally used. M in im T h e letters i and j
h e ig h t is fou r pen can be dotted
w idths, w ith the
ascen d er equal to a
further fou r w idths.

68
 B astard S ecretary

T he bowl and

I
right foot o f the
k are drawn in
a single stroke

n
Slightly extend the foot of
the 1 along the baseline

The top

tn w
stroke o f
the v can
be omitted

u -t A separatefifth stroke is not

requiredfo r the w if the second
orfourth stroke is extended

o
J
Twist the pen Drag the hairline
to the vertical tail o f the y with
to produce the corner o f the
the tapered pen nib
descender
o f the p

Twist the pen

to the vertical
to fin ish the
descender o f the
q with a hairline
J

ri
C o n jo in e d le tte rs

2 Conjoined letters are less a

feature o f the Bastard as the
T h e h a lf r is used to
Quadrata, but thisform of
1 follow letters with a
p -p ligature is quite common
right-hand bow
A b b r e v ia tio n
F u ll r H a lf r o f “ th a t’

s
Y - t and w -t (featuring the
Anglo-Saxon thorn sign, p. 66)
were common abbreviations o f
the words “that” and “what”
respectively

69
G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Batarde
HE BATARDE (Lettre Bourguignonne) is the French equivalent
T of the English Bastard Secretary (pp. 66—6 7 ). It was developed
at the end o f the 1 3th century and used until the m id-16th
This baseline cross
centurv, evolving from a lowly cursive bastard hand into a stroke can he extended
formal, prestige script in its own right. Batarde achieved its most The tail o f the p when the letter begins
is pointed and a word
sophisticated appearance in the mid-15th century, an era when can he drawn
either upright or
B a ta rd e p
the popularity of the printed hook was increasing among a whole slightly slanted
In c o n s tr u c tin g th e
new section o f societv. In this dc luxe form , it was the hand B a ta r d e p , a series o f pen
lifts an d a n g le ch an g es is
favoured bv Burgundian court circles, hence its alternative name. re q u ire d (p p . 7 2 - 7 3 ) .

B y t h e m i d - 1 5 t h century, book
illustration in France was moving
away from medieval stylization
(pp. 54 55), becoming less intricate
and more naturalistic. The Batarde
hand used for manuscript books was
shedding its own Gothic ancestry -
letters were lighter, seeming to
f>*mm mice meo$i
dance on the page. This effect was jn m t& u n tr uatut
achieved partly by making several Minlium nudnm m m
changes o f pen angle during the Jiarimm mala ono
construction o f each letter. In Imftntcrtiim it town
returning to the major key after each
change, the scribe could create a
muttmmunoaom
rhythmic harmony across a page o f
m mum naptjomntrt
text. This is particularly noticeable
in the Froissart Chronicle (opposite). if ^ r r no toumttbumaft
However, in other Batarde scripts, minuet qut aUtoou tfua
such as that in the Book o f Hours
(right), the harmony o f the text is
t^SfrTtmttMittrOnojmtio
achieved instead bv J
the maintenance tuaCupmamtntr&ftua.
o f one constant overall angle. D ian foln o n n m tr ^
u m pet n oatm m m l|i|
The split ascenders are one o f several
Gothic Textura characteristics that
hare survived in this bastard script

B ook of H ours
T h is p a g e is fro m a sm all p r a y e r -b o o k
w r itte n fo r th e w e a lth y P o lig n y fam ily in
a b o u t 1 4 7 0 . T h e s c rip t’s G o t h i c o rig in s
are c le a r : a sc e n d e rs a r e sp lit, d e s ce n d e rs
m o d e s t, an d m in im stro k e s te r m in a te d w ith
fe e t re m in is c e n t o f th e Q u a d ra ta (p p . 5 0 - 5 1 ) .
T h e o v e ra ll te x tu r a l e ffe c t is c lo s e r to th e d e n se y
a u th o r ity o f th e G o th ic T e x t u r a scrip ts th a n to
th e lig h t h a r m o n y o f a tr u e B a ta r d e , su ch as th a t
a c h ie v e d in th e F ro iss a rt C h r o n i c le (opposite).

70

T h e F r o is s a r t C h r o n ic l e
T h is is 3 c o p y o f th e 1 4 t h - c e n t u r y c h r o n ic le
o f j e a n F ro issa rt. A d elig h tfu l b o o k , it has
a m o d e rn a p p e a ra n c e , o w i n g p artly to th e
relation ship o f t e x t t o m a rg in s an d p a rtly to th e
restraint s h o w n in th e d e c o r a ti o n . T h e feet o f
th e m in im s e n d w i th o u t e la b o r a tio n a n d th e
scrip t is g e n e ra lly m o r e c u rs iv e th an th a t
used to w r ite th e B o o k o f H o u r s (opposite).
L.i’ tipvc+fcnfKnbCt pit*
UvnicJii Gmr Cnuonur
N: fa ficimc J u tkuoir ft i\
>; ? k ii '^tpren>ix. cfxu"
fiumitmc uii moiTDc*mS«
f.i Pic c t cvuiicrAmoi) •
eV: fee- ivuuicc- ct muuuili
cm- A; (\\fitf/tot) cr incur
fcAintanm cfupxinnA'
^ ienroll
f JU~rJ{$ u’"^" PirCxtuc
J j . l Pic cr a'uucr
faneii A: n.Vm-
,ftiiiAtin<iinioitu)tuiu) I ;
fcmncmllk/na i/r
miiiimia-.i^tMiPcffc/nNi
tU ttlCM t lltClttt-iC ttn illllllC
nmitlccrrtv
« Vinr ttv^uiiM«on<«nlf
I t .1 fo i lffc t x U lf)lU <
a c r * f t c + f n t iK O t t f e ic N t fiir
«ni tv m n m c 'ic / im ir c
Vciicmmcc teiiix J v i r t . m N ’
'T c c c p u r o n t m o u lt m m ir V i
cutecc (upmici- fn r \v n e -> i» -
iMiUut'ViKir e^ccrIcolinnet
(.t a w t/c f f t w u i t t .>11 < U v p
fonttnaifcmait U’iu mH*
( llt T li b i t i lK H l V t u i i r t K f
in* ct p;mt (nCKCf-(cH‘'VUI
' f w t t c t( c n to n if
t. tirU c itol»IW‘?vrcftii<k>»»lc
one/? ciif-a-ttmmx/cum
ilc / T W itlo u iif •t«ro:
-wrct^nCVvnctuiiice mint
-rrof) /oiirnmi/ciiicMt\ufitt
Ice-Iccnrt-^'MHCC^iucwitcf-
ct fmvff it f o u r < tftc H e c t-
>ii ivr tlfxiiiiv /twice ct -v
fc+ Icecii
^inic'tiiMHr WfidiiitKftt
mice- iHiUt-cnfxiuntt mutti
lai/ciiiottl •«(«>!( lit'/iuiirrir
ttvimc rnictrtlcc ct\*»»oC*f
Wilt nulc/mcUc c i h o i i i
tviioiincllr littricmr ttvi/ii
o / f t ct u/iii^ctcwtfcttWir
i]iicW ^.vJccf/’/tiuf cm cii
enteqnonrtFc cttcpvii-trllo
ill c u t y ittf U ct f t o ic f c m c / m t -
D e t a il f r o m t h e F r o is s a r t C h r o n ic l e
'd c'tau t»ic 1 crlw u u iter
'X 'lm u icl’Kmc Hhlj.irciu
<cr£iiUiicii(*fc(iiiiu\niti | ;
tVUiuic Am ium \' i.'ftfvn
\iiu n r/cn u c i»aure fa tu '
'AMtiiU'U: clix v/jvnwia: I-
Ih iik 4.'r/c,ux «urr/^ r
Jc Anuicm air >»iir i f iu-
Imoi bociuTiin^ «i*r nc c( f
^VmriXuilhc -jtauncfut
. >' CJjlk^ync ii^ip*»iftx:,. .
^i/c en ncu^itiij-.nc- I V it a C h r is t i p a c e
T h i s p ag e fro m L a V engeance d e la M ort lltesa
iniue^vxc/tm mcpictrj
in c lu d e s th e ru b r ic a te d p r o lo g u e to th e m a in
t e x t , w h ic h o p e n s w ith a V e rsa l. T h e b o o k d ates
fro m I 4 7 9 an d w a s w r itte n b y D a v id A u b e rt
o f G h e n t, s c rib e t o P h ilip th e G o o d , D u k e
o f B u r g u n d y . In th e illu stra tio n , w e se e th e
s c rib e p re s e n tin g th e b o o k to his p a tr o n .
rt fm ej*h » u ffu » cii,kdiiiit»hc
a i w u n / f o m l v c t 'V i d e * At frm
fC\oiltiUlCf.lHCilHtVCt Itcnlimc
ct .« » < * m o 11/h e p n u v cptcngK
« o i i c \ v i i r . m c t vwiitr rx V v c ii
ItCTlMt' c t li n in g p t c u 'iir/i. uni
(c^iirnlmcJvI.i m .u m v ctla
lo m i c c r o i ( t C i) u a v i l c o u c V '
.m ic e c t .1 iic c iim c o iirc . / c W
<viift\txc b ic iitru c u cjw itc-cf
I n ' «t»Ttclcc-io l.t «)iiari f t A i t i y
Oiiclt f'rocccVc-/K<iwff<nrx
/ou t iiicvi- p .v i in c iv i im ir V /
tiv fc iiT 1K l l l iVjVTC(CB:ilt(C -V
t f n llt c c t Jtif^ m ttim if c t Ic Uni
n 'j ’ c J w w ^ V '/ n i : tm wn ohi
m m Vo m i l l , ct IV /on 1(1 ct A-
•MilIl|CIICCt l ll lt l lt .1 Ic illKIIMCII
- t « i C r ^ ln c r / i r c V m r w i r / S
\'l(H^n CC^ICHC|ocJon>.KM.
ct .iii^/« /t’ n t .i i m r c <lM»it|K«r
tv none H d e t a i l t -
o c lc r.)u c ttllc c * t t v f c + \ v u t f '
ll'llt f t irilO llllfllCCC-^HC c liff
>V'iif citut'iit ttiaiiKiiiCMt •
^f_otiniioir IcNicfvcfivr^r
-fut ^iuc»^m (cn»iiccmim/
m l'c u t cvifiMiiiM^cninifr'ii
Vci’MHiUcnrnv-
^lluwittv. J^n-.
fx tt
ft>i>toHirtittcm*-
T h e initial C is d e c o r a te d w ith a C a d e l
(p p . 8 0 - 8 1 ) . T h e h o rn s o n th e le tte r i; a re
sim ilar to th o s e o n th e g o f a n o t h e r G o th ic
s c rip t, th e F r a k tu r (p p . 7 6 - 7 7 ) . B o t h th e
h a lf r an d full r fo rm s a re u se d in th e t e x t .
The forward lean o f the letter f
is one o f the most distinctive
characteristics o f the Batarde
V ii’i n in ii i '^ i
I n ic tm c ii.trc.i
I t’lrtifw crrccrc
_j r - i — J p l H l lU l .>1101'
BUsM/ori c ii/o u ivfm w r ct iftm ir
( e n r t cc frtHC Icmwhi ct ivii/ i
/ik rotifmcvwaitimm/.»hh
c/frit .( tu Y iw i jv tir .tp.tf ct.|«ic
^ fcfH vW K lrrfciN ic Cx l.m r.i/
n c e ile J'M r ft V K ilt fe ft n v iK t x
tittTK iv / it t c iu n u m u c t t .ii(r.
c iK c n iv iir iiiio u v ,n i i / , c o m iiu
c v l'f/jfiie c^->k 0 m i / r o/Vi
(u n V iiic iit i»r//fu>iWc c r O i/f
<n(*Mnfm<( f J .i m u c m n it
*»•!< u i(ct<tv'U u (cK ^tiil i \ / m n
/•rr ititttitt i ji t il f i t ft - i v / f n i u
tKfUtLviC/miciii llitIIO It t r l
d oo^ tir
C< t v t it c n iJ u K f
B atarde
> j ••
•/*
•Jiic /oitoidcbe rtenr/fuuiic.t
toii/ioiiir-1>mifOMoi/riViCit/'
/ iMvi vxiin ^j iviurr-.imt nc „
WMHtCftlcCm^VHl/cft*ff /c,K C
(t/bifr/<vtiiiri’4rmfv* .71111<
•iiicit ltiif mmit /iitiire nr
■j^ttiiit<?Htr unitv/crti fntnu ,W ~
(•Htlll (CNtCiVIldlrlllllltfM)
criiuN/^ i>riiiot.t»iot crut
cc9illt\onl«tt -Zc |
fPHtcUMie/ctU p im .11110 ' • ' < « « .
Ic iv'i'.jiif(. fc,,c-v <fi\r/ftt on ^
. H(III.HICKAm »|Olll( -A(.(CII j
CttHlll.l^UK'llf OUtVVdtft
ctct /p.’ojv cciilvtv/.iiictc u/c r>J ;
which .i»i*irrcur i( >ic jvmpic
/nnc fatfntt tout -
»Mi«ifp^ui fttifituu<itt\tut- rn* ^
I7ifa C h risti
The scribe of the Vita Christi page
from La Vengeance de la Mort Ihesa
(left) had arguably lesser skills than
his two contemporaries featured
here. He does not achieve the
harmony o f the Froissart Chronicle
or Book o f Hours, his pen angles
are inconsistent, and he is unable
to return to any constant pen angle.
C om m on f e a t u r e s
In some examples o f Batarde, the /
and long form o f s lean forward at
an angle. By keeping the angles of
these two letters absolutely constant,
the scribe can create a counterpoint
to the main harmony. This textual
effect known as “hot spots” is
a common feature o f Batarde.
O ther frequent characteristics
of Lettre Bourguignonne are the
overlapping strokes reminiscent
o f Fraktur (pp. 7 4 —75), and the
delicate hairlines used to join strokes;
these seem to add a further sense
o f movement to a page o f text.
71
G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Batarde

T
most successful Batarde letters, the use of a
O ACH IEVE T H E

quill is recommended. A sharply cut oblique nib is required

to produce the exquisitely line hairline strokes. The clubbedJ and
a Finish the
first and
third strokes
o f the a with
a hairline
flick

6
f ,
long s are frequently written more boldly than other letters and
have a forward slant (the two letters have the same basic form,
with a crossbar added for theJ ) . This produces “hot spots” within
the written text and makes for a distinctive textural pattern.

Prepare to add the crossbar

XL
to the f by turning the
T h e curve o f the c
quill to 1 0 °
terminates with a
hairline flick

The key letters f and long s

should lean slightly to the right
D ra w in g th e / an d lo n g s
T h e m an y ch anges o f pen angle
required to d raw th e B a ta rd e / and
long s are typical o f this sophisticated
hand. B eg in a b o u t h alf a m in im
ab o v e th e headline and gradually
T h e hairline
turn the pen from 3 0 ° to the vertical stroke o f the e is
as y o u pull th e p en d o w n w ard s,
finishing w ith a hairline. R e tr a c e the
first stro k e, lo o p in g o u tw a rd s to the
right to create a thick ened stroke, and
retu rn to th e original angle o f 3 0 ° .
e drawn at an angle
o f about 4 5 °

Omit the crossbar o f

the f to create the long / /
fo nn o f s (left)
Draw the hairline

f
T h e curved hairline stroke at crossbar o f the f at
the top o f the letter q can be an angle o f 1 0 °
continuous with the descender
I T h e letter f can lean T h e clubbed shape
forw ard at a more o f the f can be
: pronounced angle than exaggerated
D e scen d e rs this (pp. 7 0 - 7 1 )

T h e descenders o f letters p and

q are m ade by tu rn in g th e nib
anti-clock w ise from the horizontal
to th e v ertical, finishing w ith a
hairline. T h e d escen d ers m ay
alternatively slant to th e left,
e c h o in g the forw ard lean o f
th e / (above) and lo n g s.

T he height o f the
Batarde minim is
T h e leading stroke
about fo u r pen widths
o f the h finishes
with a fla t foot A hairline at the
F la t fe e t top and tail of
F lat feet o c c u r o n all leadin g the letter h is
straight m in im s in th e scrip t, characteristic
su ch as th e stem o f th e t and
th e first leg o f th e n. In a
The i and
m o re cu rsiv e v ersion o f
j can be
B a ta rd e , th e m in im s m ay
dotted
term in ate w ith a flick a t the
end o f th e d o w n w a rd stro k e,
as o n th e se c o n d le g o f th e «.

12
 B atarde

id
T h e stem and
leading foot o f
the k can he
drawn in a
single stroke \ t T h e stem and foot
o f the t can be drawn
in a single stroke
I t

r T h e first and second

strokes o f the 1 can
he combined
a

■4
T he foot o f the 1 can he
extended slightly

7^

III ! T h e first two

strokes o f the v
he drawn in a
single movement
.

11 I
The w 15 constructed
from two conjoined \s

0 I! y / out the hairline

Drag (>///
tail o f the x with the
J /
%
comer o f the nib

Twist the pen

to a near vertical
angle to fo rm the
hairline descender
P
o f the p

! T h e letter z can
alternatively be
drawn in a single
stroke
Where practical, Batarde
letters can he connected
with hairline strokes

n
F u ll r I H a lf r
f f t

J o i n e d le tte rs
The right bow o f the h
and the left bow o f the

I
T he p and h are the o can be conjoined
only letters not joined
here by a hairline stroke

73
G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Fraktur & Schwabacher

is a m arriage betw een
r a k t u r (G e rm a n L e t t e r )
F German cursive scripts and Textura Quadrata (pp. 50—51).
Manuscript examples of the hand date from about 1400 and it
F ra k tu r a
T h e d istin ctiv e
sp ikes o f m a n y
first appeared as a typeface about a century later. Early type F ra k tu r letters
versions o f Fraktur, and its m ore cursive, vernacular cousin a re th e p r o d u c t
o f o v e rla p p in g
Schwabacher, remained close to their pen-w ritten origins. stro k e s (p p . 7 6 - 7 7 ) .

They were designed by the leading German calligraphers

o f the day, including Johann Neudorffer the Elder. The two
scripts continued to influence calligraphy and type design
until the mid-20th century, and had a formative influence on
the work o f em inent practitioner Rudolf Koch (opposite).
The Fraktur a is always a single-storey
letter with an enclosed howl

' 1 .. "

c fu m n tm 6F 45 - 4

VI
£H
tec e t fp ln tu | M tcto w a n e tnuit
' 'v v ’- T - A :
-v c t r c c m a t m le c u l a fcculom m .
tfjW rrtt t ’U i t e h S em x TT»x f
Arnett*
f?nn> <r S v

ids
fo
^G rcfi r u \- £ v
fen goictntdttemtcwrgmie
between Fraktur
T h e d iffe re n c es W o rk sh eet n e fc c u n tn im p f u m f o r n a t u
T h is p o r tio n o f a
and Schwabacher are difficult to w o r k s h e e t (above) is tu n e * ? to itw m tiitH 6 -
define precisely. Both feature the p ossib ly th e o ld e st w -

swollen body and pointed tail o f the

Batarde / and longs (pp. 70 71), as
well as curved strokes on the bows
of letters a, b, c, d, e, g, h, o, p, and
cj . Diamond strokes reminiscent of
Textura letters are a distinctive feature
of the hand, but there is a tendency
for terminal strokes to be curved. All
letters have a rigidly upright aspect.
Generally, the Schwabacher has a
broader, more cursive form than the
Fraktur, and does not have the forked
ascenders and excessive elaboration of
that hand. Some o f the most striking
versions o f Schwabacher were
penned, centuries after the script first
appeared, by the calligrapher and
designer Rudolf Koch (opposite).
s u rv iv in g e x a m p le 6 m m c la l)ir tn tc « ii)x
o f F ra k tu r -re la te d
le tte r in g . It w as h . _ r ic e * 6 t o e m c u m iin
w r itte n in a b o u t 1 4 0 0
by J o h a n n e s v o m itim c tta b it la tiO cm tu a * S o
H a g e n , w h o refers to
•" T
th e h a n d as “ N o ltula u t u iia p iu t o u u m m c u n t m t c
F racturaium ” (“ b ro k e n
n o te s ” ) . It is f r o m this
Oc-Somutcat) aouutuDum
te r m th a t th e n a m e
“ F r a k tu r ” is b e lie v e d m lm k n t c f i f t i i w * 6 lourt p a tr io t (i
to h a v e b e e n d e riv e d .
f e r n fpiritutl<w to-<S tnitcnit
The toil of this p. and .
that of other letters on the
bottom line of text, may ,V •.
bare been added by hand . •J'O-
;/?>
<Pint: 'A
after the book lids printed
1
' A
The illustrations and .
'r r • \ 1 *>
Versals ncre added after the
the text bad been completed
.

74
 F r a k t u r 8 i_ S c h w a b a c h e r

M a t t h a u s E v a n g e l iu m
In th is G e r m a n te x t o f th e G ospel
o f S t. M a tth e w fro m 1 9 2 1 , R u d o l f
K o c h c o m b in e s th e features o f Frak tur
a n d T e x t u r a Q u a d ra ta to th e ultim ate
d e g re e - th e lines o f te x t ap p ear to
h a v e b e e n k n itte d . K o c h classified this
sty le as a v e rs io n o f S c h w a b a ch e r, and
e x p la in e d : “ T h e p ag e sh ou ld seem to
b e sta ck e d w ith finished ro w s o f
lin e s...e s p e cia lly th e sp ace b e tw e e n
w o rd s m u st n o t b e b ro a d e r than that
b e tw e e n lin e s.” T h e V ersals h a v e b een
tre a te d in an e q u ally ro b u st m a n n e r,
re su ltin g in t w o b eau tifu lly designed
p ag es o f t e x t .

In Koch's text, the interlinear space

has virtually disappeared, allowing
just sufficient white for the eye to
scan along the lines horizontally

m p n n tip fo ? n u m ? K m p c r :

D e t a il f r o m G erm a n L e tte r
M atth a u s
E v a n g e l iu m
BvJ
the earlvJ
16th century, J 7
a further
fcp a i # a P f c p a w g e ft n w r n : T h e c o n tr o lle d form o f Fraktur and Schwabacher
f r e e d o m o f K o c h ’s
had developed that has since come to
c t ttf c p tiw g c fim a «P p& le tte r fo r m s is s h o w n
in th is detail fro m typify German scripts. It featured
fcpa P tcitu r- © m a r t i n P o r n f M a tth a u s E v a n g e liu m
“broken” letters created by the
(above). R a d i c a l in its
nacfctcritc qlouc* tim e , s u ch w o r k g a v e overlapping o f strokes (pp. 76 77).
n e w m e a n in g to th e Used only in German-speaking
r i u m - $ u e m a r i a c p s u ta p lfr te r m " B l a c k L e t t e r ”
(l>p. 5 0 - 5 /) .
areas, this broken letter is frequently
ita * S o m u u i o K c f i - 3 f u e m a referred to as a “German Letter”.
T he rejection o j It a lia n scripts
m - g fa im u a . The straight, compressed
aspect o f the hand betrays Fraktur and Schwabacher enjoyed
j g j ( S iu t c c n ilt c it u t o P o n u its Textura origins: even the
longer lives than any other bastard
letter f has an upright form
script in Europe in the early 20th
I u o :u i b i lc m u 6 P f o l i t l u
JM ; J Pra y er -boo k century, half the books printed in
T h e s e p a g e s fro m
w n tto r tr o ip ic o c a tp c m iu H fi th e p r a y e r - b o o k o f
Germany still featured Fraktur-based
rta ticu iC ' it? c o n fc iu o n c : c t u t E m p e r o r M a x im ilia n typefaces. This longevity was a direct
w e r e p u b lish e d by
S ch o n sp erg er o f
result o f the German rejection of Italic
N u r e m b e r g in 1 5 1 4 . and Humanist scripts (pp. 9 0 -1 0 1 ).
T h e F ra k tu r ty p e w a s
There were two important factors in
d e s ig n e d b y Jo h a n n
N e u d o rffe r th e E ld e r, this rejection: firstly, the Reformation
f a th e r o f th r e e caused Protestants in northern
Hr g e n e r a tio n s o f
ca llig ra p h e rs. T h e Germany to reject Italian hands as
b o r d e r d e c o r a tio n is a political gesture; secondly, it was
e q u a lly o u ts ta n d in g ,
b e in g th e w o r k o f
widely believed that a Humanist
A lb re c h t D iir e r. script did not suit German text.

/5
 G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Fraktur j Either o f these two

form s o f a can be used

HE u p r i g h t , C O M P R E SSE D letters of Fraktur are closer in

T appearance to the Gothic Textura scripts (pp. 50-57)

than either the Bastard Secretary (pp. 68-69) or the Batarde
A lte r n a tiv e a

(pp. 72—73). The hairline spikes, such as those on letters b, g,

h, and q, are a distinctive feature of Fraktur and do not tend to
occur on the rounder Schwabacher letters. The pen angle of
about 40° is altered only for drawing the pointed descenders. b
T h e ascender can be drawn
with a single rounded

c
stroke or with a split serif

Tlte minim height is about '

fiv e p en widths, with a
Curl the ascender of the
fu rth er two fo r ascenders
d back to the right to
and descenders
avoid the letter tilting
to the left

T h e pen nib should be

square-cut fo r drawing
Fraktur letters

R o u n d e d s tr o k e s
D esp ite th e F rak tu r
le tte r’s up rig h t asp ect,
m an y strokes are
actually rou nded . H e re ,
the ascender o f the letter
b has b een draw n w ith
a cu rv e to e c h o the

f_
ro u n d ed stro k e o f th e
b o w l. W h e th e r y o u
T h e first and second
ch o o se straight o r
strokes o f the f can
rou nded letters o r split
be drawn without
o r p o in ted ascenders,
lifting the pen
it is im p o rta n t to b e as
co n sisten t as possible
I Twist the p en from 4 0 °
th ro u g h o u t th e te x t.
to near vertical fo r the
descender o f the f
T h e crossbar is a common feature
o f the letter g in both Fraktur
and Schwabacher scripts * T h e second and third
strokes o f the g can
S p ik e s tr o k e s Alternatively, the hairline 7 be drawn in one
T h e distin ctive can be drawn as a continuous
F rak tu r spikes are continuation o f the first movement
m ade b y e x te n d in g stroke (see g , opposite,)
o n e stroke o v e r the
previou s o n e . T h e
m o re pen lifts th ere T h e spike stroke overlaps
a re in a le tte r, the the bottom o f the rounded
m o re spikes stroke o f the bowl
are created .

T h e tail o f the g can s

finish with a short
Fraktur descenders are
hairline, a blob, or
restrained, except on the
a backward sweep;
bottom line o f a page o f
alternatively, it can be
text, where additional
looped (see g , right,)
flourishes can occur

76
 F m k t u r

k t
Begin the t
with an
upward stroke
y|
/

<

I U
T he final foot
4 7 o f the m can

V
terminate with a ,

m i I
diamond stroke

The w is constructedfrom
a conjoined u and v
The final foot
° f ^,e n can terminate

It with a diamond stroke

w
Either o f these two
form s o f o can be used

A lte rn a tiv e o
»>

v 4/ Use the comer o f

the nib to draw the
hairline tail o f the x

Twist the
Use the comer o f
p en fro m g 4
the nib to draw the
4 0 ° to near 1
hairline tail o f the y
vertical fo r ' /
the descender
o f the p

Gradually twist the

H ie third stroke
p en from 4 0 ° to
o f the z can
near vertical fo r the
alternatively be
descender o f the q

£ penned in two
separate strokes

This “elephant’s

t
trunk" can be used on
letters b, h, Ic, and I

F u ll r H a lf
0 .
the s, the sequence A lte r n a tiv e li
This curling hairline
can be altered, tail can be used on
with the top stroke letters h, m , and n
drawn second

77
G o t h ic S c r ip t s

Bastard Capitals
C a p i t a l s h a v e the same ductus as the minuscules

B
a sta rd

that thev accompany (pp. 68-77), and are penned with the
same nib. In most instances, they tend to be wide, expanded
letters. The thick stem strokes are often supported by a thin
vertical slash to the right, and the addition of a diamond stroke
in the centre of the counter is also common. Like the bastard
minuscule hands, the capitals were subject to a range of
individual and regional variation. Because of this diversity, the
alphabet shown here should be regarded only as a general guide. The C could
alternatively take
the firm o f the
B a s ic e le m e n ts E (below), but
T h e pen angle o f without the cross
th e Bastard C ap ital is stroke
ab o u t 4 0 ° o r the sam e
as th e m in u scu le that
it a cco m p a n ie s. T h e
letter h eig h t is a b o u t
six pen w idths. T h e
/
characteristically w ide
letters, su ch as th e B,
are a d ire ct p ro d u c t
o f d o w n w a rd and
h o rizon tal a rce d
sw eep in g strokes.

The hairline
vertical on
the E can
Draw the hairlines with
be omitted
the corner o f the nib

C o n n e c t i n g h a ir lin e s
O n letters H . AT, and
N , hairline strokes are
This double stew
o ften used to c o n n e c t
F is reminiscent of
tw o m ain dow nstrokes.
the Gothic Capital
T h is hairline should
(pp. 6 0 - 6 1 )
spring front th e righ t
edge o f the baseline serif.

S p u rs Alternatively,
W e ig h t can be added the G can be
to vertical stem s in the constructed
form o f d iam o n d ­ front a series
shaped spurs. E a c h spur o f composite
can be sh arpened w ith strokes
a sh ort hairline flick.

Limit the number

o f diamond-shaped The upward linking
spurs to two or three hairline stroke o f the
H is made with the

“ E le p h a n t’s tru n k s” comer o f the nib

T h e “ elephant’s tru n k ”
so ch aracteristic o f the
B astard S ecre ta ry (pp.
6 8 - 6 9 ) also o ccu rs on
cap ital letters H , K ,
L , and X . D ra w the
diagonal trunk w ith
th e full w id th o f the
nib, finishing w ith
a sh ort hairline.

78
 B a s t a r d C a p it a l s

Draw the hairline strokes o f the

M with the comer o f the nib
*D'V >
<n ■ «<B
4 6

Draw the
hairline stroke
o f the N with
the comer
o f the nib

Draw the hairline

linking stroke
o f the R uath
the comer
{ ) o f the nib
This alternativefo nn o f h
features a long hairline tail

A lte r n a tiv e H
A lte rn a tiv e W

6 A m p ersan d
In this ampersand
the T is stressed

A lte r n a tiv e a m p e r s a n d

79
f- 1 V * 5 o p 1

•3
 C a d els

Cadels
the Cadel ( Cadeaux ) in the early 1 5th
HE i n v e n t i o n OF
T century is attributed to Jean Flam el, librarian to the
prominent patron of the arts, the Due de Berry. Flamel used
these large, patterned capitals to inscribe the duke’s name
in the front o f each m anuscript. By the mid-1 5th century,
Cadels were widely used in northern Europe as single Versals
(pp. 5 8 —5 9 ), mainly in vernacular tex t w ritten in the various C adel El
D e sp ite th e a p p a re n t c o m p l e x i t y o f this 1 6 t h -
bastard scripts (pp. 6 6 —79). During the 16th century, they c e n t u r y C a d e l, th e m a in s tr u c tu r e o f th e le tte r is
appeared in Italic tex t in increasingly elaborate forms. easily p e n n a b le (pp. 8 2 - 8 3 ) . T h e fin e in tern al
d e c o r a tio n c a n b e d ra w n w ith a flexib le steel nib.

B Y T H E E N D O E the 16th century,

J 7

the Cadel was frequently appearing

This Bastard Capital
letter D , with its looped as a Versal in printed form , and the
ascender, is a useful model
advent o f copperplate engraving led
fo r drawing a Cadel
(pp. 7 8 7 9 ) to more fanciful elaboration than was
achievable with a broad-edged pen.
C a d e l s , c a p it a l s ,
AND MINUSCULES
This paralleled the development of the
T h e s e le tte rs w e r e various Italic and Copperplate hands
p e n n e d in th e se c o n d
(pp. 94—107), with which the Cadel
h a lf o f th e 1 5 th
c e n t u r y , p o ssib ly b y was often incorporated.
th e E n g lish scrib e
I n t e r la c e p a t t e r n in g
R i c a r d u s F ra n ciscu s.
O n e b asic e le m e n t o f The Cadel differs from other capitals
th e C a d e l c o n ta in e d used as Versals in that it is composed of
in th e le tte r A is th e
left f o o t , w h ic h has
interlacing strokes rather than built-up
b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d fro m strokes (pp. 5 8 -5 9 ) . It is drawn with
th r e e s tro k e s lin k ed
b y a se rie s o f s h o r te r
a constant pen angle — this produces
stro k e s. T h i s lin k in g thick and thin strokes that create a
sy ste m is th e k e y to
pattern with a continuously changing
m o r e c o m p l e x le tte rs,
s u ch as th e H (above). direction of line. In this way, J 1
substance
is added to an otherwise skeletal letter.
Interlaced strokes can also be
« f'f i . ^ . Cadels were generally used
with Bastard scripts: here,
used to embellish the ascenders on
.« « . f £- »• O f ,. £ „ ‘. ,s « f j * v » .
■rf v n - e NT 6,; » . the minuscules resemble a the top line o f a page of text or the
German cursive hand
("pp. 7 4 751
descenders on the bottom line.

Wv " 'C: v • ..

F l a m e l ’s C a d e l s
T h is p a g e f r o m a m a n u s c r ip t
b e lo n g in g t o t h e D u e d e B e r r y
w as w r i t t e n b y J e a n F la m e l in
a b o u t 1 4 0 9 . A lth o u g h th e basic
stru ctu re o f th e C a d e ls is re la tiv e ly
sim ple, th e fa ct th a t so m a n y h a v e
been used o n th e sam e p ag e creates
an im p re ssiv e o v e ra ll e ffe ct.
E n g ra v ed alph a bet
T h is a lp h a b e t o f cap ita ls w a s
e n g rav ed by T h o m a s W e sto n
in 1 6 8 2 . A lth o u g h th e m a in
s tru ctu re o f th e letters follo w s
th a t o f B a s ta r d C a p ita ls
(pp. 7 8 - 7 9 ) , th e basic fo n n s
h a v e b e e n e m b e llis h e d w ith
typ ical C a d e l scrolls an d in terlaces.

81
G o t h ic S c r ip t s

C a t a n e o ’s C a d e ls
T h e s e letters B and C are based o n the initials

Cadels o f B e rn a rd in o C a ta n e o , w ritin g m aster at the

U n iversity o f Siena, Italy, b etw een 1 5 4 4 and 1560.
In th e ir original fo rm , th e y w e re used w ith text

GREAT of existing Cadel models makes it very difficult to in R o tu n d a [pp. 8 6 - 8 7 ) and Italic [pp. 9 6 - 9 7 ) .

T
he v a r ie t y

assemble a complete alphabet. These examples have been selected

to represent a few general principles. Although Cadels can look very T h e skeleton B consists

daunting to accomplish, in practice they are often a great deal easier than o f a spine and two howls

you may think and, when used as Versals, they can look very impressive.
The golden rule is to begin at the core of the letter and work outwards. 1 . B eg in the
stem o f the B with
L e t t e r s p in e a doub le stroke,
A lw ays begin w ith th e spine w ith th e inner
o f th e letter. H e re , th e spine i- stroke leading
is c o m p o se d o f d o w n w ard in to th e stroke
d iam o n d strokes and straight o f th e to p bow l.
v ertical strokes. T h e pen angle N e x t add the single
fo r b o th types o f strokes is stro k e o f th e lo w e r bow l,
b etw een 3 5 ° and 4 5 ° . leadin g in to a tail.

1 . Establish the
basic structure
o f the C adel in
Q T h e decorative
flourishes are
pencil before added last
retracin g the
strokes in pen.
2 . B u ild up the
k * skeletal form
■ JU r w ith loops at
Use a pencil fo r the
the to p o f the
initial planning o f the
b o w l and spurs
letter’s structure.
to th e left o f the
stem . Scrolls can be
add ed as a final flourish.

T h e top
o f the bowl
has been
extended

T h e Cadel is decorated
D ia m o n d stro k e s with delicate flow er 1 . T o begin the C ,
A series o f d iam o n d and lea f forms draw the spine and
strokes is a c o m m o n th e to p cu rv e in a
feature o f th e C ad el single stroke.
spine. M o v e th e pen T h e b o tto m
d o w n w ard s in a cu rv e can be
co n tro lled , zigzagging draw n in the
m o v e m e n t, w ith o u t fo rm o f a foot.
a lterin g th e p en angle.
A p en angle o f 4 5 °
T h e inner hairline strokes and
w ill g iv e sy m m etrical 2 . O n c e the
scallops are similar to those
diam o n d s. m ain strokes
used in Gothic Capitals
o f the le tte r
fpp. 6 0 - 6 1 1
are p e n n e d ,
flourishes and
d e c o ra tio n
can b e added.

Maintain a
pen angle of 2 . B uild up the
4 5 ° fo r a C ad el w ith a
series o f short, system o f
neat diamonds
linked
dim inishing
strokes to create
“ b o x e s” [opposite).

D ra w in g a C ad el A
T h is ap p aren d y c o m p le x A can be built up
qu ite q u ick ly in fo u r stages. D iam o n d s have
b een d raw n in to th e legs o f the A , so keep
a co n sta n t pen angle to ensure an ev en
distribu tion o f th ick and thin strokes.
1 . B eg in by p en ning the
five basic co m p o n en ts o f
th e letter: th e tw o legs,
tw o feet and to p stroke.
A llo w y o u rs e lf am ple
sp ace b e tw e e n strokes.
Straight horizontal strokes are
best avoided, so use curved
diagonals f o r the feet o f the A
2 . B u ild up th e legs
o f th e le tte r w ith tw o
c o m p le m e n ta ry u p right
stro k es o n eith e r side
o f th e c o r e d iam o n d
strokes. As a general
ru le, th e legs should
have m o r e w eig h t
than the feet.
T h e lines o f the serif
echo those o f the feet
3 . K e e p in g a
constant pen angle,
build up the feet.
C h an g es o f line
d irectio n can n o w
be in tro d u ce d .
Changes o f line
direction have
been introduced
Finish the
C adel by
terminating the
strokes with
loops and
hairlines
4 . N o w add th e cro ssb ar, b reak in g the
strokes as th e y cross the lines o f th e legs.
Finally, add th e d e co ra tiv e loop s and flourishes.
Cad els
C ad el o rn a m e n ta tio n
In o rd e r to build up th e w e ig h t o f a m ain stro k e o r to cre a te a ch an g e
in line d ire ctio n , v arious types o f o rn a m e n ta tio n can be used. T h e
This pattern
patterns sh o w n b e lo w h av e all b e e n cre a te d w ith th e p en at a co n stan t
involves a series of
angle. E a c h in v o lves a series o f sh o rt strokes th a t m o v e at 9 0 ° to each
fo ur small “boxes”,
o th e r in a series o f thin and th ick “ b o x e s ” . T h is sim ple d e v ice can be
followed by a line of
adapted to form increasin gly c o m p le x patterns.
three "boxes”
A constant pen angle is
essential in the creation
o f “bo x” patterns
T e rm in a l “ b o x e s ” B a s i c “ b o x e d ” s tr o k e s “ B o x ” s te p s
In this p attern , the T h e basic princip le o f th e “ b o x e d ” stro k e In a princip le sim ilar to the
use o f “ b o x e s ” allow s is th a t w h e n th e pen m o v e s sidew ays, a thin basic “ b o x e d ” stroke (above
strokes to be term inated line is p ro d u ced , and w h en it m ov es upwards left), this p attern involves the
in different d irectio n s. o r d o w n w a rd s, a th ick line is p ro d u ce d . “ b o x e s ” m o v in g sideways
in steps. T h is w ork s best on
cu rv e d strokes and requires
careful planning.
I n t e r l o c k i n g lo o p s
A series o f in te rlo ck in g
b u t u n jo in ed loop s can
b e adap ted at a
term in al stro k e o r
p ro v id e an infill. T h e semi-circular loops interlock
without actually touching
M ir ro r im a g e s
T h is p a tte rn in g is loosely based
o n a d e co ra te d d escen d er fro m the
1 6 th -c e n tu r y “ A lp h ab et” o f M ary
o f B u rg u n d y . T h e tw o halves o f
th e o rn a m e n ta tio n su ggest a
m irr o r im age. T h is d e co ra tio n
w o u ld w o rk equally w ell fro m a
to p line o f an ascen d er. 1 . B e g in by folding a sheet o f
lightw eight layou t pap er in half - the
fold w ill rep resen t th e ce n tre line o f
th e im ag e. F o ld th e pap er again at a
righ t angle to th e original fold - this
w ill rep resen t th e arm . U n fo ld the
Small terminal loops should be drawn p ap er and w o rk o u t th e seq u en ce,
complete; this is easier than trying loops, and interlaces o f h alf the pattern.
to construct h a lf a loop
T h e balance o f thick and thin 2 . U s in g th e righ t angle fold as a
strokes in the left arm will be ce n tre line, w o rk o u t th e strokes for
the exact reverse o f those in th e a rm . W h e n this is co m p le te , fold
the right arm th e p ap er o v e r th e ce n tre line and
rep eat th e p attern fro m th e se e -
th ro u g h im ag e. A n y flaws in the
design w ill b e c o m e im m ed iately
obviou s w h en the pattern is reversed.
83
I t a l i a n Sl H u m a n i s t S c r i p t s

The right h alf o f the

Rotunda
o has a smoother
semi-circular
sweep than
the left

on western European scripts between

he G o th ic in flu e n c e (pp. 86 SI)

T the tenth and 1 3th centuries was largely resisted in one

major country — Italy. The clarity o f classical inscriptions, still
evident throughout the land, the continued use o f a wide,
rounded hand called the Beneventan, and the retention o f the
Caroline M inuscule, were all factors in the em ergence o f R o tu n da o
T h e rou ndn ess
a formal script that differed from its Gothic contemporaries o f th e o is th e k ey to
R o t u n d a a n d is reflected
in its round, open aspect. It was known as Rotunda. in all th e b o w e d letters.

B y t h e 1 2 t h c e n t u r y , the prestige
Rotunda script had developed into
(Or SI ' ' >
an extrem ely formal and upright
version o f the Caroline Minuscule
(pp. 38—39), with slightly shorter
ascenders and descenders than n o tr u o m r c n o tfr
its parent script. The hand
also embodied elements o f the
ton :i
Beneventan,7 m ost notably J
in bfccrotx
the rounded strokes on many xoiniiu
letters. In contrast, straight strokes
were square-cut and rigidly upright.
nic.mnc
A le g ib le h a n d
tn iru ru
In general, the Rotunda was bolder nurcrm pictitr plnufli
than the Caroline Minuscule, but in.ifuniun regie filumr
the rounded strokes and modest
glo:iofiflmuin;irrro:pf\i
ascenders and descenders created
a clear, legible script that was used 110:11111 roiifoLinotcfoLi
for handwritten work long after ronun uu nrmumim(fti*
the introduction o f printing. The ct ffrsinrcfj-vivmnum mi
simplicity o f the letterform s made
go ,inrcf\immuurgo f
the script equally popular as a model
for typefaces, thriving in that form
fximi. cruirgo potfp.irm
until as late as the 18th century. fouenufmro:oicfone
The many curved strobes, such as this
Mum crqiunc. fans pi
on the letter o, helped continue the
Italian tradition ojopen, rounded scripts ■

The square baselinefoot oj the letter f is a

distinctive characteristic o f the Rotunda

B ook of H ours
T h is sm all B o o k o f H o u r s , p r o d u c e d in
B ru g e s in a b o u t 1 4 8 0 , sh o w s th e ev en n ess and
re g u la rity o f th e R o t u n d a . T h e sc rip t differs
fro m th a t u sed f o r th e V e r o n a A n tip h o n e r
(opposite) in o n e s ig n if ic a n t r e s p e c t - th e
u p tu rn e d f e e t o f th e m in im s. H e r e , th e y a re a
c o n tin u a tio n o f th e m in im stro k es, w h ic h results
in s lig h tly m o r e c u r s iv e le tte r s th a n w a s u su al.

84
 R o tu n d a

L a r g e - s c a le le tte r s
As a manuscript hand, the Rotunda was
written in a full range o f sizes, from very
small to very large, and was the chosen
SnjpiF script for some of the largest known
m anuscript books in the world.
♦ lttn c u r C When written on a large scale, the
tit y V ( n f i c . i letters can have a rigid form ality
and the hairline strokes often seem
disproportionately light.
R o tu n d a C a p ita ls
Accompanying capitals are written
with the same pen as the minuscules
(pp. 88—89). A double stroke can be used
for the stem, with a clear gutter between
strokes. In some historical instances, the
Rotunda Capital was developed into a
Versal. In others, Gothic or Lombardic
Versals were used with Rotunda
t iln 'o a io in c u ^ ,p .C d fttc text script.
A common feature o f all Rotunda
letters, both minuscule and capital,
! ■ * , [ t 'l D / l X v . t S t i L i c n i m y is the sharpness o f the cut o f the nib,
t - I k r u i.t ir t b n u c t fte . which gives clear, precise strokes and
fine hairlines. In larger versions,
1 *1 : l n uiftic .ro u\m the pen should be clearly lifted after
the completion o f each stroke, while
in smaller versions, manv strokes can
be drawn in one continuous movement.

These large-scale Rotunda letters lack any

cursivefeatures: note the angularity with
which the ascenders and straight minim
strokes have been drawn

Compare the unusual broken form s o f

the strokes on capitals A, C, and E with
the more common form (p p . 8 8 - 8 9 )

T h e V e r o n a A n t ip h o n e r
T h is A n tip h o n e r ( b o o k o f c h a n ts an d a n th e m s ) w as
w r itte n in a b o u t 1 5 0 0 f o r th e m o n a s te rie s o f S S N a z r o
ffmpbitbcofie fin fuimO>e fore em
and C a lio in V e r o n a , Italy . T h is ty p e o f b o o k w as o fte n
w r itte n in a la rg e f o r m a t to e n a b le se v e ra l c h o r is te r s t o
pbtvr fin 3of4n fuimrutetoe lo cm com
read it a t th e sa m e tim e . T h e R o t u n d a le tte rs h a v e b e e n duc*§Ad fit empbitbeofAz qpempbttbeo
d ra w n w ith c o n s id e ra b le p r e c is io n , w ith id io sy n crasies
arisin g o n ly in th e u n u su al b r o k e n f o r m o f th e cap itals. ttegrecee melumrto latic^Sb fottto d tm
This Carolineform o f dfeatures
fterftta p buc p a a pcedebaf:vt is $ acdgct
an upright stem and curved howl
re i meltoze ftafo t>educeret:'r fterilc fertile!
R o tu n d a as a ty pefa c e redderet>poftca tngmlfius I *5 reto fertlUto
T h e ty p e u sed in th is d ic tio n a r y w a s p o ssib ly fro m th e
fo u n ts o f th e V e n ic e -b a s e d G e r m a n p r in te r E r h a r d
t frncmoftfitmffempbitbeotlcarl polfe:vt
R a t d o l t (p p. 9 0 - 9 1 ) , w h o h ad p u n c h e s c u t f o r a
R o t u n d a ty p e in 1 4 8 6 . T h is d etail s h o w s t w o d ifferen t
(£<X>clure empbf+Uj+fn $z empbltbe
f o rm s o f d\ th e u n cia l f o r m a n d th e u p rig h t C a r o lin e
fo rm - b o th c a n b e se e n in th e m id d le o f th e s ix th lin e.
offo Kl empbfcbeo tfc? prractus die qu( in — ^

85
I t a l ia n 8l H u m a n i s t S c r ip t s

T h e foot o f

Rotunda the a could

R
upright, open letter, which works well on
o t u n d a is a n

L.both a large and small scale. The characteristic straight stem

a alternatively
finish with
a sweep to
the right

strokes, such as those on letters b ,J j and h, are constructed with

b
the pen held at about 30°. The square foot is then added in one
The flat-headed
of two ways. The simplest method is to use the corner of the nib ascender o f the b
to outline the foot, before fdling it in with ink. Alternatively, can be replaced by
a split ascender
the “dual ductus” technique can be used, which involves turning
the pen from 30° to the horizontal in one short movement.
Although the latter may seem more complex, it is probably
preferable when drawing large Rotunda letters.

A split ascender can

be used instead o f the
Jlat-lteaded variety

O n large-scale
C t C
Rotunda letters,
the curved stroke
is drawn separately Alternatively, the
d can feature an
from the straight
upright stent
stroke

c ice
I f the upright stroke begins
at 3 0 ° , turn the pen to the
horizontal to create a flatfoot

Complete the sweep to the

right in a single stroke
?
S w e e p i n g s tr o k e s
O n letters in w h ich th e stem
stro k e ends in a righ t sw eep ,
such as I (above), th e sw eep is f - Twist the pen

i f
to the vertical
usually co m p le te d in a single A lte rn a tiv e
fo r the crossbar
stroke. O n larger letters, tw o cro ssb ar
o f the f
separate strokes are used
(see b, I, and t, right).

K e y le tte r
T h e o is th e key le tte r o f the
R o tu n d a . T h e b o w ls o f b, d, g , p ,
and <7 clo sely follo w its shape, and its
o p e n asp ect is also e c h o e d in th e c
and e. T h e first stro k e is o n ly slightly
cu rv e d , clo sely follo w in g a v ertical
b efo re sw eep in g v igo ro u sly to the
righ t. T h e se c o n d stro k e is m u ch
m o r e s e m i-circu la r than th e first. The flat-headed The second
ascender o f the h stroke o f the
can be replaced by 2 h can be
a split ascender extended and
the third
stroke omitted
T e r m i n a t i n g flic k s
As an altern ativ e to th e sw eep in g
stro k e, letters m , n , and u can
term in ate w ith a flick. T h e s e are
sev ere and rath er m ech an ical: the
stroke is sim ply e x e c u te d w ith a pen
angle o f 3 0 ° and w ith o u t any
d irectio n al tu rn o f th e p en .

86
 R o tu n d a

The fiat-headed
ascender o f the k
can be replaced by
a split ascender
2
T h e second stroke
o f the k can be
extended and the
third omitted
r A lte rn a tiv e
cro ssb ar

T h e second leg o f the

u can finish with a flick
t £
3
Twist the pen
to the vertical
to complete the
crossbar o f the t

I J
The Jlat-headed ascender o f the 1
can be replaced by a split ascender

U * I U
A lte r n a tiv e
T h e fin a l fo ot o f the foo t
m can fin ish with a flick

A lte r n a tiv e
fo o t
V
XV X XV
T h e second foot

T fe o f the n could
alternatively

n , f I terminate
with a Jlick

A lte r n a tiv e
foo t

Drag the ink with

O t o
the comer o f the nib to
m ake the tail o f the x

T h e second stroke o f
the o is more semi­
circular than the first

P Alternatively,
twistfrom the
diagonal to the
horizontal fo r
the serif o f the p

f p t q
nr fi
F u ll r H a lf r
1j
T h e use o f the
h a lf r is common
in Rotunda text

Each stroke o f the s begins or

ends on the central hairline
tx
C o n jo in e d
d and e
t

and o
o
C o n jo in e d b
A n y two letters with
opposing bows
can be conjoined

Apart from conjoined

letters, Rotunda letterforms
are clearly separated

S eq u en ce o f

B R o tu n d a
l e tte r s

87
I t a l i a n Sl H u m a n i s t S c r i p t s

Rotunda Capitals

T
h e STR U C TU R E O l th e R o tu n d a C ap ital is less cle arly d efined
than the m inu scu le (pp. 8 6 - 8 7 ) . B o th single and d ouble stem
A
capitals can b e used ; historically, they w ere o ften com b in ed w ith

B
Vertical
L om bard ic Capitals (pp. 6 4 - 6 5 ) . T h e d ouble stem capitals shown
hairlines can
h ere have b e e n taken fro m a n u m b e r o f so u rce s and should be be added
regarded only as guide fo r individual in terp retatio n s. As w ith the through the
counter of
R otun da m in u scu les, a “d o u ble d u ctu s” ap p lies, w ith all cu rv ed the B
strokes and som e upright strokes draw n w ith the pen at 3 0 ° , and
the rem ain in g stro k es draw n w ith th e p en at the h o riz o n ta l.

Sweeping curved strokes help

establish a rhythm

T h e pen is held at 3 0 ° fo r the

£
curved strokes o f the Rotunda
Capital

A single diamond
stroke reduces the

Diagonal hairlines can be

added to the letter D (left)

C o u n te rs
T h e rou nd, open natu re o f the R o tu n d a
C ap ital tends to p ro d u c e g en ero u s
co u n ters. T h e exp an se o f w h ite space
£ l £
can be bro k en by the addition o f spurs,
d iam o n d s, d o u b le hairlines, o r a The stem oj
co m b in a tio n o f these elem en ts. the F can
alternatively be
drawn with a
double stroke
S q u a re fe e t
I f th e p en is at 3 0 ° at th e to p o f the
stem , th e angle sh ou ld be m ain tain ed
for th e w h o le stro k e, finishing at the
baseline. T o cre a te th e square fo o t,
use th e c o r n e r o f th e nib to tra ce
alo n g th e baseline and up to j o in th e
righ t side o f th e stem . Fill in this
triangle o f w h ite sp ace w ith ink.

I T h e feet are outlined

a nd filled in with the
comer o f the nib

A lte rn a tiv e f o r m o f M
In this form o f M , th e doub le
stroke is in the ce n tre o f th e letter
and a large sw eep in g stro k e has
b een in co rp o ra te d . T h e v o lu m e
o f space in the c o u n te r has b een
red u ced by th e d o u b le hairline. Hackles can be added
to the first stem o f the 1
T h e ga p between the two stem strokes
should be about h a lf a p en width

88
 R o t u n d a C a p it a l s

e Tu rn the pen
from the
horizontal to
3 0 ° to draw
the fin a l stroke
o f the U

A hairline stroke can

£ be added to the right

o f the stem o f the L ^
J T urn the pen
from 3 0 ° to the
horizontal fo r
the central stroke
o f the M

w i m
Tu rn the
p en from 3 0
to the
horizontal to
draw the first
stroke
o f the N

T h e O and 5 \ To fo rm the
■ m L a ■ the Q have Q , add a tail
W ' J the same basic to the O

Tu rn the
pen front
A hairline
3 0 ° to the
stroke can be
horizontal

IE
added to the
to draw the right o f the
first stroke stem o f the P
o f the P

A hairline
Turn the stroke can be
added to the Internal decoration can take
I fy |i * i n right o f the
stem o f the R
the fo rm o f hairline cross
strokes and diamonds

ir \ ;» f z ;r I I V
A lte rn a tiv e f o rm s o f O

A n y Rotunda Capital can be

drawn with a single rather than

R
S in g le s te m a double stem ; this plainerform

3 R o tu n d a is best fo r use in text with

C a p ita l R minuscules (pp. 8 6 -8 7 ,1

89
I t a l i a n &_ H u m a n i s t S c r i p t s

Humanist Minuscule
HE HUMANIST MINUSCULE (Littera Antiqua) and the Roman
T Imperial Capital (pp. 108—109) are the two historical scripts
most influential in our modern society. Between them, they give
us the basic constructions o f our capital and lower-case letters,
both in handwritten and typew ritten form . In the Humanist H u m a n is t M in u s c u le m
The serifs have A ll H u m a n i s t M in u s c u le
Minuscule, the darker overtones of the Gothic scripts gave way been drawn with le tte rs h a v e an u p rig h t aspect
the pen held at 3 0 ° w i t h c le a r ly d e f in e d strokes.
to the lighter style o f the
Renaissance letter. It would 0 2 .
be difficult to envisage a
script better suited to the
intellectual ideals of the age.
to n e uofunratis m e coronafix nosl f l r
T h e H u m a n i s t Minuscule was cjuicni ere main. A n J ) iripe dominCT
essentially a rediscovery o f the dens mens in con/jreHn tuo uiarn me
Caroline Minuscule (pp. 3 8 —3 9 ).
ain.A n C onuerrerc.
As a clear, unambiguous hand, free
from affectation, the Caroline was O nline nc m furore tno aWrun
HM
as me nc
considered by 14th-century scholars, (j, in ua rua corripias iml f l l i(erere mci
including the Italian poet Petrarch,
to be in harmony with the ideals
donline cpioniam infirmus fuin (ana i
of the Renaissance. me domine: (juonum conturuuty. Cunt
Although the Humanist Minuscule omnia ofla mcaJLsf aniniamea f u r
was to have a profound and formative
influence on modern Latin-based
hat a d l nafdc fed fu domine u[i|,<|
writing, acceptance o f it was initially (ju oB 81 nn urrrrre. domine ct enpeai
slow. The widespread popularity of
main ineani : laltium me far propter i
the script came only after manuscript
books were superseded by printed imferieordiam (uam ESS uom.un non
works, and it was adapted as a mNO
efl'in morte cjui meinor fit nil in f k r
model for text typefaces, notably by
no menu oms ronfttebirur tiOL^ga
Nicholas Jenson o f Venice after 1470
(pp. 38 39). It gradually replaced b oraui mpcmiru ineo l a n a h o per fin
the Rotunda in Italy (pp. 84 85) and milas n o t frs (e^him mcuni la c f ir '
the Gothic scripts o f Britain and
southern Europe as the principal
model for typefaces.

B ook of Hours
T h is B o o k o f H o u r s w as w r itte n in B o lo g n a
in a b o u t 1 5 0 0 fo r G io v a n n i II B e n tiv o g lio .
A r g u a b ly , th e s u m p tu o u s d e c o r a t i o n an d
b rig h t co lo u r s o f th e V ersals d e tr a c t fro m the
d ig n ity o f th e t e x t s c rip t its e lf T h e flat serifs
a t th e h e a d s o f th e a s c e n d e r s a re th e n a tu ra l
p r o d u c t o f a h o riz o n ta lly h eld p e n (p p . 9 2 - 9 3 ) .

90
 H U M A M S I M lX U S C U L E

Xote the scrupulous 1 p i f t o i x * t i P aul i

A d F.phrbos
consistency with which these
small ampersands have heen
drawn throughout the text fouet u m lic u io inprom ilfione - vt benefit tib i flr.iis (o
c b r i f t u s ecclefi a m . q u u membra In £<uu* fupr r te rra m . F t vos p a t res no
m a s corporis ria s d c c j t n r a us
(ite ad ira cu n d u m prouararr ftlios w
o lfib u s eius Propter bar rr.linqutt Id
Ihos fed educate illos in d tfctp iinaet
m o p a tte rn £ 6 m a tx e m (u * m -tv correptione d o m in i. .Serin obtdite do
The hook has heen b t r e b it v x o n ( t i c . & t r u n t duo i a t
minis catnalibus cum tim ore Aetrtm o
handwritten on vellum ne v n a S a c r a m c n t u r n bar mapntim
re in (implicitate cordis v e ltn ficut c b
e ft .L ^ o d u t c m d t o o i n c h t - i f t o & i Oo-'Don ad oculum leru ien tesq u afib o
t c c l e f i a . V c c u ta m e n A t vos iin?uli m inibus p ia cen tes: fed v t (erui c b n fti
v n u fq u ifc p v x o re m fu a m ficu t (eip
facientes voluntatem d e i: ex a m m o cii
The Versals are based on lu m d ilip a i v x o ra u te m tuncat vtru
bona volunrate ietuientes (icu t d om i
Roman and not Lombardic lu u m .
nc A’ non bom inibus (a cm e s quom a
letterforms!pp. 58 59) C aj> f e y A p o /io liH .p r ttn u m fill
vm dquifqj quodcunqt fecent bonum
osc*fx**rn tts cjuomodo inuicem vmm
hoc recipiet a d o m in o , fiue ftrcm s ftue
tnflttuit dcn td eferu os crdonunot vt
liber . E t vos d o m in i eadem facite illis
S t . P a u l ’s E p is t l e ftltiparen tes honarrent fm rentej din
rem ittentesm inas fcicn tesq u u A cd io
u d vrauntdta non prouocent A en u fl
W ritten in a b o u t 15(H), rum A tv e fte r d o m in u s eft incodis.ee
irdh f m t dom in ir. dom irubrmfm e ilUi
th is t e x t c o m b in e s perfonarum acceptio non eft a pud deu
t r a /l t n t .p oflrem o tn v n iu crftm 1 De caterofratres co n fortam in t in d o
Ita lic a n d H u m a n is t
bhejios a d rmlttiarm fid e t hortntur .
rnino A ^inpotentia v ir tu tise m s . I n A a<ui.i'o.l|,i.
M in u s c u le h an d s to il ii obtdite parent ibus vm
dram atic effect. D esp ite
th e d im in u tiv e size o f
T in d o m in o HoccnimiuOu
e ft . H onor*, patrem tuu m At matirm i
duitevos a r m a tu r a m d c i vt p o ftitis
ftare a d u erfu s ln fid ta s diab o lt q u o
i.P cm -i d J C J .
i*
mam n on eft n o b is G ollud htio adu er
the le tte rs, r e p r o d u c e d t u a i n : quod f 11 m an datu m primum (us ca rn em Ad f a n p u in c m .fe d a d tr n
here a p p ro x im a te ly th e
sa m e siz e as t h e y are hi a ii
w ritte n , e a ch c h a ra c te r
r e m a in s d is tin c t an d
cle a rly leg ib le. A t a
g lan ce, th e m a n u scrip t
m ay b e m istaken f o r a
p r in te d b o o k .

In this margin annotation,

T h e h a n d w r it in g
the early use of Arabic
numerals is evident .
\z*ltrti.¥.U<. c .y o Yy of Petrarch
A s m a ll l e t t e r
T h e sc rip t d e v e lo p e d L ike th e C a ro lin e M in u scu le, the
tv u v o p l A t u v
b y F r a n c e s c o P e tr a r c h
H u m an ist M in u scu le was an eleg an t
P r in t e d t e x t
F ifte e n th -c e n tu ry
j) f&■' w a s p ro b a b ly th e first
H u m a n is t M in u s c u le . hand that w o rk ed m o st su ccessfully
te x t ty p e w a s c lo s e ly T h i s a n n o t a t i o n by
on a sm all scale. T h is is ev id en t in
m o d e lle d o n th e th e p o e t t o his c o p y
h a n d w r i tt e n le tte r s o f S u e to n iu s’s Lives o f the d im in u tiv e le tte rs o f th e E pistles
o f th e p e r i o d . T h e C aesars, w a s m a d e in te x t (above). In Italv, th e R otun d a
sim ilarities b e tw e e n a b o u t 1 3 7 0 an d clearly
this ty p e fa ce (below ), d e m o n s t r a t e s th e
(pp. 84 - 8 5 ) co n tin u ed to b e used
p rin te d a fte r 1 4 8 6 ,
‘ 'J* i t i d s % n x t ‘tv u >
d e g r e e to w h ic h fo r la rg e -sca le h o o k w o rk .
and th e h a n d w ritten h e h ad a d o p te d th e
ffs iV C C t Z X t ;< j
H u m a n ist M in u scu le Versals a n d c a p it a ls
C a ro lin e M in u scu le as
o f S t. Pau l's Epistle A \ tA 4 . V . a m o d e l fo r his h a n d . V ersals, so p o p u lar w ith G o th ic
(above) a re v e ry c le a r.
T h e s a m e s e r if S) - C . f t . . i p s c r ib e s , w e re also used w ith th e
fo rm a tio n has b e e n
used fo r b o th cap itals
" i p T phnui
‘
These Italic Idlers were
probably cut by tbe goldsmith
H um anist M inu scu le, but these w ere
and m in u scu les. Francesco Cirijjo in I SOI
in c re a s in g ly m o d e lle d on R o m a n
fo rm s (pp. 108 109). T h e use of
V4 1 1 1 44 v w «. p " w '
cap itals fo r s e n te n c e o p en in g s was
ex cis q u # tnam'fefte apparen t condudam us,af/ n ow u n iv ersa l. A lso d eriv ed fro m
' nobis alibi d em onftrati's, atquc ab ipfo a d eo CocluAit L_ R om an fo rm s, the H um anist Capitals

'is pars hu m orem ad fe loco ali/ trdAriM * w ere draw n w ith th e sam e ductus as
* * ha - . ’ I* ,* * * tejtcs Jcmnt th e m in u scu les and w ere the sam e
ius natun - r u m o ii$ p ar ^cncrureex h eig h t as th e m in u scu le a scen d er
:licet cftstion fccuaU ralium oru m qua: ipfi infunt c0^ nutriri (pp. 98 99). A rigid a d h ere n ce to
lidorum c&fporum fu bftantiam , a q u ib u setiam a sc e n d e r and d esce n d e r lin es, alon^
w ith cle a r line sep aration, helps give
; altcratio contingit. V e ru m fiquidem h o c ita
.« > • m % i * ‘S+ * « an o rd e re d asp e ct to a page o f te x t.

91
 I t a l i a n Sl H u m a n i s t S c r i p t s

Humanist Minuscule

T
H u m a n i s t M i n u s c u l e is a direct descendent of the
he

Caroline Minuscule (pp. 40-41). Letters are clearly defined,

separate, and open - very close in form to modern letters,
particularly those used as typefaces. There is no exaggeration
a The wedge serif o f the
b can be replaced by
a flat serif
If using a “slanted" pm,
the bowl o f the b will
have a diagonal axis

of ascenders and descenders in the script and interlinear spacing

is clear and regular. Humanist Minuscule can be written with a
square-cut “slanted” or an oblique-cut “straight” pen. The letters
shown here have been written with a “straight” pen. In both
cases, the letters are upright and usually small in scale, with
a minim height of about five pen widths.

“ S la n te d ” p en
T h e “ slan ted” pen
H u m an ist M in u scu le
is based o n th e early
C d C
T he wedge serif o f the
hand o f P o g g io and
d can be replaced by

€
relates q u ite closely to
a flat serif
the C aro lin e M inuscule.
It is w ritte n w ith a pen
angle o f 3 0 - 4 0 ° . T h e
a is a d o u b le -sto re y
letter; this distinguishes
it fro m th e Italic a,
I f using a ",slanted ” pen,
w h ich is a single-storey
the bowl o f the d will
le tte r (pp. 9 6 - 9 7 ) .
have a diagonal axis

“ S tra ig h t” p en
D u rin g the latter part
o f th e 15th cen tu ry ,
th ere w as an in creasin g Like the Rotunda
te n d e n cy to w rite the f, the Humanist
H u m an ist M in u scu le Minuscule f does
w ith a “ straig h t” pen. not have a tail
T h e pen angle fo r this
is shallow - 5 - 1 5 ° —
and a g re a te r co n trast
b e tw e e n th ick and thin
strokes can be produced.
I f using a
"slanted"
Wedge serif drawn pen, the bowl
in two strokes Flatserif Foot drawn with
a “straight"pen
Foot drawn with
a "slanted" pen f Li o f the g will
have a
diagonal axis

I t S e r i f ty p e s
T h e script features tw o types o f serifs:
w e d g e -sh ap ed and flat. T h e w ed g e
1
M in im fe e t
W h e n using a “slan ted” p e n , the
i
te n d e n cy is to cre a te a tu rn e d fo o t,
The wedge serif o f the
h can be replaced by
a flat serif
The h can
terminate with
a turnedfoot

se rif is cre a te d eith e r in a single p ro d u c e d by te rm in a tin g th e m in im

stroke o r in tw o separate strokes
(above). T h e flat serif is created w ith
a single h o rizon tal stro k e. W h e n
using a “ straig h t” p en , th e flat serif
can also be used to term in a te u p right
m inim s and d escen d ers (see letters
f It, k, in, n, p , q, r, opposite).
stro k e w ith a flick to th e righ t.
W h e n using a “ straig h t” p e n , this
flicking m o v e m e n t is m o r e difficult.
Instead, use the flat serif, o r finish the
stro k e w ith a slight m o v e m e n t to the
righ t alo n g the baseline and th en add
a sep arate serif to th e left.

92
 H u m a n is t M in u sc u l e

Ilk
T he wedge serif of
the k can be replaced
by a flat serif

t k f
The top o f the t should
rise only slightly above
the headline

The wedge serif of

Pull the tail o f the 1 along
the 1 can be replaced
the baseline, or tenninate

u x it
by a flat serif
the stroke with a flat serif

m i m
3 5

n n n I f using a "slanted"
w \w
o c
pen, the o will hare
a diagonal axis

I f using a "slanted"
pen, the bowl o f
2 the p will hare
a diagonal axis

basicfonn o f the y
is the same as the u,
with the fourth stroke

z
extended into a tail

I f using a "slanted" pen,

H um anist M inuscule letters drawn with a
the bowl o f the q will hart
"slanted" pen can lean fo n ra rd slightly; in
a diagonal axis
this fo n n the a, (, and g differfrom the Italic
(p p. 9 4 -9 5 ,1 in that they are unlinked

The first stroke

o f the r can

V terminate with
a turned foot
“ S la n te d

s
le tte rs
T h e tail o f the g differentiates the
letterfrom its Italic counterpart
(pp. 9 6 - 9 7 )

93
I t a l i a n <$_H u m a n i s t S c r i p t s

Italic
N ITS BASIC FORM,Italic script (Chancery Cursive, Cancellaresca
I
Ita lic a
T h e Italic a,
Corsiva, Littera di Brevi) is a cursive offspring o f the Humanist w ith its fully
fo n n e d bowl,
Minuscule (pp. 90—91). O ver tim e, it became a distinctive is th e earliest

hand in its own right, spawning, in turn, the Copperplate ancestor o f our
m o d e m lower­
(pp. 102—103). The script was invented in 1420 by Niccolo case letter a.

Niccoli, an Italian scholar who found the Humanist Minuscule

Letters generalIt
too slow to execute. By 1440, his new, less labour-intensive join at the midway
point between the
script had been adopted as the official hand o f the Papal Chancery.
baseline and the
headline

T h e f o u r characteristics
b a s ic

o f Italic that were established by

Niccoli tend to occur naturally when
the Humanist Minuscule is written
rapidly and with the minimum
number of pen lifts: there is a
tendency for the hand to lean to
the right; circles becom e more oval;
many letters can be written in a single
stroke; and letters are joined to each
other with a connecting stroke.
C h a n g in g th e a
The character altered most
» ( i'f’ oli.ojTonor/mo * - /t i i/an do cl Q m lla jc lji
significantly by Niccoli was the a, rompejjc Q ualchc pen a ^ 0uajcl)cjuj/c
which he transformed from a tall
oone <2yd(a o c o lla c o fi apprcfio
two-storey letter (p. 92) into a single­
storey letter o f minim height (above r \ 0 N (Tpotejfcuijcloitirc (f) uolcfjTjnrla uja
right). His q also tended to follow this
re k \ c a u a r li Jjju e llo <*%fuecooiiccllo /V tic
new form, resembling an a with a tail.
The terminals of Italic ascenders and tiO d u d n 'u n lic Id pntua uoua I'Olli nudlcci'C ct qucllV uiupllo
descenders were drawn in one o f two ato m o fc iu a M 't r ii m ntcli o ucdU in ctVa p u uolic h fam\uc %\m
forms: the formata (sem i-form al), in nuo ct uicm i tutivrt ym arh'idnucllc ci t'auuc pi'lucre ct iik t u u c ■
w hich they were horizontal or wedge- u d Imlo die uAtccralulnto Id iicmt ct c colanrotuud k t u t u -t cct
shaped and left-facing, or the corsiva,
in which they were rounded and
X ) Aoli c a r n c ch p o rc h o cdlct.i u n r.i cu M i c l c
right-facing (pp. 9 6 -9 7 ) .
clu’aro ct b c llis lu n o ct B u tiro frcico ct o^lio
lk ofnto Hell ill mi o ct ncto per trc o cjua
T r e a t is e o n H a iv k in g
T h is p a g e f ro m a w o r k b y th e Italian s c h o la r X U'o Palh c t A ncorn ii a ic c cl ic
F ra n c e s c o M o r o w as p e n n e d in a b o u t 1 5 6 0 - 7 0
a n d co n sists m a in ly o f alp h ab ets a n d te x ts in
differen t hands. A t th e to p , in g o ld , are t w o lines
I PA b C E N! O O L O 1’ I V

o f C a d e ls (p p. 8 0 - 8 1 ) . B e n e a th th e b lu e b o r d e r
a re th e Italics, fully s e p a ra te d a n d g e n e r o u s ly
sp a ce d . T h e m in u s c u le h an d is a fo rm a ta , X 1
identifiable b y th e w e d g e -sh a p e d a sc e n d e r serifs.
F o u r lin es o f T e x t u r a Q u a d ra ta {p p. 5 0 - 5 1 )
fo llo w a n d , b e lo w th e g re e n b o r d e r , th e r e are
several lines o f H u m a n ist M in u scu le (pp. 9 0 - 9 1 ) .

94

CAlcuin avTorh//vfuinn C,
c
i itm lnrn SAW iisM anutii U
; 5 K R J F T K A T A L O G
I j
i Yj i i j -' [ i i u p 11 i I r a w L ^ i n u l i
^ o li^ B ^ k r v iK c ^ jia w b n n
Bodcn ii A \ ’//11flu l \ 4 w ii i-l
■ .in w i^ fr h ) iM ^ T z n c C ill ’
Stanley t M m iM }}j-nm i(T \d
/' i a s .
Jicthc W.GawrViA
The relative crudity o f Morris’s
capital letters is probably owing
to his use o f a pointed pen nib
rather than the more suitable
broad-edged nib .
Although clearly an Italic
script, Morris’s letters are
noticeably upright compared
with a classic Italic such as
Francesco Moro’s (o p p o site) .
W il l ia m M o r r i s
A lth o u g h E d w a rd
J o h n s to n is g e n e ra lly
r e g a rd e d as th e fa th e r o f
m o d e m ca llig ra p h y
(p p . 4 2 - 4 3 ) , W illia m
M o rr is h ad b e e n
e x p lo r in g th e m e th o d s
o f m e d ie v a l sc rib e s tw o
d e ca d e s b e fo re h im . T h is
illu m in a te d w o r k o f 1 8 7 4
is an a tte m p t to realize
th e v ision o f th e A rts and
C ra fts m o v e m e n t by
a c h ie v in g c o m m u n io n
b e tw e e n cra ftsm a n an d
t o o l (p p. 4 2 - 4 3 ) . B u t
sin ce a p o in te d nib rath er
th an a b r o a d -e d g e d p e n
has b e e n u sed to d ra w
th e ca p ita ls, th e a tte m p t
is o n ly partially successful.
I ta lic
Fvruvs in q v A i oto a n n a l i -
r T | | r t - f r t r ' p e e l m u c rv n t: w iro w r '- H m c W t r ^ liu j
H erdf | W f t’ e^- cltTij'itj'y w y o m i ' ’. H o m m e j l - f f wtc jecutu
jF'tij'jioefn in l i t r e j e t m t J o b e l l i l y / l n n a t F . N o n n iji n n h
I
>ctjcj$ Ucji
( ju t cm f-mn.'nftj} on* ji e-fmm H H c im i uoctj'c^ Ucjuiait'' b i n
L i/y y m littj'ciit •N on nn\n j? k v p i t c en fn tn jh i-t oyncj; ce n tu m •'
m ericn d e j c n y t i c t j l rejwt j - i a p e n fij ' m b e e u e rb n -
S a t u r n a l ia
T h is fin e Ita lic s c rip t w a s w r itte n b y A m b ro siu s
The long ascenders and descenders have T h e o d o s iu s M a c r o b iu s in 1 4 6 5 . E a c h le tte r is
presented a problemJor the scribe where cle a rly d e fin e d , re m in isce n t b o th o f th e H u m a n ist
they clash in the interlinear space M in u s c u le (p p. 9 0 - 9 1 ) a n d th e e a rlie r C a ro lin e
In this Italic text, the calligrapher has
M in u s c u le (pp. 3 8 - 3 9 ) . T h e cap itals a re sm all and
restrain ed c o m p a re d w ith th o se b y M o r o (opposite).
included bothform ata and corsiva
ascenders; this 1 is the corsiva type
i i■ ^ r ... ,
P r in t in g t y p e c a t a l o g u e T he in flu en ce o f type
T h is d esig n f ro m 1 9 9 0 is b y th e
The changing demands brought about
N o rw e g ia n ca llig ra p h e r C h r is to p h e r
H a a n e s . H e has a c h ie v e d h a r m o n y by the developing printing industry of
b e tw e e n th e cap itals and m in u scu les the 15 th century had an important
b y r e d u c in g th e size o f th e cap itals
to ju s t a b o v e m in im h e ig h t. influence on the Italic script. In 1501,
the Venetian printer Aldus Manutius
commissioned goldsmith Francesco
1 8 ? # ^ 'W & Griffo to design a small Italic type
(pp. 9 0 -9 1 ), in which most of the
* 1U w JT (ICCV characters were clearly separated.
From that point, calligraphers began
: _,iro t M em ijiittm minim um a'm in k
t|wtrtv
m to follow the example of type by
ID p i X I Ji ■ '••JH ,,,M
U \ v in ifii .tut lictv/l' 1%tvi \J separating their penned letters. This
led to a loss of some of the Italics
n k i m nnf d e l •mrc p i o ?
cursive quality and the script quickly
0 " j "I trcinet joccM reached its full maturity J
as a carefullv
J
crafted text hand. But by the 1550s,
the complaint from scribes was that it
am—F«A»i*t in m ti(in )> iV ..............-
lAtfcmt o r is7
................. ,
,S '# L s
■v iMgy
f i
cuit infer DTinAIo; qeUda\c
( I iu 14 I l/i.-nionJ had become too slow to write. From
« m I U \ocnitwhrmrr* mscctifnc then, its decline was rapid, eventually
O i fit SiLite being used only for text in parenthesis
, .-'"(jr A ^mr r r -1i r m f r r m l ntyufcs m on iotn u and for annotation.
Uutninnttt L i p sns Celtrrcujttf \ c t i f r f . J o h n s t o n ’s o
U n n Jtttn ft 'A t t a in s ( i J i b t t f M
t ncrts For the modern calligrapher, Italic
Juc<rtr t, jtu r m s . script remains a constant source
■ :)niJ p r iW Ju<ttn )p0M
!i< h yarmu* o f inspiration. However, much new
lauJtbuf, ijttt tn Itcminwnnc EXeatm, Italic can be traced back not to the
cytv trutsr e t t r m t l Yetriifijue m titiA iitn
15 th century but to the influence o f
the early 20th-century calligrapher
Edward Johnston. The script was
subtlyJ modified by J
his introduction
o f two pulled strokes for the o and
related letters, in place o f the
original single stroke (pp. 4 2 -4 3 ) .
95
 I t a l i a n Sc H u m a n i s t S c r i p t s

Italic The Italic a is

always a single­
storey letter
ITALIC is written with a square-cut “slanted” pen, held
T
he hand

at an angle of between 35 and 45°. Letters should be written

with the minimum number of pen lifts - most can be written with
a single stroke. The two traditional examples shown here are
formata and corsiva. Formata letters are distinguished by the wedge
serif to the left of the stem, corsiva by the swashes to the right of
the stem. Ideally, the two different types should not be mixed. The
o is the key letter of the script: it establishes the basic ductus of F o rm a ta C o rsiv a
fo rm o f b fo rm o f b
the hand, the curve of other letters, and the letter width (below).

J o in in g stro k e s Alternatively, the top curve o f the c

W h e r e strokes spring Connecting can be drawn as a separate stroke
fro m th e ste m o f a Jtn lir b>ttpr< lintip n / rtrnbes «hfluid
le tte r, su ch as o n h , m , begin about two
forward lean o f about
and n, th e stro k e sh ou ld
1 0 or 1 5 ° . p en widths short
begin ab o u t tw o p en
o f the headline
w idths b e lo w the
head line. T h e b o tto m
cu rv e o f th e b o w l o f
th e d, g , and q m eets
th e stem stroke ab o u t
tw o w idths ab o v e the
F o rm a ta C o rs iv a
baseline. All co n n e ctin g
fo rm o f d fo rm o f d
strokes follo w these
basic rules.

T h e top loop
A tongue can be
o f the e can be
Ascenders and descenders added when the e is
This wedge drawn as a
can be the same height as at the end o f a word
serif, drami separate s tro k e __
the minims or slightly shorter
in two strokes,
This serif
can also be

Without the
crossbar, the (
becomes the
long form ofs

The clubbed
corsiva serif
creates bold
ascenders
Alternatively,
the descender
S e rifs o f the g can
Serifs ca n b e w e d g e -sh a p e d and left-facin g (form ata) o r terminate with
rig h t-fa c in g (co rsiv a). O n letters b, d, h, k, and I in th e a swash
S te p -b y -ste p o alphabet (right), b o th form ata and corsiva types are sh ow n . (above left)

Alternatively, the
second foot o f the
h can temrinate
with a flick
(above left)

1 . T o create th e o in 2 . M ain tain in g the 3 . Pu sh th e pen

a single stroke, use an
angle o f 4 0 ° . B eg in ju st
b elow the headline and
push th e p en upw ards
to the headline, before
cu rv in g d o w n to the left.
4 0 ° p en an g le, cu rv e
th e stro k e d o w n w ard s
to w ard s th e baseline,
before m o v in g alo n g the
baseline and b eg in n in g
to cu rv e up w ard s.
to w ard s th e h ead line in
an a rc , m e e tin g th e to p
cu rv e ju s t b e lo w th e
head line. A ltern ativ ely ,
d raw th e le tte r in tw o
stro k es (opposite).

96
 I t a l ic

F o rm a ta C o rsiv a
t I t
fo rm ^ fo rm o f k
o f fc

F o rm a ta C o rsiv a
U I U,
fo rm o f I fo rm o f I

m i 7 T he first stroke o f
the v can begin, 1 rk y
like the u, with
a wedge serif
T h e legs o f the m can be
draum as separate strokes

m u The first stroke

the w can begin,
begin
like the u, with
/ TJ ’

a wedge serif

X
Alternatively, the y can be
constructedfrom the basic
form o f u, with the addition
_ o f a descender

T h e first and third

strokes o f the z can be
replaced by a single stroke
fro m right to left

Conjoined letters do
not appear in Italic
script and ligatures
are limited to the
letters s and t Italic ampersands can be
decorated with flourishes

S -t lig a tu re A m p ersan d

97
I t a l i a n <SlH u m a n i s t S c r i p t s

Humanist & Italic Capitals

H
closely modelled on Roman Imperial
UM ANIST C a p i t a l s a r k
Capitals (pp. 110-119) and can be used with the Caroline
Minuscule (pp. 40-41) and Foundational Hand (pp. 44—45), as
A
well as with Humanist Minuscules (pp. 92-93). A pen angle of
30° is most likely to produce letters with a similar stroke weight
to the stone-cut Roman originals. Italic Capitals are based on
the Humanist letterforms but have a distinctive forAvard lean.
There are various possible serif formations (below), and any
B
of these can be used on either type of capital.
Twist (he pen to
the vertical to

C
draw the serif of
the C (see left
H um anist and Italic fo r alternative
Capitals should never methods)
exceed the equivalent
o f two minims in height

Italic Capitals lean to the

right at the same angle as
the minuscules (pp. 9 6 —9 7 ;
D
P e n n ib s
T h e sam e pen nib should b e used for capitals as is used

E
for th e m inuscules th at th ey a cc o m p a n y . T h e serifs
can b e d raw n w ith th e pen at a slightly sh allo w er
angle than that used for th e m ain stem strokes.

7 F

J 1 F Twist the pen to

the vertical to
A r m se rifs A l t e r n a t i v e se rifs draw the top serif

D ra w th e arm s o f £ and F and the
to p cu rv es o f C , G , and S in a single
stroke an d , i f desired, build up th e
tw o serifs w ith the c o r n e r o f th e nib.
A ltern ativ ely , th e to p left se rif can o f the G (see left
sim ply be th e b eg in n in g o f th e stem for alternative
stro k e and th e righ t se rif can be
cre a te d w ith a slight flick to th e left.
G methods)

B a sic f o o t s e rif
C re a te the basic foo t serif
H
B ra c k e te d s e rif I n n e r fille t
The letter) can drop
A ltern ativ ely , finish the A third optio n is to draw
below the baselim

I J
b y e x te n d in g the stem stem stroke w ith a sw'eep th e basic fo o t s e rif (left)
to the left and finishing to th e righ t and add the and add th e in n e r fillet
w ith a baseline stro k e. left se rif separately. w ith a sh o rt cu rv e .

98
 H u m a n i s t &_ I t a l i c C a p i t a l s

The top arm o f

the K can be
K Z . . A \ W ' drawn with a

-IL 5
2
^. straight stroke

T
L
The second The first diagonal

M 1 M
5 stroke o f the o f the V can be a
vl can be straight stroke
straight

2 4

N IN
The first
5 T he third
and third
stroke o f the

W W W
strokes o f
N can be
the W can
straight
be straight

O X
P IP Y
The first diagonal
stroke o f the Y
can be straight

Z 7

Italic Capitals should be

slightly shorter than the
ascender height o f the
minuscule

I ta lic C a p ita ls

T h e first alternative E shows bracketed serifs

Twist the p en to the
at the top and bottom o f the letter, and the
vertical to draw the
second shows a straight stem and straight arms
serif o f the S (see
o p p o site f o r T w o a lte r n a tiv e
alternative methods) form s o f E

99
I t a l ia n ^ H u m a n i s t S c r ip t s

Italic Swash Capitals

a p i t a l is a flamboyant letter that traditionally served
Sw a sh C

A a similar function in Italic text to that of the coloured Versal

in Gothic text (pp. S8-59). It should never be used to write
a complete word, but can be combined with standard Italic Capitals
(pp. 98-99). The Swash Capital’s characteristic showiness is created
by the extension of stem strokes above or below the capital line and
the extension of bowls and horizontal strokes to the left of the stem.
These extended strokes terminate with a swash or, alternatively,
can be looped like Copperplate Capitals (pp. 106-107).
The C is
drawn in
The stem has been
two separate
extended above the bond of
cRs. y ' curved strokes
the letter to form a swash .

W hen a swash is added

both to the top and the
left o f the stem, the letter Balance the
gains a particularly 3 top swash
flamboyant appearance o f the D
over the
sweep of
the arc

T h e swash to the lift o f the stem

is a natural continuation o f
the rounded stroke o f the bowl To draw
Italic Swash
L e ft sw ash es Capitals, use
W h e n cre a tin g a swash the same pen
from th e b o w l o f a letter, as for Italic
such as that o f the B o r R , it minuscules - Alternatively,
is im p o rtan t that the swash (p p. 9 6 - 9 7 ; the stem o f the F
is a natural extension o f the can terminate in
bow l stro k e, w ith th e pen a horizontal foot
pulled in a sw eep in g T o p sw ash es (see H , below)
m o v e m e n t. T h e letters in T h e stem can be e x ten d ed
the alphabet {right) sh o w upw ards and pulled to th e righ t in the
the swashes added as m a n n e r o f a co rsiv a ascen d er o n th e
separate strokes. Italic m in u scu le (pp. 9 6 - 9 7 ) .

Draw the loop in a single

movement without
altering the pen angle

Twist the pen from

3 0 ° to the vertical,
move downwards
slightly, and lift

L o o p e d te r m i n a l s
T h is clu b b ed , lo o p ed term in al can be
used as an altern ativ e to the swash in
finishing the stem stro k e. It w o rk s
particularly w ell on a single stem
letter su ch as an I o r P. C re a te the
lo o p by cro ssin g b ack o v e r th e stem
and pulling the stroke o u t to the right.
F o r m a l a r m se rifs
T h is form al ty p e o f serif p rovid es an
eleg an t co n tra st to th e flourishes. In
co n s tru c tio n , it clo sely im itates the
b ru sh -d raw n Im perial C ap ital se rif 4.7 > (i
(pp. 1 1 0 - 1 1 9 ) . O n re a ch in g th e end
o f th e arm , b eg in to tw ist th e pen
fro m 3 0 ° to th e vertical.

100
 I t a l ic S w a s h C a p it a l s

T -~~T

TI\
V
J 6

H ie second stroke
o f the N is drawn
just below the
baseline

The tail o f the

0 C O
X extends below
the baseline and
terminates with
a swash

The tail of the Y

is looped and
extends to the
T he foot o f the P right o f the letter

£
can he omitted

The tail o f Z extends

below the baseline and
terminates with a swash
.4 P / T he foot on the
stem o f the R
can be omitted This simple upright fonn
The stem o f this o f E can be adapted fo r
upright form o f B letters B , D , F , H , I, K ,

s
features a wedge serif P, R , and T

Upright Swash Capitals, such as

this 13 and E , can replace Italic
Capitals (pp. 9 8 —9 9 ) in Italic text

A lte r n a tiv e B A lte r n a tiv e E

101
P o st- R e n a is s a n c e S c r ip t s

Copperplate
script began life as a quickly
lth o u g h th e Ita lic

A .penned, cursive version o f the Humanist Minuscule,

by the beginning o f the 16th century it had becom e a
formal script in its own right with a correspondingly
slower ductus (pp. 9 4 -9 5 ). In 1574, an instruction manual
for Italic script was printed from tex t that had been
engraved on sheets o f copper with a pointed tool known
C o p p e r p l a t e C a p it a l B
as a burin. The hand developed for this new engraving The stem o f the A lth o u g h w r itte n to th e sariie stro k e
method, combined with the narrower pen and slanted Copperplate Capital th ick n e ss as th e m in im s . C o p p e rp la te
usually terminates C ap itals te n d t o b e re la tiv e ly large
writing angle that scribes had begun to favour, led to the with a blob (p p. 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 ) . T h e d e g r e e o f
e x p a n sio n o r c o n t r a c t i o n sh ou ld
em ergence o f a new handwritten script: Copperplate. c lo s e ly e c h o th a t o f th e m in im .

T h e p r i n c i p a l i n n o v a t i o n o f the
Copperplate was that, for the first
time, all the letters in a word were
linked, making it a fast and practical
hand to write. Bv J
the m id -18th
century, it was the established script
o f com m erce, replacing the various
A ///’ /A /:. jA //A ,A /\ //c y/m /yy/yA j /A
bastard hands that had previously been Z ///A JA iY/Z/AyJ . A//A y///\ /////A / / / / / / Z /A .jA /' ffl/O ,
used for much business and vernacular
work in Europe (pp. 66—79). k JA w A v /y j / / ///t yyw jr’ A<'/\A A<’a^> z/ZA y////’- ,.A z -y /
Throughout the 17th and 18th
' ^ AA/A/t’./', //'> /A y A y/ y//’. / //’/ A yy///y
centuries, Copperplate writing also
acquired the status o f an art form jt. A / / ) / / A y/ // cm /'./ - A y /'/r ^ /.i //A m /4 //// //////"&,
suitable for gentle folk, who used
the impressive script for both private . A )///A /a jy /A y ///y ,/////A * A w j/./ ////m A y . /A yo . ^
and business correspondence.
Eventually, Copperplate replaced
the Humanist hands - including
the Italic itself — altogether.

T h e U n iv e r s a l P e n m a n
T h is v e rs io n o f an in s tru c tio n a l t e x t b y S am u el
2/ V a u x is f ro m T h e Universal P en m a n, a ce le b ra te d
v o lu m e o f e n g ra v e d w o r k b y th e callig ra p h e r and
e n g ra v e r G e o rg e B ic k h a m . P u b lish ed in 1 7 4 3 , the
jZ C t Z C r & t e .y Z '/ e y Z i - y Z s C rA e /Z ( 4 e!es~c<°cr e y 'A /t r e /'Ye<_ , b o o k e p ito m iz e d th e e le g a n t w r itin g m a n u a ls o f
th e 1 8 th c e n t u r y . T h e e n g r a v e d le tte rs, w ritte n
sZs / l (>, A e.V ~ eY e<YY ee../Z r y Z Ye, tr, ^ * Y ex s . . e- ,
w ith v e r y fe w lifts o f th e t o o l , clo se ly fo llo w
A z// //c 2 ty u y d ( A sA ^Yf } o * s * Z<2_ Zip f Y y Y s s . S / yc . , p e n - d r a w n C o p p e r p la te le tte rfo rm s .

e At i *z/ Sj . W a l p u r g is N i g h t
T h is h a n d w r itte n t e x t o f a p o e m b y th e artist
Zi n Y A err.. r Y
R i c h a r d D a d d d ates fro m a b o u t 1 8 4 0 . T h e letters
/A cZ Zy / A L /*< c yYs- C C Z a clo se ly f o llo w th e a p p ro v e d “ s c h o o l " h a n d o f
th e p e r io d : th e m in im s a re sm all, a sc e n d e rs a re
/ Y s< 7) 1£ < * e ; . Z f e Z c-Z A e c y Z e Z — Y e*^ , J f c / e t Y /c e A' / Z & eo-cr. re la tiv e ly la rg e a n d u n lo o p e d , a n d th e h a n d is
w r itte n a t th e v e r y ste e p a n g le o f n e a rly 4 0 ° .

10 2
 C o pperplate

y a a c /* . L J e /w e a s / u ) < y a a ( / - / / a Z a r r a r e a e a e r a e ^ / a r a / e e / ,z / t a z/ts /y a a r a /t Z Z / a r Z / '^ —

Zio j zZaayZ//azZar/a/jT; ZycmZ-ZZ/Za/r, Zy/ /aZ//eZt Z/m ea/r Z /)r//yZre/ar a/a/Z<a/uZory

/.) zZry^/rarZ/rZ/j/r/yZz ZZ Z ea/aa, a/ZacZi c^/zece/ZZZy /i'/ZZy/aeaZZa/aa/ice ZaZZie .

» Z'a/Z///yjo^aZZte/a, Zy ea//.<Z/Z’?///y z/aZ zZte/re /. / //azZanyyterjZccZ z/z r^ZZzzzzZ/zzzZ). ^

T he U n iv e r s a l P e n m an

T h is e n g ra v in g o f an in stru ction al
t e x t b y W . K ip p a x is also fro m
G e o r g e B i c k h a m ’s Universal
Penm an. N o t i c e th e lo o p e d an d
u n lo o p e d fo rm s o f a sc e n d e rs
used; o n th e th ird lin e, th e w o rd
“ w h i c h ” in c lu d e s b o th ty p es.

“C om m and o f hand”
In o r d e r to m a in ta in th e ir statu s as te a c h e rs ,
th e 1 8 t h - c e n t u r y w r itin g m a ste rs o fte n
p r o d u c e d a series o f v irtu o s o callig ra p h ic
p e r f o r m a n c e s th a t w e r e e a c h k n o w n as The strokes cross each
“ s trik in g ” o r “ c o m m a n d o f h a n d ” , in w h ic h other at the most acme C o p p e r p la te in e d u c a tio n
in c re a sin g ly c o m p l e x b a r o q u e flo u rish es w e r e angle possible The adoption o f Copperplate script
p r o d u c e d w i th o u t th e r e m o v a l o f p e n fro m
p a p e r. T h is o rn a te w o r k is o n e s u c h e x a m p le . The loops, drawn to varying sizes, would
occurred remarkably rapidly, a
have been carefully planned in advance phenomenon owing partly to the role
in education of the writing master.
C o pperpla te w o rk sh o p
In le tte rp re ss p rin tin g , th e raised In the past, writing skills had been
s u rfa ce o f th e ty p e is in k e d an d taught by university academics, but,
im p ressed o n to p ap er. In co p p e rp la te
(in ta g lio ) p r in tin g , th is p ro c e s s is by the late 17th century, increasing
r e v e rse d . In k is a p p lie d to th e literacy and the demands o f business
in scrib e d su rfa ce a n d w ip e d fro m th e
f a ce o f th e p la te . D a m p e n e d p a p e r is created the need for a teacher who
th e n p ressed o n t o th e p la te , p ic k in g taught writing exclusively. Examples
u p th e in k f ro m th e re ce sse s . In this
e n g r a v in g , w e c a n see th e p a p e r
o f writing m asters’ work were
b e in g f o r c e d o n t o th e p la te , w h ile , reproduced by copperplate
in th e b a c k g r o u n d , p rin te d sh e e ts
a re d ry in g o n th e ra ck s.
engraving, and schoolbook manuals
began to supersede the elegant
writing manuals —such as The
The calligrapher has Universal Penman —that had
I broken with Copperplate previously been widely favoured.
, / convention by looping
T ech n ica l s k ill
f f /y f/y I die letter d
By the 19th century, Copperplate was
the standard school hand in Europe
D a v id H a r r i s
In th e p ast, th e p r o d u c tio n and the United States o f America,
o f C o p p e r p la te sc rip t fro m and students were judged as much
ty p e w a s a v e r y lim itin g
p ro ce ss - j o in s d id n o t fully on writing technique as the content
c o n n e c t a n d a sc e n d e rs a n d o f their work. This emphasis on
d e s c e n d e rs w e r e a tr o p h ie d .
T h is 1 9 8 4 d esig n f o r a
technical skill lasted well into the
C o p p e rp la te ty p e fa ce sh o w s 20th century, when the Copperplate
s m o o th ly lin k ed le tte rs th a t
pen was usurped by the ball-point
a re v e ry c lo s e in f o n n to
th e e n g r a v e d sc rip t. pen, typewriter, and word processor.

103
P o st- R e n a is s a n c e S c r ip t s

Copperplate
is probably the most cursive of all hands.
HIS EL EG A N T S C R IP T T h e bowl o f the

T Most letters can be written in one stroke and there are few
pen lifts between letters. Minims can be slightly compressed and
a is enclosed

the characteristic loops of the ascenders and descenders can be

drawn either open or enclosed. The best effects are often achieved
by using compressed minims with enclosed loops. The fine lines
of the burin engraving (pp. 102-103) are difficult to replicate with T h e bowl o f the
b is open
a steel nib but, with practice, impressive results can be achieved.

T h e forw ard lean o f the

Copperplate letter is
about 3 0 °
The ascender
T o o l s e le c tio n o f the d is
A lw ays use a p o in te d not looped
nib for C o p p e rp la te
letters. A flexible T h e bowl o f the
draw ing nib o r pu rp ose- d is enclosed
m ad e C o p p e rp la te nib
w ill ensure th e best
variation o f thick and
thin strokes.

IVIien strokes overlap, keep the pen angle

as close to 9 0 ° as the script will allow

A d ju s t in g t h e p r e s s u r e
T h e pressure is adjusted tw ice o n the
average m in im stro k e. B eg in w ith a
gende pressure to p ro d u ce a fine line,
T h e bowl o f the
increase it to th ick en th e stro k e at
g is enclosed
the ce n tre o f th e m in im , th en relax
it again at th e b o tto m o f th e stroke.

Avoid joining
letters close to
T h e looped
the baseline
ascender o f the
L i n k i n g le t t e r s
h can be open
Lin k letters w h e re v e r possible,
or enclosed
en su rin g th at th e link is as high up
th e stem as is p racticab le. D o n o t
jo in letters n ear th e ir base.

Try to leave a neat

triangle o f space
between each letter

In te rn a l sp a ce s T h e loop o f the
O n c e y o u h av e d ecid ed w h e th e r to j is enclosed
use co m p ressed o r exp an d ed m in im s,
m ak e sure each c o u n te r co n tain s the
sam e a m o u n t o f sp ace. T h e in ter­
letter space sh ou ld be ap p ro xim ately
h a lf th e internal space.

104
 C opperplate

T h e top loop o f
the k can be
open or enclosed

T h e ascender o f
the 1 can be looped

T h e top loop o f the v

can be open or enclosed

T h e two loops o f
the w are enclosed

T he stem o f the p

T h e loop o f the y
is enclosed

T h e bowl o f the
q is enclosed

T h e fin a l loop o f
the z is enclosed

The fu ll r has two

looped strokes
Letterforms can be slightly
T h e small top modified to accommodate the
loop o f the h alf r connecting strokes
can be open

Copperplate is written with

as fe w pen lifts as possible:
T h e s is the only this word can be written with
Copperplate letter in This fo rm o f f is the most only one pen lift - f o r the
the alphabet with no form al and restrained o f crossbar o f the t
natural linking stroke all possible options

105
P o st- R e n a is s a n c e S c r ip t s

Copperplate Capitals
A M ONGST TH E m o r euseful practical advice offered in the
Copperplate manuals of the 19th century (pp. 102—103)
l

is this tip from writing masters James Lewis and Joseph

Carstairs: “The writing hand should be lightly supported by the
tip of the little finger and the forearm free to move in a circular
movement”. This can very helpfully be applied to the drawing
of Copperplate Capitals, a script in which the precise control
of pressure on the pen is central to the execution of each letter.

A s a general rule, the

thick stroke should not
continue into the curve;
avoid this happening
by controlling the pen
pressure
i m Increase the
/ M pressure at
/ f this point

Decrease the
pressure at this point

In co rre c t S
T h is S show s h o w th e le tte r will
lo o k i f the pressure o n th e pen is n o t
m eticu lo u sly co n tro lle d . T h e stroke
should o n ly in crease in w e ig h t w h en
follo w in g th e angle o f th e italic slope.
C o rrect S
T o d raw th e S c o rre c tly , b eg in the
stroke w ith light pressure, increasing it
w h en re a ch in g th e italic slope angle.
D ecrease th e pressure w h e n m o v in g
aw ay fro m th e italic slope angle.

L o o p s sh ou ld balan ce o v e r the
up rig h t axis an d , w h e n used spirally,
should dim inish p ro p o rtio n ately ,
rath er like a snail’s shell.
C ro s s in g stro k e s
As a ru le, thin strokes can cro ss b o th
th ick stro k es an d o th e r thin strokes.
H o w e v e r , th ick stro k es sh ou ld n e v e r
b e crossed w ith o th e r th ick strokes.

C a p ita ls
an d m in u s c u le s A ll the loops should
N e v e r use C o p p erp late closely relate to each
Capitals to w rite a w hole other in proportion
w o rd . W h e r e several
capitals have to be used,
su ch as for initials, plan
the letters very carefully.
W h e n used to begin
a w o rd (pp. 1 0 4 - 1 0 5 ) ,
th e features o f the W hen
C o p p e rp la te C apital H ere, the tail o f the L terminating a
can be adapted to has been elongated and stroke, fin ish with a
co m p le m e n t the lowered to complement hairline or apply pressure
m inuscules. the minuscule letters on the p en to leave a blob

106
C o p p e r p l a t e C a p it a l s

10 7
R o m a n 8^ L a t e R o m a n S c r ip t s
Imperial Capitals
h e Im p e r ia l C a p i t a l ( Capitalis
Monumentalis)
T
was the letter used on the monuments o f
Ancient Rom e to proclaim the might o f the
Roman Empire, and is indisputably the most
stately o f all scripts. The earliest examples o f
a mature Imperial letter date from the first
century B .C ., and some o f the finest models are
inscribed on the base o f the Trajan Column in
Rome (opposite). These stone-cut letters were
carved directly on top o f brush-drawn forms
(pp. 110—111), their proportions dictated
by the natural movement o f the hand.
J
with serifs had
C a p ita l l e t t e r s
heen written by the Greeks from the
fourth centurv B . C . . However, it was
only when the Romans developed a
springy, broad-edged brush from the
hairs o f the red sable that it became
technically possible to draw serifs and
other letter parts quickly and with
precision. When used within the
natural compass of the hand, this tool
proved crucial in determining the
shape o f the Imperial Capital itself.
A k e y ju n c t io n
In a society with a high degree of
literacy hut without the benefit o f
the printed word, Roman scribes
and signwriters performed key
functions. Although what remains
of their work is fragmentary, we do
know, from one small painted section
o f an election poster in Pompeii, that
by simplifying some strokes —the
Imperial Capital was adapted from
the prestige letters o f state for use
in everyday
J J
documentation.
The Imperial Capital has proved to
he the most enduring o f all scripts.
Over 2 ,0 0 0 years after it was first
used, its form remains virtually
unchanged, as the capital letters in
the type print o f this book testify.
108
a The proportions o f Diircr’s letter A are
based on a subdivided square, with the
serifs based on compass-drawn circles
D u r e r ’s c l a s s i c a l A
T h e analysis a n d re d isco v e ry ' o f
a n tiq u e le tte rs w a s a m a tte r o f
g re a t in d u stry fo r R e n a issa n ce
sch o la rs a n d artists. T h is Im p erial
C a p ita l, d ra w n b y A lb re c h t
D iir e r in 1 5 2 5 , d e m o n s tra te s the
w id e sp re a d b e lie f th a t th e k e y to
u n d e rs ta n d in g classical letters lay
in g e o m e t r i c d isse ctio n .
The frequency o f the
occurrence of Q in Latin
text provides a distinct
design advantage, with the
tail gra c fu lly descending
below the baseline________
The regulation of space
between letters, words,
and lines was o f primary
concern to the Roman scribe
D e t a il f r o m t h e V ia A p f ia M o n u m e n t
In this in s crip tio n o n th e V ia A p p ia M o n u m e n t,
th e in te rlin e a r s p a ce is eq u al t o a b o u t h a lf the
h e ig h t o f a le tte r . W e r e th e sp a cin g a n y tig h te r,
as it is o n th e A r c h o f C o n s ta n tin e (opposite), the
ea se o f h o r iz o n ta l sca n w o u ld b e re d u c e d and
th e le tte rs w o u ld b e c o m e ju m b le d .
Compare the intcr-letler spaces o f
the eleventh line tvith those o f the
twelfth to sec how the spaces have
been compressed to accommodate
the allocation o f text
V ia A p p ia M o n u m e n t
T h e b e a u tifu l p r o p o rtio n s o f th e le tte rs o n this
m o n u m e n t in th e V ia A p p ia , R o m e , c o m p a r e
v e ry fa v o u ra b ly w ith th o s e o n th e base o f the
T ra ja n C o l u m n (opposite). S u ch a large a m o u n t
o f t e x t w o u ld h a v e r e q u ire d co n s id e ra b le
fo rw a rd p la n n in g . T h e initial a llo ca tio n o f
w o rd s t o e a c h lin e m a y h a v e b e e n c a lcu la te d
o n a w a x ta b le t o r slate, b e f o re w o r k in g rules
w e r e d ra w n to le tte r h e ig h t o n th e m a rb le .
O n c e th e p o s itio n o f th e le tte rs w a s m a rk e d
in c h a lk b e tw e e n th e ru le s, th e le tte rs w e r e
p a in te d w ith a b ru sh . O n ly th e n w e r e th e
w o rd s a ctu a lly c a r v e d in to th e s to n e .
 Im p e r ia l C a p it a l s

sro i:v
^ A i l i n l V l N l RVAEF
, 0 A\ ®X ’ E RA 1
\
M A X R IiA X X W
i m AAI \l\ \N 1m l'0\ \NTA1 ALTIT'VPIN l>
MANM VAX V>*& v v n 1 Cii s i v v

T h e T r a ja n C o l u m n The letters on the lop line are The letter A, like the N F a t h e r C atich
T h is in s crip tio n o n th e base o f th e T ra ja n I I S centimetres ( 4 ‘6 inches) and M , has a pointed
Since the Renaissance, Imperial
C o l u m n in R o m e , c u t in a .d . 1 1 2 - 3 , is 2 .7 4 high, reducing to 9 .6 apex, afo rm o f Imperial
m e tre s ( 9 fe et) w id e a n d 1 .1 5 m e tre s (3 feet centimetres (V U inches) on Capital more difficult to Capital letters have been studied,
9 in ch es) h ig h . T h e in scrip tio n , c o m m e m o r a tin g the bottom line probably construct than the analyzed, improved, and recreated by
th e b attles o f T r a ja n ag ain st G e r m a n y an d D a cia , indicating the relative common serifed orJlat-
b e g in s w ith th e p h ra s e “ S E N A T V S P O P V L V S importance o f the words headed letter (p . 11 3J countless scholars and calligraphers.
Q V E R O M A N V S " ( “ T h e S e n a te a n d P e o p le o f However, it is only through the
R o m e ” ) . T h e le tte rs w e r e o rig in a lly c o l o u r e d T h e A r c h o f C o n s t a n t in e
re d s o th a t th e y w o u ld stan d o u t f ro m th e T h is m o n u m e n t d a te s f ro m a . d . 3 1 5 , s o m e 2 0 0
pioneering work o f a modern scholar,
b a c k g ro u n d . W o r d s a re s e p a ra te d b y a m ed ia l y e a rs afte r th e T r a ja n C o l u m n (above). In s o m e the late Father E.M . Catich, that we
in t e r - p o i n t an d th e h o r iz o n ta l s tr o k e o v e r w a y s, it m a rk s th e d e g e n e r a tio n o f R o m e , sin ce
can now fully understand the ductus
ce r ta in le tte rs in d ica te s th e ir u se as n u m e ra ls. m a n y o f th e sta tu e s a n d reliefs o n th e c o l u m n
h a v e b e e n s c a v e n g e d f ro m e a r lie r w o r k . T h e o f the hand. His analysis o f Roman
le tte rs a re s q u a r e - c u t in s h a llo w relief.
letter construction was demonstrated
The words "S E N A T V S P O P V L V S O rig in a lly , th e g ro o v e s w o u ld h a v e h o u s e d
Q V E R O M A N V S ” W e been abbreviated to b r o n z e le tte rs - th e c ir c u la r fix in g h o le s c a n on 19 letters o f the alphabet in his
" S .P .Q .R , "and relegated to the second line still b e se e n in sid e e a c h le tte r. definitive work, The Origin o f the Seri),
published in 1968. These methods
are interpreted for all 26 letters in
the following pages (pp. 110—119).
S p o n ta n e o u s le tte r s
The great strength and beauty of
the Imperial Capital lies in the fact
that the letters can be written with
spontaneity, the tool and hand
determining the form, and one letter
part relating naturally to the next.
In much modern work, excessive
pre-planning can have the effect o f
making the letters appear laboured.
However, the methods explained in
following pages will enable the
modern scribe to work in the same
way as his or her Roman forebears
and produce spontaneous letters
for our own time.

109
R o m a n S ^ L a t e R o m a n S c r ip t s

Imperial Capitals: Brush Strokes

N O R D ER TO RECREATE authentic Imperial Capitals, it is essential to use a

I broad-edged brush. This should be made from sable or synthetic hairs,

which are fine enough to create a sharp clean edge when wet. Imperial
A mahlstick is useful fo r
keeping the hand clear o f

Capitals are constructed either from “pulled” or “manipulated” strokes, the writing surface.

or from a combination of both. In both types of stroke, the angle between

the brush and the work surface is equally as important as the angle of the
brush edge on the letter. When drawing letters with a brush, differences in
stroke thickness are created by many factors, including changes in rhythm
and tempo, and the increase or decrease of pressure on the tool. This B ru sh m o v e m en t

sensitivity is generally most apparent on “manipulated” strokes (opposite). f o r “ p u l l e d ” stro k e s

W ith th e hand resting
d irectly o n th e w ork
T h e b a s i c “ p u l le d ” s t r o k e su rface, th e m ov em en t
T h e “ pu lled” stro k e is used in the m ajo rity o f Im perial A movement o f about o f the brush will be very
C apital le tter strokes. T h e basic “ pu lled ” stro k e is the fiv e or six centimetres small for a “ pulled”
v ertical stem stro k e. F o r this, th e hand m o v e s o n ly slightly, (two inches) can be stro k e - a b o u t tw o or
w ith th e in d ex finger d raw n to w ard s th e palm o f th e han d, achieved with the hand th re e ce n tim e tre s (one
cau sing th e brush to b e pulled d o w n w ard s. resting on a mahlstick in c h ). W ith the right
hand resting o n the left
han d o r o n a m ahlstick,
T h e index fin ger th e m o v e m e n t can be
should be positioned increased.
on the ferrule o f
the brush
3 . C o n tin u e pu llin g th e brush 4 . O n letters B . D , E ,
d o w n w a rd s, slightly re d u cin g and L . th e vertical stem
th e pressure as y o u re a ch the stro k e is co n tin u e d into
c e n tre o f th e stem - this will the b o tto m horizontal
g iv e th e stro k e a slight w aist. a rm . In these instances,
Increase th e pressure again th e angle o f the brush
and , at the b o tto m o f the stem , ed g e on th e letter
b eg in to lift th e brush w hile should be a b o u t 3 0 ° .
m o v in g to th e righ t.
A djust the brush angle to
3 0 ° f o r the addition o f a
1 . B eg in the stro k e w ith the brush
thicker stroke to the right
at a fairly flat angle to th e su rface.
G en tly e d g e th e b ru sh to th e
rig h t an d begin th e d o w n w ard
sw eep o f th e stroke. 2 . As y o u m o v e d o w n w ard s
in to th e stem , gradually pull
th e brush to w ard s th e palm
o f y o u r h an d , until it is
alm ost up right.

O t h e r “ p u lle d ” s tr o k e s
T h e brush is held in a
sim ilar w ay o n cu rv ed Letters A , M , and
strokes as o n vertical always begin with c This sweeping
strokes, b u t instead o f pointed apex stroke is used
Opposing
d raw in g th e brush tow ard s “pulled" on C , G , O ,
sweep fo r
the palm o f the h an d , the stroke This is an iS Q
letters D ,
hand m o v e s in a sem i­ alternative left
O ,a n d Q
circu la r m o v e m e n t to the serif for A , M
righ t o r left. T o m ak e this T h e centre stroke and N
m o v e m e n t sm o o th and o f the S is both
easy, th e angle o f the “p ulled" and
This tail stroke o f K , R ,
brush edge o n the letter sweeping
I and Q is executed with
should be a b o u t 1 5 °. Letters M , N ,
the brush turned to 3 0 °
V , and W have
a diagonal stroke
Sm all semi­ that turns upwards
circular sweeps at the baseline
occur on B , P,
and R

n o
 Im p e r ia l C a p it a l s : B r u s h S t r o k e s

T h e “ m a n ip u la te d ” stro k e T o p le ft s e r i f o n T a n d Z
T o d raw “ m an ip u lated ” strokes,
y o u n e e d to b e able to tw irl the
brush th ro u g h 1 8 0 ° . T o m ak e this
possible, hold th e brush b etw een
th u m b and in d e x finger w ith an
angle o f a b o u t 9 0 ° b e tw e e n the
k
brush and th e w o rk su rface.
“ M an ip u lated ” strokes are used to
i
cre a te th e fo u r m ain types o f serifs in
Im p erial C apitals: th e to p left serifs
and arm s o f letters T and Z (above
right); th e to p serifs that term in ate the
arm s o f letters C , E , F , G , S , and T
(right); the b o tto m serifs and arm s 1. B eg in th e to p left se rif o n th e 2. T w irl th e brush to 3 0 ° to cre a te 3. W ith o u t adjusting the angle o f the
o f C , E , L , and Z (below); and th e T and Z by b rin g in g th e brush th e left serif, slightly in creasin g the brush e d g e o n th e le tte r, m o v e the
b o tto m left se rif o f th e S (below right). d o w n w ard s in a sh ort stro k e. pressure as th e brush tw irls. brush h o rizon tally to cre a te th e arm .
A lth ou gh the to p strokes o f C ,
S, and G are cu rv e d , th e princip le
rem ains th e sam e as fo r th e straight
to p arm s o f th e E and E . F o r the T o p rig h t s e r if o n C , E , F , G , Rotate the brush, pivoting Finish the arm with the
b o tto m anns o f E , L . and Z , the brush S, and T it at the top right corner left comer o f the bmsh
is positio n ed so that th e angle o f the
e d g e o n th e letter is a b o u t 1 5 0 ° . T h e
strokes o f th e to p serifs are k n o w n as
“ fo rw a rd " and th o se o f th e b o tto m
serifs as “ re v e rse ” . T h e b o tto m serif The angle
o f th e S is u n ique in that th e brush o f the bmsh
begins rather than ends at the serif tip. edge on the
letter is 3 0

1. T o cre a te th e to p righ t serif 2 . C o n tin u e m o v in g th e brush 3 . C o n tin u e to ro ta te th e brush on

o f C , £ , F , G , S, and T , h o ld the
brush in an u p rig h t p o sitio n and
b eg in th e h o rizon tal stro k e w ith
the brush edge o n the letter at 3 0 ° .
B o t t o m a r m an d rig h t
s e r if o n C , E , L , an d Z
horizontally, m aintaining the angle o f
3 0 ° until the brush approaches the end
o f th e a rm . A t this p o in t, begin to
ro ta te the brush o n its righ t c o rn e r.
B o t t o m s e r if
on S
its left c o r n e r until th e edge is 9 0 ° to
th e a rm . Finally, m o v e it dow nw ards
slightly and “ ed g e o f f ’, gen tly lifting
the brush fro m the surface.

TI The angle o f The angle of

the bmsh edge the bmsh edge
on the letter is on the letter is
about 1 5 0 ° about 1 5 0 °

1 . T o create the b o tto m am i and right 2 . O n re a ch in g th e en d o f th e stro k e, 1 . T h e b o tto m serif o f th e S is the 2 . T w irl the brush to 3 0 ° and cu rve to
serif o n C , E , E , and Z , begin w ith the tw irl th e brush to th e v ertical, then o n ly b o tto m s e rif o n th e left side the right and upw ards. W o rk carefully,
angle o f th e brush ed g e o n th e letter m o v e upw ards and ed g e off, finishing o f a le tte r. B e g in a t th e tip o f the fo r th e first part o f th e stroke will be
at a b o u t 1 5 0 ° , and m o v e to th e righ t. o n th e left c o r n e r o f th e brush. serif, m o v in g the brush dow nw ards. o b scu red b y y o u r hand.

S tra ig h t an d cu rv e d
“ m a n i p u l a t e d ” s tr o k e s

Curved 'forward” “Fonvard" stroke

stroke used on the top preceded by a serif
"Fonvard" stroke used
curve o f C , G , and S on T and Z
on the top and centre
amis o f the E and F
Cuw ed "reverse"
Curved “reverse" stroke
stroke used on the
beginning at the tip o f the
bottom curve o f C
serif - used only on S
“Reverse" stroke used on the
bottom arm o f E , L, and Z

111
R o m a n <SlL a t e R o m a n S c r i p t s

Imperial Capitals: Construction

HE26 C H ARACTERS constructed in the following pages are based on the 19 letters
T included in the inscription on the base of the Trajan Column in Rome (pp. 108—109).
The two Greek-derived letters, Yand Z, are based on other Roman sources, and the
remaining three letters, J, U, and W, are modern characters, which, as such, are open
to individual interpretation. In principle, the letters adhere to the ductus described
bv Father E.M. Catich in his book The Origin of the Serif. Each letter is individually
demonstrated bv stroke sequence and brush angle. The pressure on the brush and
the speed at which the strokes are drawn will vary from the brush of one calligrapher T h e first stroke - the
to another, and the rhythm that suits you best will be acquired with practice. key to the letter - is
drawn in pink

Fine stem S ix stem Seven stem N ine stem N ine stem Ten stem
widths widths widths widths widths widths
O ne stem width

BXANM C o lo u r c o d in g
E a ch le tte r has b een co n stru cte d from

PZCOW
a series o f c o lo u r -c o d e d strokes: pink
indicates the first stro k e , purple the
9 .5 stem se c o n d , g re e n th e th ird , and y e llow
widths th e fo u rth . T h e freq uently ch an g in g
brush angles are rep resen ted by a
series o f w h ite lines across the stroke.

TDRQ
L e tte r w e ig h t
It is generally assum ed
that the w e ig h t - the
relationship b etw een GU T h e H is created
L e tte r p r o p o rtio n s
W h e n w ritin g a series o f Im p erial C apitals, it is

HV
stem w id th and stem
from two Is jo ined essential to k n o w the relative w idth o f o n e Imperial
h eight - o f th e T rajan
with a crossbar___ C apital to an o th e r. T h e w idth o f a letter - including
letter is 1 0 :1 . A balan ce
serifs - is m easured in stem w idths. T h e apparent
o f 1 1 : 1 is generally
discrepancy in w eig h t b etw een rou nded and straight
co n sid ered accep tab le,
letters is optical; ro u n d e r letters appear lighter than
alth o u g h th e actu al
straight o n es. T o o u r m o d e rn eyes, this can be
le tte r w e ig h t is
TheJillet between the displeasing and th e effect is “ c o r re c te d ” by the
a b o u t 9 .5 :1 .
serif and stem o f an ad d itio n o f e x tra w e ig h t to th e cu rv e d strokes.
Imperial Capital can be A rg u ab ly , th e original w e ig h t differences give the
slightly fu ller than this Im p erial inscriptions a m o re natural rh y th m than
th at a ch ie v e d in m o re form al m o d e rn w o rk .

A r a b ic n u m e r a ls

N u m e ra ls
A lth o u g h A rab ic nu m erals w e re n o t
in tro d u ce d in to E u ro p e until the
13th c e n tu ry , a v o id in g th eir use in
favo u r o f R o m a n nu m erals can b e an
in cu m b ra n ce in m o d ern calligraphy.
A rabic nu m erals can be d raw n using
1234567890
S tr o k e o r d e r
f o r n u m e r a ls 2
a sim ilar d u ctu s to th e Im perial
C apital letters and ca n be co n ta in e d
w ith in th e cap ital h eig h t. T h e 0 is
usually a n a rro w n u m eral, but if
used singly, it can be m ad e w id er,
resem b lin g a letter O (p. 1 1 6 ).

112
 Im p e r ia l C a p it a l s : C o n s t r u c t io n

T h e small gap
can l>efilled
after the letter
is completed

F la t -h e a d e d A
hi modem work, the crossbar
o f the A tends to he positioned
lower than this
Im p e ria l C a p ita l A
S erife d A A lth o u g h m o s t R o m a n A s w e re flat­
h ead ed , all o f th e A s on the Trajan
inscrip tion (pp. 1 0 8 - 1 0 9 } are pointed .
W h e n b u ilding th e p o in te d serif, it is
essential to draw the ap ex first. Y o u will
n o tice th at a small gap is left b e tw een
the first and th e se co n d strokes.
H istorically, on sto n e -cu t letters, this
gap co u ld be e rad icated w ith a
chisel. F o r th e b ru sh -d raw n
v letter, the gap can be left
as it is o r it can by filled
in w ith the brush.

In post-Renaissance times, an T h e third stroke o f the A can

> E d g e o ff the serif
inner serif was included oil the alternatively he drawn as a
with the tip o f
right leg o f the A - this is continuation o f the Jirst stroke
the brush
omitted in modem work

T h e right axis o f the arc

is above the horizontal

The second and third

strokes o f the B can be
combined in a single Im p e ria l C a p ita l B
sweeping stroke______
O n th e B . the fillet b e tw e e n th e stem
and cu rv e o f th e lo w e r b o w l is an
im p o rta n t ch a ra cte ristic, w h ich only
o cc u rs on th e b ru sh -d ra w n letter. It will
o n ly o c c u r at th e b o tto m o f the stem ,
n e v e r at th e to p . T h e to p b o w l is alw ays
sm aller than the b o tto m and the jo in in g
stroke alw ays ab o v e th e ste m ’s ce n tre .
T h e b o tto m b o w l can alternatively be
co n s tru cte d w ith a single sw eep .

T urn the brush fro m the horizontal

to .1 0 ° and move along the baseline

I m p e ria l C a p ita l C
T h e to p and b o tto m strokes o f the
C a re pulled o u t horizon tally and do
n o t cu rv e inw ards. T h e tw o serifed
T h e axis o f the left o f
Tu rn the brush over and twist arm s are v e ry sim ilar in co n stru ctio n
the arc is below the
from 1 5 0 ° to the vertical to to th o se 011 th e E (p. 1 1 4 ), w h ich
h o rizo n ta l____________
sh ou ld be used as a m od el. T h e only
d ifferen ce is th at th e am is o n th e C
are cu rv e d , n o t straight. R e m e m b e r
to turn th e brush o v e r to 1 5 0 ° for
th e b o tto m stro k e.

113
R o m a n 8c L a t e R o m a n S c r i p t s

Pull the stroke to the right

before commencing the arc

Im p e ria l C a p ita l D
As o n th e letter B (p. 1 1 3 ), the stem
and ro u n d e d stro k e o f the D are
co n n e cte d w ith a fillet. T his is always
at th e b o tto m o f the le tte r - n ev er
at th e to p . T h e w idth o f th e letter
presents a p ro b lem in co n n e ctin g
th e baseline stro k e to the b o w l. In
a n ticip atin g this, the T rajan scribe
sloped th e stem slightly to th e right,
in m o d e rn usage, the stem is upright.

T he L is constructedfrom Twist the brush from

the stem and foot o f the E 3 0 ° to 9 0 ° to create
the top serif

Im p e ria l C a p ita ls E , F , an d L
In T h e Origin o f the Serif, C a tich
regards th e E as th e key le tte r in
determ in in g the form o f the Imperial
le tte r. T h is is o w in g to the fact that
th e length o f th e to p arm and the
size and fom i o f the serif are natural
strokes - in C a tic h ’s w o rd s, “ the
m o st satisfyingly natural stroke the
brush m ak es” . T h e re fo re th e E is
an ideal le tte r w ith w h ich to start
learn in g th e brush te ch n iq u e . T h e
F is cre a te d in the sam e w ay as E but
w ith o u t the fo o t, w hile the L is made
up o f th e stem and fo o t o f th e E .

For the fourth stroke o f the

E , turn the brush over and
twist from 1 5 0 ° to 9 0 °

The top serif o f the

G should balance over
the right side o f the
•hort stem
To create the top serif o f the G , pull
the stroke horizontally to the right
before twisting from 3 0 ° to 9 0 °

The stem o f the G is

about half the height
o f a full-size stem _

Im p e ria l C a p ita l G
F o r practical purp oses, th e G is the
C (p. / 13) co m b in e d w ith the up per
h a lf o f th e stem o f th e I {p. 1 1 5 ).
T h e to p se rif is a m anipu lated stroke
sim ilar to th e to p arm o f E (above).

114
 Im p e r ia l C a p it a l s : C o n s t r u c t io n

Im p e ria l
C a p ita ls H , I , an d J
T h e H , /, and J are very
alike in th e ir basic form .
As a m o d e rn letterfo rm ,
th e J can be partly y o u r
o w n in v en tio n - for
in stan ce, th e tail can be
ex te n d e d and edged o ff
w ith a fine hairline stroke.
T h e / is the basis for all the
serifed, stem m ed letters
in the hand. T h e H is
co n s tru cte d from tw o h .

w
The tail o f the J can sweep
f - out fu rth er to the left

. This arm is similar to

the right fo rk o f the V
(p - u s ;

Im p e ria l C a p ita l K
T h e arm and leg o f th e K c o n n e c t to
th e stem w ith a p o in t. It is accep tab le
to leav e a sm all gap b e tw e e n arm
and le g ju n c tu re and th e stem . T his is
preferab le to co n n e c tin g th e leg to a
p o in t o n th e length o f th e arm . A lter
th e angle o f th e brush o n th e third
stro k e to finish at the horizon tal.

T urn the Imislt to the

horizontal before edging o ff

Im p e ria l C a p ita l M
A lthough m o re co m m o n ly
flat-top p ed , th e pointed
M is used o n the T rajan
in scrip tion . T h e first and
se co n d strokes o f the M are
alw ays th e th ick est, and the
third and fou rth always the
th in n est. In classic usage,
the first and last legs incline
inw ards, but n ev er as steeply
as th e in n e r V (p. 1 18).

115
R o m a n <SlL a t e R o m a n C a p i t a l s

D raw the apex o f

the letterfirst

I m p e ria l C a p ita l N
T h e gap between the T h e first and last legs o f
serif and the top o f th e N are slightly th in n er
the second stroke can than th e diagonal stroke;
be filled after the letter in m o d e rn w o rk , th ey
is completed are o fte n d raw n as thinly
as th e crossb ar o f the A
{p. 1 1 3 ). N o te th e slight
cu rv e at th e b o tto m o f
th e diagonal, cau sed by
sw eep in g the brush from
th e diagonal to the vertical.
T h e N can be draw n eith er
flat-top p ed o r serifed.

The O and Q are slightly

narrower than a perfect circle

I m p e ria l C a p ita ls
O an d Q
T h e sam e du ctus is used for
the b o w l o f the Q as for the
key le tte r O . T h e stress o f
e a ch le tte r is b e lo w ce n tre
left and a b o v e ce n tre right,
creatin g a diagonal axis that
is co m p a tib le w ith the
natural sw eep o f th e w rist.
T h e tail o f the Q sw eeps
w ell b e lo w th e baseline
and, because o f its frequent
o c c u rr e n c e in Latin te x t,
a ttractiv ely breaks the
form ality o f an otherw ise
bilinear script.

Construct the Q by adding

a tail to the letter O

Slightly turn the brush to

horizontal on the tail o f the
Q before edging o ff

T h e axis o f the
The basicform o f arc is above the
the letter P is the horizontal
same as the R
(opposite)

Im p e ria l C a p ita l P
A lth o u g h th e b o w l o f the P appears to
be sm aller than that o n the corresponding
T h e curved stroke o f letter R , th ey are, in fact, the sam e size.
the lower bowl does T h e illusion is caused by the absence
not join the stem o f th e c o n n e c tin g stro k e to the
stem o f th e P. In m o d e rn usage, a
co n n e c tin g b ar is o ften add ed, and
in ty p e it nearly alw ays is. T h e bow l
finishes ju s t b e lo w th e ce n tre line.

116
 Im p e r ia l C a p it a l s : C o n s t r u c t i o n

T h e axis o f the arc is above

the horizontal
T h e bowl o f the R is the
same size as that o f the P
(opposite)

Im p e ria l C a p ita l R
T h e R , to g e th e r w ith th e £ (p. 1 1 4 ),
is a useful le tte r o n w h ich to practise
brush-draw n Imperials because it contains
m o re elem en ts o f o th e r letters than any
o th e r c h a ra c te r . T h e j u n c tu r e o f the
T h e tail o f the R continues bow l and co n n e ctin g stroke is a valuable
an imaginary diagonal line in d ica to r o f th e b ru sh -d raw n origins o f
across the letter that begins the scrip t. T h is has system atically been
at the top serif r e m o v e d b y scrib e s in an a tte m p t to
“ im p ro v e ” th e letter. T h e tail is a very
satisfying stro k e to d raw , p ro d u cin g
a gradual th ic k e n in g .o f the
tail n ear th e baseline.

Flatten the brush to the

horizontal before edging off

T rnst the brush fro m 3 0 °

to 9 0 ° to complete the serif

I m p e ria l C a p ita l S
T h e c u rv e d strokes o f the S often
present a rather aw eso m e prospect to the
beginn er. In fact, o n ce the £ has been
m astered {p. 1 1 4 ), the S should n o t p ro ve
difficult. T h e Trajan S has a forw ard lean,
Com m ence at the w h ich slightly interferes w ith the flow o f
tip o f serif twist the the script. T h e tail serif is th e only part
brush backwards, o f th e le tte r that m ay require additional
and pull it along practice. It is the only arm se rif that is
the baseline co n s tru cte d tip first, and aggravated
b y th e hand o b scu rin g th e first stroke.
F o r this reaso n , it is essential to draw
the tail o f the serif as the second stroke,
w hile the hand “ rem em b ers” w here
the first stroke finished.

Each arm is the

same length as the
arms o f the E and
F (p. 1 1 4 )

r The right arm o f the T is

exactly the same as the top
arm o f the E (p. 1 1 4 )

Im p e ria l C a p ita l T
T h e cross stroke o f the T is an extrem ely
eleg an t shape w ith subtle ch anges o f
angle b e tw e e n serifs, and a gradual
sw elling o f th e a n n leadin g in to and
aw ay fro m th e serifs. T h e arm starts
w ith a slight d o w n w ard s m o v e m e n t
w ith th e e d g e o f the brush tw isting
b ack to 3 0 ° b e fo re m o v in g alo n g the
arm and finishing at 9 0 ° . O n an
in scrip tion , the initial ju n c tu re
w o u ld be filled in bv th e chisel.

117
R o m a n 8 ^ L a t e R o m a n S c r ip t s

Im p e ria l C a p ita l U
In L atin , th e ch a ra c te r
V w as used to represent
b o th U and V sounds.
In m ed iev al scripts, the
V often to o k the form
o f a U ; by a b o u t the 14th
ce n tu ry th e tw o letters
w e re differen tiated and
used separately. It is a
m atter o f personal opinion
as to w h a t e x te n t the
Im perial C apital script
should be adap ted-to
languages o th e r than Latin.

The bottom serif o f the U A t the en d o f the second stroke,

cm be omitted, with the sweep the brush to the right and
cmve sweeping tip to meet edge o ff with a f i n e stroke
the right vertical stroke

Im p e ria l C a p ita l V
T h e first stro k e o f the V begins in
th e sam e w ay as a vertical stro k e and
finishes w ith th e ap e x o f an M . T h e
ch a n g e o f brush angle is reflected in
th e slight tu rn a t the b o tto m o f the
Slightly twist the brush to stro k e . T h e V can end in a flat base
finish at the angle o f the w h e n used w ith flat-h ead ed A , M ,
second stroke
and N , but m a k e sure this base is no
w id e r than th e thin stroke.

T h e W can be Im p e ria l
made narrower by C a p ita l W
replacing the crossed T h e le tte r W first
centre strokes with a appeared in the 1 1 th
single pointed apex cen tu ry. In principle,
it is co m p o se d o f
tw o Vs, w h ich can
e ith e r cross o n e
a n o th e r o r jo in in
a single a p e x in the
ce n tre o f the letter.

118
 Im p e r ia l C a p it a l s : C o n s t r u c t i o n

T h e lop v-shape o f the X

should be slightly smaller
than the bottom one

Im perial Capital X
T h e le tte r X appears w ith relative
frequency in Latin inscriptions, used as
a n u m eral to rep resen t 1 0 . T h e slope
There is no is m o re in clin ed than that o f th e A
serif on the and ideally, the to p v-shape should be
right inner leg sm aller than the b o tto m o n e to m ake
o f the X th e le tte r o p tically c o r re c t - balanced
and n o t to p h eav y . T h e r e is n o serif
o n th e righ t in n er leg.

Internal serifs can

be included on the
two anus o f the Y

Im perial Capital Y
T h e le tte r Y w as used b y the R o m a n s
for w o rd s o f G re e k d eriv ation , and it
appears o n ly o ccasio n ally in Latin
inscrip tion s. T h is co n s tru ctio n is
based o n a G reek inscrip tion o f
the le tte r U p silo n . It is also c o rre c t
to in clu d e an in n e r serif, as o n the
le tte r X (above).

Twist the brush to 3 0 ° and move

horizontally to create the top stroke o f the Z

T h e second stroke is
Im perial Capital Z
thicker than most diagonal
T h e Z is an interesting co n stru ction ,
strokes in the script
w h ich co m b in es the to p am i o f the
T and the b o tto m arm o f the £ ,
separated b y an aw kw ard diagonal
stroke - aw kw ard in the sense that a
Turn the brush over and twist stroke m o v in g to th e left is naturally
from 1 3 0 ° to thin (see A , p . 1 1 3 ). H o w e v e r, a thin
bottom stroke stroke w o u ld m ake the letter appear
ino rdinately light, and so the brush
is held n ear to th e horizontal to
create a th ick diagonal.

119
S c r ip t R e f e r e n c e C h a r t

Script Reference Chart

A B C D E Imperial
Capitals
F G H I M N 0 K L
A 5 c J) £ Rustic f 6 ±C 1 M N 0 K I
R oman
& L ate
R oman
X B c D e Uncial
P c, f) 1 C D TSJ 0 k I
Sc r ip t s
\ B c D E Square
Capitals
t C, H 1 M N o IC L
a b c a e
H alf Uncial
P 9 b I rn n o k I
6 c "D e X h I I m u o
Insular
In sular &a Majuscule F J
a b c e f 3 b 1 ► I w V 0
Sc r ip t s Insular
Minuscule

& A. b c d e
C a ro lin e
E a rly
Caroline
Minuscule f b I k L m n o
G o t h ic
a b c d c
Sc r ip t s
Early-
Gothic f 0 1 k 1 m n 0
•1 b c b fTextura
Quadrata
f a h 1 i k 1 m n 0
.1 b c b C
Textura
Prescisus
f h i ft i k 1 m n 0
21 2B C 7 3 4k if b 1 J K 1 m it
G othic
Capitals

A B € D €
Lombardic
Capitals F G I?. I K L 07 I? O
G o t h ic
/•*
a ft c
S c r ip t s
c
Bastard
Secretary-
f J I ) k f m n 0
Bastard
Capitals
J I m ai (t>
Batarde a 6 c S c f 5 6 I ) a C th n 0
i
Fraktur a b c 6 f a ft t i k t itt u 0 ♦
♦

Rotunda 3 b c b c f 9 b X i I m n ft a

1R e
Italian &
H um a n ist
Rotunda
Capitals A B C 2 > £ i : 6 6 £
2 £ f b

♦ ♦

a b c e k m n
s
Humanist
Minuscule
d f h I
j
I o
♦
Italic a b c d i I k L m n 0
f j
Humanist
Capitals A B c D E F G H I J R L M N 0
P o s t-
R enaissance
Copperplate
<v t 0 e
ff
2-’ / e 7ft 7b O'

Sc r ip t s
Copperplate
Capitals
C V) A // (/ , / c M , f '0

120
 S c r ip t R e f e r e n c e C h a r i

N o t e s o n s c r ip t s

p Q ^R S T V X Y z Prestige Roman hand used in brush-drawn and carved

forms; the letterforms are the basis of many modern capitals

f Q i S T V X V
J z First-century script used in manuscript, signwritten, and
carved forms; later used only for chapter headings

Latin version of the Greek Uncial with rudimentary

p q p. s T u X Y ascenders and descenders; used by the early Christian Church

l.ate Roman capitals reserved for non-Christian de luxe

p Q R. s T y X y z manuscripts; a time-consuming letter to pen

A more cursive form of Uncial incorporating ascenders and

p q r f Z u y t descenders; the letterforms are the basis of minuscule letters

Combines Uncial and Half Uncial elements; developed

p q R. s f XT u X <5 by Irish - Nort h umbrian Celtic monks

Cursive form of the Insular Majuscule used for documentary

V u X 9 work; continued to be used in Ireland into the 20th century
? 9 P r
p 9 r 5 r r u X y z Reformed Half Uncial; established hand of the Frankish
Empire: the model for I Sth-century Humanist Minuscule

Compressed version of the Caroline Minuscule used in

p 9
r $ r c II X r z the 12th century; presaged later Gothic scripts

Fully compressed Gothic letter from the early 13th

p r 5 r t u tr u< f y ? century; characterized by diamond terminals of minims

Twin script of the Quadrata; characterized by flat feet

p q r 5 r t u U ui r V 2 on minims; used for prestige manuscript work

p a K § 2 ? tpf V W f % Accompanying capitals for Textura minuscules

A built-up, prestige display and Versal capital; usually

p a n S t V X ? Z used in conjunction with Quadrata or Prescisus scripts

. I cursive Gothic script used only for vernacular and

V 5 t 11 <5 & X ? 3 documentary work
9 f
Capital letters used with bastard minuscules, including

V & S a 9? <£ * y those in the Batarde and Fraktur hands

V 9 r f t u •s 8 X <i 5 French version of the Bastard Secretary

German, late bastard script with many Textura features; with

9 V 6 f t u V tp V
r J Schwabacher, it remained in use until the mid-20th century

Italian hand; contemporary with Gothic scripts; rounder

V q r $ r t u V u? r y 2 and more open than other northern European hands

IP €L R £ If) W 3i f 3 Accompanying capitals for Rotunda minuscules

p q r s r t u V w X y z Renaissance hand influenced bv the Caroline Minuscule:

the letterforms are the basis for much modern printing type

p 9 r 5 / r u V w JC y Cursive form o f the Humanist Minuscule; used in

modern type for text in parenthesis and annotation

p Q. K S T 11 V W X V Z Accompanying capitals for Humanist and Italic

minuscules: pen-drawn derivatives of Imperial Capitals

P J t w IT UT X Extreme form of cursive script with most letters linked;

r f / f derived from Italic and influenced by copperplate engraving

Sc £ M o f sr % W 3? % £ Accompanying capitals for Copperplate minuscules

12 1
G lo ssary

C ap ital letter See m aju scule. “ E le p h a n t’ s tru n k ” A b ro a d ,

Glossary
sw e e p in g stro k e th a t hangs fro m th e
C ap ital line T h e w r itin g lin e a sc e n d e rs in c e rta in b astard scrip ts,
to w h ic h u p p e r -c a s e le tte rs rise. su ch as th e En glish B astard Secretary'.
T h e ca p ital lin e is o fte n slig h tly
A m p ersand The character & denoting the lo w e r th a n th e a s c e n d e r lin e. E x p a n d e d le tte r A style o f
w o rd “ a n d ” . le tte r in g in w h ic h th e ch a ra c te rs
C ap sa A c o n t a i n e r f o r s to r in g a n d i n t e r - l e t t e r sp aces a re w id e r
A n th ro p o m o rp h ic d e c o ra tio n A sty le o f scro lls. th a n is usual.
le tte r d e c o r a tio n th a t in c o r p o r a te s im a g e r y o f
Hairlines are drawn with the
h u m a n fo rm s. C o m p re s se d le tte r A sty le o f F ilig ree E la b o r a te d e c o r a tio n
corner o f the pen nib and often
le tte r in g in w h ic h th e c h a ra c te r s in th e f o rm o f fin e , c u r v e d lines.
taper from a thicker stroke
A pex T h e p o in te d tip o f a le tte r , as in A . a n d in te r - le tt e r sp a ce s a re
n a r r o w e r th an is usual. F illet T h e n a m e g iv e n to th e
A rc h T h e p o r tio n o f a lo w e r - c a s e le tte r filled a n g le th a t is f o r m e d b e tw e e n a stro k e and
f o n n e d b y a c u rv e d s tr o k e s p rin g in g f ro m th e C o n jo in e d A te r m u sed t o d e s crib e le tte rs its serif.
s te m , as in It a n d n. th a t are j o i n e d t o g e th e r.
F lo ria te d D e c o r a t e d w ith im a g e s o f flo w e rs.
A rm A h o r iz o n ta l s tr o k e to u c h in g th e le tte r C o p p e rp la te A n e x t r e m e l y sla n te d sc rip t w ith
at o n ly o n e e n d , as in E an d F . d is tin c tiv e flo u rish e s th a t d e v e lo p e d f ro m le tte r F o lio A le a f o f a m a n u s c r ip t. A lso re fe rs to th e
e n g r a v in g o n th in plates p a g e n u m b e r.
A sce n d e r T h e upper o f co p p er.
ste m o f a l o w e r -c a s e F re t p atte rn s O r n a m e n ta l design s th a t can
le tte r, as in />, d, a n d fc. C o u n te r A n y sp a ce b e u sed t o f o r m th e b o r d e r o f a p a g e o r ca n be
w ith in a le tte r , e ith e r fully w o v e n in to th e t e x t . T h e sim p le st fre t p a tte rn s
A sce n d e r line A o r p artia lly e n c lo s e d . a r e c o m p o s e d so le ly o f stra ig h t lines.
w ritin g line to w h ic h th e
u p p er stem s o f letters rise. C ro s sb a r The G ildin g T h e a p p lica tio n o f g o ld le a f t o th e
h o r iz o n ta l s tr o k e o n a w r itin g su rfa ce .
A xis In R o m a n Im p erial le tte r , as in t a n d H . A lso
C a p ita ls, this is th e k n o w n as th e “ b a r ” . G o th ic scrip ts T h e g e n e r ic t e n n f o r hands
im agin ary lin e th at passes w r itte n b e tw e e n a b o u t 1 2 0 0 a n d 1 5 0 0 .
th ro u g h th e th ick est p o in ts C ro ss stro k e A
o f a le tte r. A lso k n o w n as h o riz o n ta l m a rk essential G o u a ch e W a t e r c o l o u r m i x e d w ith a ty p e
th e "stre ss” o f th e le tte r. t o th e le tte r , m a d e e ith e r o f c h a lk t o a c h ie v e an o p a q u e e ffe ct.
Cadels are ornate Gothic Capital letters
fro m left to rig h t o r rig h t
that were originally used with bastard text scripts
Baseline T h e w ritin g to le ft, s u ch as o n th e H airlin e A fin e lin e u sed t o lin k le tte rs,
line o n w h ic h th e m ain le tte rs E , F , a n d T . te r m in a te stro k e s, fill la rg e c o u n te r s , and
b o d v o f th e le tte r sits. d e c o r a t e le tte rs.
C u rsiv e A rap id f o r m o f w r itin g , u sin g
B astard scrip t A G o th ic sc rip t o f m ix e d e le m e n ts su ch as lin k in g a n d lo o p s. H a lf r A f o n n o f th e le tte r r, th e sp in e o f
T e x t u r a a n d c u rs iv e e le m e n ts . w h ic h is p r o v id e d b y th e p r e v io u s le tte r.
D e lu xe A te r m u sed t o d e s c rib e th e h ig h e st
B ilin ear T h e te r m u sed to d e s crib e a sc rip t g ra d e o f m a n u s c r ip t w r itin g . H ead lin e T h e lin e t o w h ic h th e u p p e n n o s t
th a t is w r itte n b e tw e e n , a n d a d h e rin g t o , tw o p o in t o f a le tte r - e x c lu d in g its a sc e n d e rs o r
im a g in a ry w r itin g lines. D e sce n d e r T h e l o w e r ste m s o f le tte rs s u ch as d e sce n d e rs - rises. A lso k n o w n as th e “ w aistlin e” .
p , q, a n d /
B lack L e tte r S e e T e x tu ra . “ H ie ra rch y o f scrip ts” T h e n a m e g iv e n to
D e sce n d e r line T h e lin e o n w h ic h a l e tte r ’s th e c o d e o f p r a c tic e w h e r e b y d iffe re n t scrip ts
B ookhand T h e g e n e r ic t e r m f o r scrip ts u sed d e s c e n d e r sh o u ld rest.
in b o o k s b e f o re th e a g e o f p rin tin g . B o o k h a n d s
in c lu d e U n c ia l an d C a r o li n e M in u s c u le . D isp lay cap itals D e c o r a t e d cap itals
used in th e in tr o d u c to r y w o r d o r
( I'f'ollojfononmo' fiijcvido a QucllaJ..r
Bow l T h e c u r v e d s tr o k e a tta c h e d t o th e le tte r w o rd s o f a te x t b u t n o t sin gly as versals. rompcjfc Qualchc pc/ia ptj Quajchcjiijk
ste m th a t cr e a te s an e n c lo s e d s p a ce (c o u n t e r ) , as
oonc ocodcla coji apprepo
r\oo fTpotcfJcmjcloitircpf)uolcjpfarLi ufci
in le tte rs b, d, an d g . A lso k n o w n as “ b o w ” . D o w n stro k e A s tro k e th a t is
d ir e c te d d o w n w a r d s .
B ra ck e te d se rif A ty p e o f s e r if th a t fo rm s a
fillet w ith th e s tro k e o f a le tte r. D u c tu s T h e d ir e c tio n a n d o r d e r o f
th e stro k e s u sed to c o n s t r u c t a le tte r.
rc \cauaAiJjjucllo qM hcrooncello ac
B u ilt-u p letters L e tte r s th a t are o u tlin e d and
Italic script is characterized by linked letters
filled, o r c o n s tr u c te d a s e c tio n a t a tim e . Ear A sm all s tro k e th a t p r o je c ts f ro m th e
with a distinctiveforward slant
to p o f th e l e t t e r ^ .
B u rin A p o in te d to o l u sed in c o p p e rp la te
e n g ra v in g . E d g e ofif A te r m u sed w ith r e f e r e n c e to a p p e a rin g in th e sa m e m a n u s c r ip t a d h e re to a
b r u s h -d r a w n le tte rs t o d e s c rib e th e te c h n iq u e str ic t o r d e r o f u se : th e m o s t re g a l h a n d is used
C ad el A n o rn a te G o th ic ca p ita l le tte r o f r e m o v in g th e e d g e o f th e b ru sh f ro m th e f o r th e titles a n d im p o r ta n t d etails, th e n e x t m o s t
co n s tru cte d fro m a series o f in te rla cin g p en stro k es w r itin g s u rfa c e , w ith th e left c o r n e r lifted last. f o n n a l sc rip t f o r th e first s e n te n c e , a n d so o n .
w r itte n w ith th e m in im u m n u m b e r o f p e n lifts.
E dge on T h e t e c h n iq u e o f g ra d u a lly p la c in g H isto ria te d T h e te n n used t o d e s crib e initial
C ap ital h eigh t T h e h e ig h t o f a m a ju scu le th e full e d g e o f th e b ru sh o n t o th e s u rfa c e , w ith le tte rs th a t a re d e c o r a t e d w ith th e h u m a n figu res
(ca p ita l) le tte r. th e rig h t c o r n e r t o u c h i n g th e s u rfa ce first. d e s crib e d in th e t e x t .

12 2
 G lo ssary

Illu m in atio n O rig in a lly , th e t e n n re fe rre d M o v ab le typ e In d iv id u a l le tte rs m a d e fro m Stipple T o e n g r a v e , p a in t, o r w r ite in d o ts.
o n ly to g ild ed d e c o r a ti o n , b u t it is n o w used m e ta l th a t ca n b e in k ed an d p rin te d in a n y o rd e r.
to d e s crib e an y f o r m o f t e x t d e c o r a tio n . “ S tra ig h t” pen A p e n w ith th e nib c u t
P a la e o g ra p h y T h e stu d y o f th e h is to ry o f o b liq u e ly t o th e sh aft, fa cilita tin g th e d ra w in g o f
In su lar O r ig in a tin g fro m th e L a tin w o r d fo r h a n d w r itin g a n d d o c u m e n ts . an u p rig h t s te m . W h e n p o sitio n e d h o riz o n ta lly ,
“ islan d ” , this te n n is ap p lied b y p a la e o g ra p h e rs it w ill p r o d u c e a g r e a te r co n tra s t in th ick and
to in d ic a te a sh ared c u ltu re b e tw e e n Ire la n d an d P ap y ru s T h e e a rlie st f o n n o f p a p e r, m a d e th in stro k e s, a n e ffe ct k n o w n as “ sh a d in g ” .
n o rth e rn B rita in , free fro m C o n tin e n ta l in flu en ce.
S trok e A n y straig h t
In te rla ce A f o r m o f d e c o r a tio n in w h ic h lines o r c u rv e d lin e th a t
w e a v e in an d o u t o f e a c h o th e r . ; has b e e n p e n n e d o r

8
' p a in te d .
In te r-le tte r sp a ce T h e sp a ce b e tw e e n
c h a ra c te rs . ; T ail A d iag o n al line
j th a t c o n n e c ts to th e
In te rlin e a r gloss W o r d s w r itte n in th e ' le tte r at o n e e n d , as
...— - p . —. — -
in te rlin e a r sp a ce o f th e m a in t e x t to p r o v id e a | in Q an d y.
c o m m e n t a r y o n th e t e x t o r a tra n sla tio n o f its
s
c o n te n ts . T e rm in a l A stro k e
th a t d o e s n o t e n d w ith
g r-rs r:
In te rlin e a r sp a ce T h e s p a ce b e tw e e n th e a serif.
gZZ i l l 1
b aselin e o f o n e lin e o f t e x t an d th e h e a d lin e
o f th e lin e b e lo w it.

Ita lic A H u m a n is t sty le o f w r itin g in w h ic h

th e o v a l-s h a p e d , lin k ed le tte rs slan t to th e rig h t.

L e a d in g m in im T h e n a m e g iv e n to th e first
A manuscript is a book or document written by hand
J T e x t scrip t A scrip t
th a t is p a rticu la rly
su itab le fo r pages o f
t e x t , o w in g to its
cla rity a n d lack o f
d e c o r a tio n . A lso k n o w n as
m in im o f a le tte r , as in m a n d n. fro m th e s te m o f th e p a p y ru s p lan t. “ b o d y te x t” o r “ te x t h an d ” .

L e tte rfo rm T h e sh ap e o f a le tte r. P a rch m en t A w r itin g su rfa ce m a d e f ro m T e x tu r a F r o m th e L a tin w o r d f o r “ w o v e n ” ,

m a m m a lia n sk in , usually sh e e p sk in o r g o a tsk in .
L ig a tu re T h e lin k in g o f le tte rs b y o n e o r
m o r e stro k es. Quill A w ritin g im p le m e n t m a d e fro m th e tail
o r w in g fe a th e r o f a b ird , su ch as tu rk e y o r g o o s e .
this is th e n a m e g iv e n t o a sty le o f G o th ic scrip t
c h a ra c te r iz e d b y d e n se , co m p r e s s e d c h a ra c te rs
a n d m in im a l in te r lin e a r sp a ce .
T h o m sign T h e A n g lo -S a x o n sign rese m b lin g

tc bo
Where (he bowls oj letters are combined, the
letters are referred to as “conjoined”
Link T h e s tro k e th a t c o n n e c t s th e to p and
b o t t o m o f th e m in u s c u le g .
R e e d pen A w r itin g to o l m a d e fro m a a y th a t w a s u sed t o r e p re s e n t th e “ t h ” so u n d .
h o l lo w -s te m m e d m a rs h p lan t.
U n cia l A la te R o m a n sc rip t w ith ru d im e n ta ry
R om an T h e L atin a lp h a b e t. T h e te r m is also a sc e n d e rs. T h e n a m e m e a n s “ in c h h ig h ” .
used to d e s crib e a n y p la in , u p rig h t le tte r.
U p p e r case S e e m aju scu le.
R u b ric a te d O r ig in a tin g f ro m th e L a tin w o rd
rnbcr f o r “ r e d ” , th is d e s crib e s le tte rs in a h e a d in g V ellu m A ty p e o f w r itin g su rfa ce m a d e fro m
o r w ith in a passage o f t e x t th a t a re c o l o u r e d re d . calfskin .
Rune A n y le tte r in th e a n c ie n t G e r m a n ic V ersal A b u ilt-u p o r n a m e n ta l ca p ita l le tte r
a lp h a b e t. T h e c h a ra c te r s c o n ta in n o c u r v e d used to o p e n v erses a n d p arag rap h s.
stro k e s an d v e r y fe w h o r iz o n ta l stro k e s.

Loop T h e e n c lo s e d s p a ce in an a s c e n d e r o r Sable A v e ry fin e p o in te d b ru s h , m a d e fro m

d e s c e n d e r , as in g . th e tail hairs o f th e sab le, a d a r k -f u r r e d a r c tic

RS
m a m m a l.
L o w e r case S e e m in u scu le.
S erif A sh o rt, d e c o r a tiv e stro k e used to finish o ff
M ajuscu le A b ilin e a r sc rip t in w h ic h th e th e s tro k e o f a le tte r . M a n y d iffe re n t ty p e s e x is t,
le tte rs a re o f eq u al h e ig h t. A ca p ita l le tte r. in c lu d in g th e b ra ck e te d s e rif and th e w e d g e serif.

M a n u scrip t A h a n d w r itte n b o o k o r Skate T h e te c h n iq u e o f g e n d y p u llin g th e w e t

d o c u m e n t p r e -d a tin g th e in v e n tio n o f p rin tin g . ink fro m o n e stro k e t o c r e a te a n o th e r stro k e , Decorative abbreviated strokes known as “serifs’
C a n b e a b b re v ia te d to “ M S ” . often a hairline. can be drawn in a variety of different styles

M inim A d o w n s tr o k e th a t is as tall as th e “ S lan ted ” pen A p e n w ith th e n ib c u t a t W aistlin e S e e headline.

b o d y h e ig h t o f th e sc rip t. rig h t an g les to th e sh aft. H e ld a t an a n g le , th e
p o sitio n o f th e n ib is “ s la n te d ” t o th e ste m . W e ig h t T h e re la tio n sh ip o f a le tte r ’s nib w id th
M in im h eig h t T h e h e ig h t o f a m in u s c u le to its h e ig h t.
le tte r, e x c lu d in g th e a s c e n d e r a n d d e s c e n d e r. Spur A sm all p r o je c tio n o f f a m a in s tr o k e .
A lso k n o w n as “ x h e ig h t” o r “ b o d y h e ig h t” . W o rd sp ace T h e a m o u n t o f sp a ce b e tw e e n
S tem T h e m a in v e rtic a l s tr o k e o f a le tte r . It w o rd s.
M inu scule A n y n o n -c a p ita l le tte r. M in u s c u le ca n b e d ra w n a t a n a n g le f o r a sla n te d sc rip t,
scrip ts c o n ta in le tte rs o f u n e v e n h e ig h t b e c a u se a n d c a n b e th e m a in d ia g o n a l s tr o k e o f th e Z o o m o r p h ic d eco ratio n A style o f d e co ra tio n
o f th e a sc e n d e rs a n d d e s ce n d e rs. le tte r , as in N a n d Z . in c o r p o r a tin g im a g e r y o f a n im a l fo rm s.

123
B ib l i o g r a p h y

Bibliography
T h e Decorated Letter, J .J .G . A le x a n d e r/T h a m e s and H u d so n , L o n d o n , 1 9 7 8

T h e Winchester Bible, C la re D o n o v a n /B ritis h Lib rary, W in c h e s te r C ath ed ral,

1993

Manuscripts at O xford - R . W . H u n t Memorial Exhibition, E d ited by A .C . de

la M a re and B .C . B a r k e r-B e n fie ld /B o d le ia n L ib rary , O x f o r d , 1 9 8 0

Eyewitness G u id e to Writing, K aren B ro o k fie ld /D o rlin g K indersley, British

L ib rary , L o n d o n , 1 9 9 3

T h e Golden A g e o f English Manuscript Painting 1 2 0 0 - 1 5 0 0 , R ic h a r d M arks

and N ig el M o r g a n /B o o k C lu b A ssociates, L o n d o n , 1 9 8 1

A nglo -S axo n Manuscripts, M ich e lle P . B r o w n /B r itis h Lib rary, L o n d o n , 1991

A Book o f Scripts, A lfred F a irb a n k /P e n g u in B o o k s, L o n d o n , 1 9 4 9

Writing, D av id D ir in g e r/T h a m e s and H u d so n , L o n d o n , 1 9 6 2

D as Sehreib-Biichlein von R u d o lf Koch, Jo h a n n e s Stauda V erlag Kassel, 1 9 8 4

Thesauro de Scrittorio 1 5 3 5 , U g o da C a rp i, in tro d u c tio n by E sth e r P o t t e r /

N attali and M a u rice , L o n d o n , 1 9 6 8

Writing and Illuminating and Lettering, E d w a rd J o h n s to n , originally published

1 9 0 6 , rep rin ted by A . & C . B la ck , L o n d o n , 1 9 8 3

English Handwriting 1 4 0 0 - 1 5 0 0 , J e a n F. P resto n and L aetitia Y e a n d le /S ta te

U n iv e rsity , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 9 2

A G u id e to Western Historical Scripts from A ntiquity to 1 6 0 0 , M ich e lle P.

B r o w n /B r itis h L ib rary , 1 9 9 0

T h e Book o f Kells, S e le cte d and in tro d u ce d by P e te r B r o w n /T h a m e s and

H u d so n , 1 9 8 0

T h e Lindisfarne Gospels, J a n e t B a c k h o u s e /P h a id o n , O x f o r d , 1 9 8 1

T h e Universal Penm an, E n g ra v e d by G e o rg e B ic k h a m , 1 7 4 3 / D o v e r

P u b licatio n s I n c ., N e w Y o r k , 1 9 5 4

T h e A rt o f Calligraphy, Western Europe and America, J o y c e Iren e W h a lle y /

B lo o m sb u ry B o o k s, L o n d o n , 1 9 8 0

T h e Story o f Writing, D o n a ld Ja c k s o n /S tu d io V ista, 1 9 8 1

M edieval Calligraphy, Its History and Technique, M a rc D r o g in /G e o rg e P rio r

A sso ciated Publishers L td ., L o n d o n , 1 9 8 0

Calligraphy: T h e A rt o f Written Form s, D o n a ld M . A n d e r s o n /D o v e r

P u b licatio n s I n c ., N e w Y o r k , 1 9 9 2

T h e Origin o f the Serif, E d w a rd M . C a ti c h /C a t i c h G allery, St. A m b ro se

U n iv e rsity , Io w a , 1 9 6 8

Masters o f the Italic Letter, K ath ry n A . A tk in s/P e n g u in Press, L o n d o n , 1 9 8 8

The Italic Calligraphy Handbook, C a ro ly n K n u d s e n /S te m m e r H o u se Publishers

I n c ., M arylan d , 1 9 8 5

Calligraphy, Inspiration, Innovation and Communication, D av id H a rris/A n a y a ,

L o n d o n ,1991

Books o f Hours and their Owners, J o h n H a r th a m /T h a m e s and H u d so n , 1 9 7 7

Lettering O ld and N ew , T ran slated bv D r . W .E . W a lz /B a ts fo rd , L o n d o n ,

c. 1930

O rnamental Alphabets and Initials, A lison H a rd in g /T h a m e s and H u d so n , 1 9 8 3

Celtic Knotwork, lain B a in /C o n s ta b le , L o n d o n , 1 9 8 6

12 4

Index
Adam and E v e, 67
A c
A lcuin o f Y o rk , 9 , 3 8
A n g lo -S axo n m inuscules,
history and d evelopm ent, 9
Arabic numerals, 107, 112
arch, letter anatom y, 6
Arch o f C on stantine, 109
A rtificial U ncial:
history and developm ent, 24—5
practical, 2 6 - 7
Arts and Crafts m o v em en t, 42,
95
ascender:
letter anatom y, 6
height, 7
ascender lin e, letter anatom y, 6
A ubert, D avid, 71
A ugustine, S t., 2 4
B C h an cery , 6 6
baseline, letter anatom y, 6
Bastard Capitals, practical, 7 8 - 9
bastard scripts, 10, 11
Bastard Secretary:
history and d evelopm ent, 13,
6 6 -7
practical, 6 8 —9
Batarde, 7, 11
history and d evelopm ent, 13,
7 0 -1
practical, 7 2 - 3
B ed e, V enerable, 3 4
B en even tan M inu scu le, history
and d evelopm ent, 9, 12, 8 4
B en tiv o g lio , G iovanni II, 9 0
Bernard, S t., 47
B erry, D u e de, 81
B ickh am , G eorg e, 1 0 2 - 3
B lack L etter see T extu ra
Q uadrata, T e x tu ra Prescisus
B o b b io , 9
body height, letter anatom y, 6
B onaven tura, S t., 6 6
B o o k o f D u rro w , 3 0
B o o k o f H ours, 7 0 , 8 4 , 9 0
B o o k o f Kells, 2 9 -3 1
bo w , letter anatom y, 6
bow l, letter anatom y, 6
bracketed serif, letter anatom y,
6 descender line, letter anatom y, 6
British calligraphic revival,
history and d evelopm ent, 12
B ro w n , D enis, 11, 31
brushes, 14
C ad eaux see Cadels
Cadels, 5 9 , 9 4
history and d evelopm ent, 81
practical, 8 2 —3
Cam brensis, Giraldus, 31
Cancellaresca Corsiva see Italic
capital letter, letter anatom y, 6
capital lin e, letter anatom y, 6
Capitalis Monumentalis see
Im perial Capitals
Capitalis Quadrata see Square
Capitals
C arolin e M inu scu le, 16, 3 5 , 84,
90
Early G o th ic and, 4 6 , 47
history and d evelopm ent, 9,
12, 3 8 - 9
practical, 7 , 4 0 —1
Carstairs, Jo se p h , 106
C atich , E .M ., 1 09, 112
C h an cery C ursive see Italic
C h arlem agn e, E m peror, 9 , 3 8
C h ich e ster C athedral, 51
C iteau x , 47
C o ck e re ll, Sidney, 4 3
C odex Amiatinus , 2 4 , 2 5
C odex Vaticanus 3 2 5 6 , 2 0 -1
C o efrid , A bbo t, 2 4
C o lu m ba, S t., 3 4
“ C om m an d o f hand” , 103
C opp erplate, 10
history and d ev elopm ent, 11,
13, 1 0 2 - 3
practical, 104—5
C opperplate Capitals,
practical, 106—7
C o rb ie , 9
cou n ter, letter anatom y, 6
cross stroke, letter anatom y, 6
crossbar, letter anatom y, 6
Cultural Decomposition, 31
Cursive H a lf U n cial, history
and d evelopm ent, 12
curved stroke, letter anatom y, 6
D dev elop m ent, 9 , 10
Dadd, R ich a rd , 102
descender, letter anatom y, 6
detachable nibs, 14, 15
d ev elop m ent o f W estern script,
8 -1 3
diam ond, letter anatom y, 6
D iirer, A lbrecht, 7 5 , 108
D u rham Gospels, 3 0
E H a lf U ncial:
Eadfrith, B ishop, 3 0
ear, letter anatom y, 6
Early G o th ic:
history and d evelopm ent, 9,
12, 4 6 - 7
practical, 4 8 - 9
E ch tern ach Gospels, 3 0
English Bastard Secretary see
Bastard Secretary
English C arolin e M inuscu le,
42
Etruscan alphabet, 8
E x e te r B o o k , 35
F H um anist M inuscu le, 5 0 , 9 4
fibre-tipp ed pens, 14
Flam el, Je a n , 81
flourish, letter anatom y, 6
fo o t, letter anatom y, 6
Foundational H and:
history and developm ent,
4 2 -3
practical, 4 4 - 5
fountain pens, 14
Fraktur, 6 7
history and d evelopm ent, 13,
7 4 -5
practical, 7 6 - 7
Franciscus, R icard u s, 81
Froissart, Je a n , 71
Froissart C h ro n icle , 7 0 - 1
G 2 9 -3 1
G ello n e Sacram entary, 6 3
G erm an calligraphic revival,
history and d evelopm ent, 13
G erm an L etter see Fraktur
G ill, E ric, 4 3
G o th ic Capitals, 10
history and d evelopm ent,
5 8 -9
practical, 6 0 -1
G o th ic scripts, history and
Grandval B ib le, 3 8 - 9
G reek scripts, 8
G reek U n cial, history and
d evelopm ent, 12
G riffo, Francesco, 9 1 , 9 5
In d ex
H
Haanes, C hristopher, 95
hackle, letter anatom y, 6
H agen, Jo h an n es v on, 7 4
hairline, letter anatom y, 6
hairline tail, letter anatom y, 6
and the C aroline M inuscule,
3 8 -3 9 , 40
history and developm ent, 8,
9, 12
Halliday, P eter, 17
handm ade papers, 14, 47
Harris, D avid, 103
headline, letter anatom y, 6
H enry o f B lo is, B ishop, 4 6
H enry V III, K ing o f England, 51
hierarchy o f scripts, 16
Historia Ecclesiastica, 35
horizontal foot, letter anatomy, 6
H um anist Capitals, 91
practical, 9 8 - 9
history and developm ent, 11,
1 3 ,9 0 - 1
practical, 9 2 - 3
I
Im perial Capitals, 7 , 16, 9 0
brush strokes, 1 1 0 -1 1
con stru ctio n , 1 1 2 -1 9
history and d evelopm ent, 8,
13, 1 0 8 - 9
In Proverbia Salamonis, 3 4
inner-letter space, letter anatomy,
6
Insular Display Capitals, history
and d evelopm ent, 13
Insular M ajuscule:
history and developm ent, 12,
practical, 3 2 —3
Insular M inuscu le:
history and developm ent, 9,
12, 3 4 - 5
practical, 3 6 - 7
insular scripts, 9
interlaced patterning, 81
in te r-lette r space, letter
anatom y, 6
interlinear space, letter anatom y,
6
Iona, 3 4
Irish scripts, 9
Italic:
history and developm ent, 13,
9 4 -5
125
 rV K\f<t\ L t t + t v c M ^ j n o t t i n t - y l t J J f t ; t t k e p e l t e i i o t .t I L h > i< * r i« )--'
\ t& \ v i/ / tt^ < «/cfrlw /ir^<vt v/it/niC fciu>:»w i l l
LecLeLf:>\i vc-tftx L e t iV ^ t & tN v i; (a^cm inffcr (LtfLtuteOnpLt** *~r
jr s $ AC\* "Yiuk / tftcN v *’ ^ 5 « 1 iS® Vm3j
c39cl*f/*«+ vltr{icL>\'« »*» % * l > < j L < u W t V& t t f f* Q tu t M'olScn
/.n^itrAai / m $ j r v ^ o t k j i L e i p o t K-u^ .Tviucti »\jl
mtt nhtfl'u l.ltTM (Vrtvi A'mf f »1** vatt
iL v t i f t v W i f l t i i % v m ’ A v T ^ fx L iU itti b c $ t i > v irt A
(u'tT'ttolF4 ''^5&<1t Svu-t,wf utffri* u tJL t ?>tr IrV w d 'C •’.'
( r ^ t i » ftv c K <s$W y »& 'v *m i / m i^ ninH vi
v mW' I S v o t t t w»- tr nt\ f m t j r * ivct^ti v**^c k flu tk n u J
ivioc iv v o f n W n c fc/ott ^ tw tffen u n w i j p i r t l t a i ^ W > « t 'r n v /$ f& i< £ fT m i x d * n * t 'X < r J c t n u »3f ■vw^c: c f o t f f r " a ft* 5 t / ( J v t l n t f
j t (t> ftfjliit/ v U o i ovt» im-SS:/ h im jt A ’wutai /f^«i • \Sifff l A n t L t f t t t y X t i f t f i v tH ttV f % w t m rtG ^ U f wn’ m r /H r itvuV rFr?

i 3 " < ^

cmt^uH&ntut* , ^qua?5tnru0 . .

Hun m iiotm m p ir a 'ty t tor W m M tr fmhucmWBnuB crpopuli

> ^l|l«cihtnti futrt m amfl t'lfctmmti
ttn s uifonnncr m M n tu
y^itgcBintt^prm np© rommmtutr
S io n cM flttfo m ute Jm w f tm uun nflunfiw tommum rr ft&un
fmuDtmnnoncm mcutn ,

tm n tw

'—,?«• mon.imv tmft cb< fa-v* ’•> .•••: t. *.«?• ...<;ttr JWBfm ioi ov<mbaiiih<ii
tii StilTcmc binic v«! .tilt frit fr an feu i.a w tiin ItCen £>nr 'flli iuflf#
;N4r i i tn rrrrtt rt'fifvr kL 'qK '/tc& tt' > limits pl/Or Promt dltffrr.t (Ith-Cll bt t".:« iltff sji’CbAt TSYijtr bf «llMn aht bo'.en
io />fi htFfiift tm N fft uojjfwiMvfr ton van ’n if wtJr lint tlJVtcn tilirii unit
v r o ii’c lifb T m ?r rC dinirfi it: im u h t b b t n g n t b o IJ tu V n \ * t m b r o ti A u H to
c U n x h n n 't n n Y i c ;itcfs Acrrti W»V* '5br,</rt«Vnj« Urtifrn ntfmit .illc mtS Vtbtc mt tilt «C-tmr »iomf bttTmfii S fitt gbctlUitbe
trn n c r N I .
UIIHr Uicjiikcii it toul; PMitn tuilifn ym'lrn tSJft l.ltru O a t ft {Hut varjkrii.iiifnt
< r m i V n c n 'S G % ,n i < crA < - ' * ion van -n jnmlr 0n?tii tnucn i-’tn-i/i M ntnV omc be(mlucn nn frttj mar be An’
tu begbrtcnlr lR- tt>finem g ^ c frf.tfirO a t tmlle nn ffhttnt itgbm on w ft
Am o:cn tvillirii/irii aoiftmrn W o . f.f- hat gkcbmr an m nt sheltkn, taVifol.'U
tftio an trm t givfnen ZTvu to trim ithm ittiiflr htbbt tn vufri fhis tugfitf ^

A n a iia M

i N '> e /rt»' 11 n i.i r p ir tm u i ’/ o t r p j ^ i r t n i h m j ^ B ^ r W n . m u / n h t ^ t i « |

mini fnrmni ftlc i*nf|iiifa<wi i«wtu CrittW^^lanrt rti< < \l\tn d u
Ta^timW t»iw tmtHNf1 I'lhjuimtvm ttuatn^|
ft- pemfnm ninini n>tiha ilAT" tf o fo n p ti Ttlif*i felt mtmut cr
>ianifi/in utf.tt\fhfirtxt( t n huf -j vnfrrtfimitt
pfwitti ronrg shie/iim y in ptnmhe npapi^tnc -,3

practical, 9 6 - 7
Italic Capitals, practical, 9 8 - 9
Italic Swash Capitals,
practical, 1 0 0 -1
J M ercian p ray er-bo ok, 34
Jarro w , 2 5 , 2 9
Jen so n , N icholas, 3 8 , 9 0
Je ro m e , S t., 2 4 , 31
Jo h n so n , Edward, 11, 4 2 - 5 , 9 5
K
Kane M edieval M anuscript, 6 6
Kippax, W „ 103
K o ch , R u d o lf, 11, 7 4 - 5
L N
Larisch, R u d o lf v o n , 11
Late C arolin e see Early
G o th ic
Late U n cial, 25
left-handed calligraphy, 7
Lethaby, W .R ., 4 2
letter height, letter anatom y, 7
letterpress printing, 103
Letlre Bourguignonne see
Batarde
Lew is, Jam es, 106
ligature, letter anatom y, 6
Lindisfarne, 2 9 —3 1 , 3 4
Lindisfarne Gospels, 2 9 -3 1
link, letter anatom y, 6
Liltera Antiqua see H um anist
M inuscule
Liltera di Breva see Italic
Littera Uncialis see U ncial
Lom bardic Capitals, 8 8
history and d evelopm ent,
13, 6 2 - 3
practical, 6 4 - 5
Low e, N icholas, 6 6
low er counter, letter anatom y, 6
low er-case letter, letter
anatom y, 6
Luttrell Psalter, 55
L uxeuil, 9
I.uxeuil M inuscu le, history
and developm ent, 12
M Poligny family, 7 0
M acrobius, A m brosius
Theod osius, 95
m ajuscule, letter anatom y, 6
m anipulated strokes, 111
m anuscript sources, 7
M anutius, Aldus, 95
Matthaus Evangelium, 75
M axim ilian , E m p eror, 75
M editations on the Life o f
C h rist, 66
M erovin gian script, 9
M etz P on tifical, 5 0
m in im heigh t, letter anatom y, 6
M inuscules:
letter anatom y, 6
d evelopm ent, 8
origin, 2 4
Moralia in Jo b , 47
M o ro , Francesco, 9 4
M orris, W illiam , 4 3 , 95
N eudorfFer, Jo h a n n the Elder,
7 4 , 75
N e w R o m a n C ursive, history
and d evelopm ent, 12
nibs, 14—15
N icco li, N ic co lo , 9 4
o practical, 1 8 -1 9
O ld English see T extu ra
Q uadrata
O ld R o m a n C u rsive, history
and d evelopm ent, 12
O rg em o n t, G uillaum e d’, 51
O rm esby Psalter, 55
P
papers, 14
handm ade, 47
Papyrus, 17
parchm ent, 7, 14, 2 0
Patrick, S t., 29
pattern books, 59
pen angle, letter anatom y, 6 , 7
pen w idth, letter anatom y, 6
Petrarch, Francesco, 9 0 , 91
Philip the G o o d , D u k e o f
Burgundy, 71
P hoenician scripts, 8
Phoenix, 11
Pliny, 10
P o in ted M inuscu le, 3 4
Prescisus see T e x tu ra Prescisus
printing, 103
P ro to -G o th ic see Early G o th ic
P ugin, A .W .N ., 6 2
Q
Q uadrata see T extu ra Q uadrata
quill pens, 7, 1 4 -1 5
R
R am sey Psalter, 4 2 - 3
R atd o lt, Erhard, 85
reed pen, 14
R o c h e ste r P riory, 46
R o m a n Im perial C apital, 7
history and d evelopm ent, 8
R o m a n scripts, history and
d ev elopm ent, 8
R o m a n isin g U ncial o f the
C an terbury Style, 25
R o tu n d a:
history and d evelopm ent, 11,
12, 8 4 - 5
practical, 8 6 —7
R o tu n d a Capitals, practical,
8 8 -9
R u n ic Capitals, history and
developm ent, 13
R u stic Capitals, 8
history and d evelopm ent, 13,
1 6 -1 7
s 71
St. Ambrose, D e Misteriis I, 4 6
St. Paul’s Epistle, 91
St. Vaast B ib le , 59
San Sebastiano, R o m e , 2 0
Saturnalia, 9 5
Sch w abach er, 5 0 , 67
history and d evelopm ent,
7 6 -7
S h erbo u rn e, B ishop, 51
“ slanted” pens, 15
sources, 7
spring-loaded pens, 14
Square Capitals:
history and d evelopm ent, 8,
13, 2 0 -1
practical, 2 2 - 3
stem , letter anatom y, 6
“ straight” pens, 15
stroke sequ ence, 7
swash, letter anatom y, 6
T
T ara b ro o ch , 3 0
T e x tu ra Prescisus, 10, 50
history and d evelopm ent, 55
In d e x
T extu ra Q uadrata, 10, 94
Early G o th ic and, 4 6 , 47
history and developm ent, 12,
5 0 -1
practical, 5 2 - 3
tongue, letter anatom y, 6
tools, 7, 1 4 -1 5
T rajan C o lu m n , 8, 1 0 8 -9 , 112
Treatise on Hawking, 94
T rew hid d le, 35
turned fo o t, letter anatom y, 6
u .
U ncials:
history and developm ent, 8,
9, 12, 2 4 - 5
practical, 2 6 —7
The Universal Penman, 1 0 2 -3
upper-case letter, letter
anatom y, 6
V
Vaast, S t., 59
Vatican Basilicanus, 38
V au x, Sam uel, 102
vellum , 7, 14
La Vengeance de la Mort Ihesa,
V eron a A ntiphoner, 8 4 - 5
Versals, history and
d evelopm ent, 5 8 —9
Vespasian Psalter, 25
Via Appia M o n u m en t, 108
Virgil, 16, 21
V isigoth ic M inuscu le, history
and d evelopm ent, 9 , 12
w
w aistline, letter anatom y, 6
Walpurgis Night, 102
W aters, Sheila, 3 9
W earm ou th , 2 5 , 2 9
w edge serif, letter anatom y, 6
W esto n , T h o m as, 81
w hetstones, 15
W in ch ester B ihle, 4 6 , 62
W ind m ill Psalter, 10, 55
X
x -h e ig h t, letter anatom y, 6
x -lin e , letter anatom y, 6
12 7
A ck no w led g m ents
Acknowledgments
P IC T U R E C R E D IT S
Every effort has been m ade to trace the copyright
holders and w e apologize in advance for any
unintentional omissions. W e w ould be pleased to
insert the appropriate acknow ledgm ent in any
subsequent edition o f this publication.
K e y : t: top b: bottom c: cen tre r: right /: left
A b b re v ia tio n s :
A A : Ancient Art and A rch itecture C ollection
B L : B y Permission o f the British Library, London
B N : © Cliche Bibliotheque Nationale de France. Paris
B O : T he Bodleian Library, O xford
IK : Ikona. R o m e
V A : By C ou rtesy o f the Board o f Trustees o f the
Victoria and Albert M useum , London
J a c k e t : Calligraphy by C arol K em p b a c k j a c k e t : tl:
Add 4 2 1 3 f 7 3 . B L : Ic: W ork sheet, A u th o r’s ow n
copy; tr: H arl 2 9 0 4 £36, B L ; re (detail): R eid M S 6 4 f.
3 3 . VA; />: Historia Ecclesiastica Geitis Anglorum, C O T T
T i b C II f 5v, BL
Pages 2 -3
p 2 : R eid M S. 6 4 f. 3 3 , VA p 3 : M etz Pontifical, early
14th cen tury, M S. 2 9 8 .f.l3 8 v /F itz w illia m M useum ,
University o f C am bridge
Pages 4 -5
p p 4 - 5 : Add 4 2 1 3 0 2 0 lv (detail), BL
P a g e s 6 - 7 : I n tr o d u c tio n
p 6 : tl: Beatus o f Liebana, Spain, c .1 2 2 0 . Scriptorium
in the T o w e r o f the M onastery o fT a v a ra , T h e
Pierpont M organ Library. N ew Y o rk , M .4 2 9 , f. 183
P a g e s 8 - 1 1 : T h e D e v e lo p m e n t o f W e s te rn S c rip t
p 8 : r: T erracotta M arker, inscribed with O scan script,
Italy. T h e Trustees o f the British M useum , L ond on ;
b (detail): Inscription on the Base o f the C olonn a
Traiana. M onti, R o m e /IK p 9 : t: C harlem agne with
Alcuin, M ary Evans Pictu re Library; />: M sc. Patr. 5
f .lv , Staatsbibliothek B am berg p lO : t (detail): M 102,
f .l v - 2 . T h e Pierpont M organ Library, N ew Y o rk ; b:
Frontispiece o f translation o f Pliny’s Natural H istory,
1473, Biblioteca M edicea Laurenziana, F loren ce p i 1:
t: M s.Lat 9 4 7 4 , B N ; b: Phoenix. Denis B row n , 1993
P a g e s 1 6 - 1 7 : R u s t ic C a p ita ls
p p 16—17: tr, I (detail), b (detail): V A T 3 8 6 7 f.3v,
Vergilius R om anu s Ecloga 1 1 c\ 4, Biblioteca
Apostolica V atican a/IK ; c: Ms. B o d l. 2 1 8 . fol.62r,
B O p i 7 : be: Peter Halliday, Q uo tatio n from Virgil:
Eclogue VII. 4 3 x 3 1 .5 cm , 1 9 8 3 , black ink on
cream paper, translation by the scribe
P a g e s 2 0 - 2 1 : S q u a re C a p ita ls
p 2 0 : tc: T h e Parchm ent M aker. D o v er Publications
Inc.. N ew Y o rk ; c: Inscription at San Sebastiano/IK
p p 2 0 - 2 1 : b (detail): Pontificia C om m issione de
Archeologia Sacra/1 K p 2 1 : t: Pontificia Com m issione
de Archeologia S acra/IK
P a g e s 2 4 - 2 5 : U n c ia l & A rtific ia l U n cia l
p 2 4 : r: M S E M useo 100 t7v B O : h: Ceolfrid Bible.
AA p 2 5 : /. /» (detail): C O T T V E S P A1 3 0 v 3 1 , B1
P a g e s 2 8 - 3 1 : In su la r M aju s cu le
p 2 8 : T h e B ook o f Kells MS 5 8 fol. 4 0 v , T h e Board
o f Trinity C ollege, Dublin p 2 9 : br (detail): T h e B ook
o f Kells MS 5 8 fol. 179v. T h e Board o fT rin itv
12 8
C ollege, Dublin p 3 0 : tl: T ara B ro o ch , N ational
M useum o f Ireland, Dublin; b, tr (detail): Lindisfarne
Gospels (2 9 C O T T N ero D IV f2 9 , BL p 3 1 : t: MS
C O T T N ero D IV f5 v , B L; b: Cultural Decomposition,
Denis Brow n , 1993
P a g e s 3 4 - 3 5 : In su la r M in u scu le
p 3 4 : tr: Lindisfarne Priory, ph oto: Andy W illiam s; cr
(detail): Bedes C om m en tary on the B ook o f Proverbs,
M S 8 1 9 folio 2 9 / B O ; bcr, bcl (detail), b (detail): R oyal
2 A xx f 17 P ray er-b oo k , English M ercian, BL p 3 5 :
t (detail), tel, bcl (detail): Historia Ecclesiastica Cenis
Anglortim C O T T T I B C l I f 5 v , B L ; bcr: V i e Spirit
of M en 1 1 .7 1 — end, Widsith, 1 1 .1 - 1 3 fol 84b ,
R ep rod u ced by Permission o f the D ean and
C hapter o f E x e te r
P a g e s 3 8 - 3 9 : C a ro lin e M in u scu le
p 3 8 : b: A rch. S. Pietro 1 )1 8 2 fol. 159v , Bascicicanus
D 1 8 2 f 1 5 9 v /F o to B iblioteca V atican a/IK p 3 9 : tl:
Sallv-Anne R easo n ; tr: Cloud Conceptions from Above,
1st verse, Sheila W aters; b: M oatiev Grandval Bible
A D D /M S 1 0 5 4 6 f 2 5 B -2 6 , BL
P a g e s 4 2 - 4 3 : F o u n d a tio n a l H a n d
p 4 2 : br, I (detail): Harl 2 9 0 4 201 v , BL p 4 3 : tl:
W ork sheet. A u thor’s o w n co p y ; tr: Photograph o f
Edw ard Joh n sto n , H olburne M useum and Crafts
Study C en tre, B ath; b: Edw ard Jo h n sto n ’s W inchester
Form al W riting Sheet ( '. 7 7 8 , H olburne M useum and
Crafts Study C en tre, Bath
P a g e s 4 6 - 4 7 : E a r ly G o th ic
p 4 6 : c: W in ch ester Bible. A A; br: C 0 7 6 B v l , BL
p 4 7 : W: Moralia in Job , Lib X V I I - X X X V . M S 173.
fo 4 1 , Bibliotheque M unicipale de D ijon; tr: T h e
Paper M aker. D o v e r Publications In c., N ew Y o rk
P a g e s 5 0 - 5 1 : T e x t u r a Q u a d r a ta
p 5 0 : />: M etz Pontifical, Early 14th cen tu ry, M S 2 9 8
fl38v /F itzw illia m M useum , U niversity o f Cam bridge
p 5 1 : r, / (detail): C h ich ester C athedral, 1lenry VIII
(Bishop Sherbourne asking H enry VIII to confirm the
charter for C hichester C athedral), Fotom as Index;
b: M S R aw l liturg.e. 4 0 fol 4 ()v /B O
P a g e s 5 4 - 5 5 : T e x t u r a P re s c is u s
p 5 4 : Ju d g em en t o f So lo m o n , T h e Pierpont M organ
Library, N ew Y o rk , M .1 0 2 , f .l v - 2 p 5 5 : cl (detail):
Add 4 2 1 3 0 2 0 1v, B L ; r: M S D o u ce 3 6 6 fol I 5 4 r / B ( )
P a g e s 5 8 - 5 9 : G o th ic C a p ita ls & V e rsa ls
p 5 8 : MS 2 9 8 1 . Sets o f Capitals, M agdalene C ollege,
C am bridge p 5 9 : tl: M S 5 5 G v o !3 F 5 2 V . Bible o f St.
Vaast, Bibliotheque M unicipale d ’Arras; r (detail): MS
2 9 8 1 , Sets o f Capitals, M agdalene C ollege,
C am bridge; bl: M S .8 3 - 1 9 7 2 fl r. Fitzwilliam
M useum . University o f Cam bridge
P a g e s 6 2 - 6 3 : L o m b a r d ic C a p ita ls
p 6 2 : b (detail): W inchester Bible, Ezekiel, 12th century,
A A p 6 3 : Latin 1 2 0 4 8 f l v , BN
P a g e s 6 6 - 6 7 : B a s ta r d S e c r e t a r y
p 6 6 : cr: Kane M edieval M S 21 folio 6 r, Grenville
Kane C ollection o f M edieval M anuscripts,
Manuscripts Division, Departm ent o f R are Books and
Special C ollection s, Princeton University Libraries;
bl: E M us 3 5 f 9 8 / B O p 6 7 : English Genesis, MS
Bodley 5 9 6 f 2 r /B O
P a g e s 7 0 - 7 1 : B a ta r d e
p 7 0 : b: M S D ouce 2 6 7 f .3 6 r /B O p 7 1 : t, c (detail):
Jean Froissart’s C h ron icle, 14th cen tury, B L ; bl:
R o v 16 GUI fB, BL
P a g e s 7 4 - 7 5 : F r a k tu r & S c h w a b a c h e r
p 7 4 : cl (detail): MS. Lat 2 ° f3 8 4 v, Berlin,
Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - PreuBischer Kulturbesitz
- I landschriftenabteilung p p 7 4 - 7 5 : b: M S 6 4 / 3 5 v &
3 6 r, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, M iinchen p 7 5 : t, r
(detail): R u d o lf K o ch , Gospel o f St. M atthew , 192 1 ,
O ffen bach /K lin gspor-M u seum der Stadt Offenbach
am Main
P a g e s 8 0 - 8 1 : C a d e ls
p 8 0 : 1 ) 5 4 /1 0 7 fr3 8 0 Page de G arde, B N p 8 1 : I: MS
Ashmolean 7 8 9 fol. 4 v /B O ; tr: Initial Letter, Speedball
T e x tb o o k 1 9 5 2 , R oss F. G eorge; br: An exam ple o f
fine initials from a book by T hom as W eston in 1682,
Speedball T e x tb o o k 1 9 5 2 , R oss F. G eorge
P a g e s 8 4 - 8 5 : R o tu n d a
p 8 4 : b: M S .L .4 9 2 9 -1 8 6 6 f.2 7 r V erona Antiphoner,
m id- 15th cen tury, VA p 8 5 : /: L .2 3 8 4 - 1 9 1 0 f.2 0 3 r
Epistle B o o k , Italian B ook o f H ours, V A : b: Sheet
o f printed R o tu n d a , A u thor’s o w n copy
P a g e s 9 0 - 9 1 : H u m a n is t M in u scu le
p 9 0 : b: R eid M S 6 4 VA p 9 1 : t: M S L I7 2 1 -1 9 2 1
f 9 6 v -9 7 r , V A ; c: M S 186 fol 21 r. T h e R e c to r and
Fellows o f E x e te r C ollege, O xfo rd ; b: Petrarch’s
A nnotation, Author's ow n copy
P a g e s 9 4 - 9 5 : Ita lic
p 9 4 : b: M S L I 4 8 5 - 1 9 4 6 Fran cesco M o ro : Alphabet
Page, VA p 9 5 : tl: Skrift K atalog, C hristopher Haanes,
O slo; tr (detail): M S L 1 7 6 9 -1 9 5 2 f.l I3 r, VA ; />: Lat
Class E 3 8 , W illiam M orris m anuscript, B O
P a g e s 1 0 2 - 1 0 3 : C o p p e r p la te
p l 0 2 : c, b: 'Hie Universal Penman, D o ver Publications
In c., N e w Y o rk p l 0 3 : t, cr: The Universal Penman,
D o ver Publications In c., N ew Y o rk ; cl: C opperplate
w orkshop, Fotom as Index; b: C opperplate typeface
design, David 1 1arris
P a g e s 1 0 8 - 1 0 9 : I m p e ria l C a p ita ls
p i 0 8 : t: Lettering from O n the Just Shaping o f Letters,
Albrecht Differ, D o ver Publications In c., N ew Y o rk :
b, c (detail): Appian W ay : Inscription, D e Luca,
R o m e /IK p i 0 9 : /: Inscription on the Base o f
C olo n n a Traiana, M onti, R o m e /I K ; b: T h e Arch
o f C onstantine, De Luca, R o m e /IK
P a g e s 1 2 4 - 1 2 7 : B ib lio g ra p h y & In d e x
p 1 2 4 : I (detail): M S 2 9 8 1 , M agdalene C ollege,
C am bridge p i 2 6 : M S Lat 2 ° f3 8 4 v, Berlin,
Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin - PreuBischer
Kulturbesitz - H andschnftenabteilung
S p e cia l p h o to g r a p h y :
M ichael D unning: p 6 : tr
Peter H aym an: p i 7 : br
A u t h o r ’s a c k n o w le d g m e n ts :
T o m y wife N ancy w ho untiringly typed and
co rre cte d my m anuscript pages. T o Miss Pem berton
and the staff o f the Bodleian Library for their kind
help beyond the call o f duty, and to Liz B row n and
Louise Candlish o f D orling Kindersley w ho stopped
m e straying to o tar from the chosen path. And finally
to family and friends w ho have also suffered a little
w ith m e o v e r the last years.
D o r lin g K in d e rsle y w o u ld like to th a n k :
Janos Marffy and Sally-Anne R eason for their
artw orks; R ich ard Bird for the index: Jan e Carter,
Stephen C ro u ch e r, and M ark Joh nson Davies for
design assistance: Lol Henderson and Helen Castle for
editorial assistance; J o , Sim on, Liz, and Louise for
their hands; and to M orag I lislop for all her help.