BIO LECTURE 2

Animals ingest their food in a variety of ways

• Most animals have one of three kinds of diets

– Herbivores, plant-eaters—cattle, snails, sea urchins
– Carnivores, meat-eaters—lions, hawks, spiders
– Omnivores, eating both plants and other animals—
humans, roaches, raccoons, crows

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 Small
molecules
Pieces
of food
Chemical digestion Nutrient
Mechanical (hydrolysis) molecules
digestion enter body
cells
Food Undigested
material

1 Ingestion 2 Digestion 3 Absorption 4 Elimination

 Liver Bile

Gall-
bladder

Stomach

Acid chyme
Intestinal
enzymes Pancreatic juice
Pancreas
Duodenum of
small intestine
GAS EXCHANGE
 Oxygen-rich
blood Oxygen-poor
blood

Nasal Bronchiole
cavity

Pharynx
(Esophagus)
Larynx Left lung Alveoli
Trachea

Right lung

Bronchus Blood
capillaries
Bronchiole

Diaphragm
(Heart)
 Exhaled air Inhaled air

Alveolar
Air spaces
epithelial
cells
CO2 O2

Alveolar
capillaries

CO2-rich, O2-rich,
O2-poor CO2-poor
blood blood

Tissue Heart
capillaries

Interstitial
fluid
CO2 O2
Tissue cells
throughout
body
 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
OPEN CIRCULATION CLOSED CIRCULATION
Heart pumps blood through A heart pumps blood through
open-ended vessels arteries to capillaries. Veins
return blood to heart
Cells directly bathed in blood Blood stays confined to vessels
Arthropods and many molluscs Vertebrates, earthworms,
squids, octopuses
Right
atrium To lung
To lung
Left atrium
From lung
From lung

Semilunar Semilunar
valve valve

Atrioventricular
Atrioventricular
(AV) valve
(AV) valve

Right Left
ventricle ventricle
 The heart contracts and relaxes rhythmically

– During diastole, blood flows – During systole, blood flows

– From veins – From atria
– Into heart chambers – Into ventricles
 23.5 The pacemaker sets the tempo of the heartbeat

– The pacemaker (SA node)

– Sets the rate of heart contractions
– Generates electrical signals in atria
– The AV node
– Relays these signals to the ventricles

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

Pacemaker
(SA node) Specialized
AV node
muscle fibers

Right
atrium

Apex
1 Pacemaker 2 Signals spread 3 Signals relayed 4 Signals spread
generates through atria to apex of heart through
signals and are delayed ventricle
to contract at AV node

ECG

The pacemaker (SA node)

– Sets the rate of heart contractions
– Generates electrical signals in atria
The AV node
– Relays these signals to the ventricles
 Blood pressure and velocity reflect the structure and
arrangement of blood vessels

– Blood pressure
– The force blood exerts on vessel walls
– Depends on
– Cardiac output
– Resistance of vessels
– Decreases as blood moves away from heart
 Blood pressure and velocity reflect the structure and
arrangement of blood vessels

• Blood pressure is
– Highest in arteries
– Lowest in veins
• Blood pressure is measured as
– Systolic pressure—caused by ventricular
contraction
– Diastolic pressure—low pressure between
contractions
 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF BLOOD
Plasma (55%)

Constituent Major functions Cellular elements (45%)

Water Solvent for Cell type Number Functions

carrying other per µL (mm3) of blood
substances
Erythrocytes
Ions (blood electrolytes) Osmotic balance, (red blood cells) 5–6 million Transport of
pH buffering, and oxygen (and
Sodium Centrifuged
maintaining ion carbon dioxide)
Potassium blood
concentration of
Calcium sample
interstitial fluid
Magnesium
Chloride Leukocytes Defense and
Bicarbonate 5,000–10,000
(white blood cells) immunity

Plasma proteins Osmotic balance

and pH buffering
Fibrinogen Clotting Lymphocyte
Basophil
Immunoglobulins Defense
(antibodies) Eosinophil

Substances transported by blood Neutrophil Monocyte

Nutrients (e.g., glucose, fatty acids, vitamins)
Waste products of metabolism
Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2) Platelets 250,000– Blood clotting
Hormones 400,000
 IMMUNE SYSTEM
Innate immunity
Response is the same whether
or not pathogen has been
previously encountered
Acquired immunity
Found only in vertebrates;
previous exposure to pathogen
enhances immune response

External Internal
barriers defenses

• Skin/exoskeleton • Phagocytic cells • Antibodies

• Secretions • NK cells • Lymphocytes
• Mucous • Defensive proteins
membranes • Inflammatory
response

The lymphatic system

 Pin Skin surface Swelling

Bacteria Phagocytes and Phagocytes

Chemical fluid move
signals into area
White
blood cell

Blood vessel

1 Tissue injury; release of 2 Dilation and increased 3 Phagocytes

chemical signals such as leakiness of local blood (macrophages and
histamine vessels; migration of neutrophils) consume
phagocytes to the area bacteria and cell
debris; tissue heals
Antibody A
molecule

Antigen-
binding
sites

Antigenic
determinants

Antigen
molecule

Antibody B
molecule
OSMOREGULATION AND EXCRETION

Osmoconformers
– Have the same internal solute
concentration as seawater
– Many marine invertebrates are
osmoconformers

Osmoregulators control their

solute concentrations
Freshwater fishes
– Gain water by osmosis
– Excrete excess water
– Pump salt across their gills
Aorta

Inferior
vena cava

Renal artery and vein

Kidney
Ureter

Urinary bladder
Urethra
 Bowman’s
capsule 1 Proximal tubule
Arteriole Glomerulus Capillaries
from renal
artery

Arteriole
from
glomerulus 3 Distal
tubule

Branch of From
renal vein another
nephron

Collecting
duct
2 Loop of Henle
with capillary
network
 The key processes of the urinary system

FILTRATION Blood pressure forces water and

many small solutes into the nephron
REABSORPTION Valuable solutes are reclaimed from
the filtrate
+
SECRETION Excess H and toxins are added to the
filtrate
EXCRETION The final product, urine, is excreted
Filtration Reabsorption Secretion Excretion
Nephron tubule

H2O, other small molecules Urine

Capillary Interstitial fluid

 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• Hormone
signaling involves
three key events
– Reception
– Signal
Transduction
– Response
 Body
cells
Insulin take up more
3 glucose

Beta cells
of pancreas stimulated 4
to release insulin into
the blood Blood glucose level
Liver takes declines to a set point;
up glucose
and stores it as stimulus for insulin
1 High blood glycogen release diminishes
glucose level

Stimulus:
Rising blood glucose Glucose
level (e.g., after eating level
a carbohydrate-rich
meal) Homeostasis: Normal blood glucose level
(about 90 mg/100 mL) Stimulus:
Declining blood
Glucose glucose level
level (e.g., after
skipping a meal)

5 Low blood
glucose level
Blood glucose level
rises to set point; 6
stimulus for glucagon
release diminishes Alpha
cells of
8 pancreas stimulated
to release glucagon
Liver 7 into the blood
breaks down
glycogen and Glucagon
releases glucose
to the blood
 NERVOUS SYSTEM
Sensory input

Integration
Sensory receptor

Motor output

Brain and spinal cord

Effector cells Peripheral nervous Central nervous

system (PNS) system (CNS)
 Neuron Axon

Plasma
membrane

Outside of cell Na+ K+ Na+

Na+ Na+
Na+ K+
Na+
Na+ Na+
Na+ Na+
Na+ Na+ Na+
Na+
channel

Plasma K+ Na+-K+
membrane pump

K+ channel
Na+ K+
K+ K+
Protein
K+ K+
K+
K+ K+
Inside of cell Na+ K+
 Na+
Na+

K+
3 Additional Na channels open, K+
K channels are closed; interior of 4 Na channels close and
cell becomes more positive. inactivate. K channels
open, and K rushes
Na+ 50 out; interior of cell more
Action negative than outside.

Membrane potential
potential

0 3
(mV) 4
2 5 The K channels
K+
–50 Threshold close relatively
2 A stimulus opens some Na 1 1 slowly, causing a
channels; if threshold is reached, 5
Resting potential brief undershoot.
action potential is triggered.
–100
Time (msec)
Sodium Potassium
Na+ channel
channel

Neuron Na+
interior
Neuron
Plasma interior
membrane
K+
1 Resting state: voltage-gated Na K+
and K channels closed; resting
potential is maintained. 1 Return to resting state.
 Cerebral
cortex

Cerebrum

Forebrain Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland

Midbrain
Pons
Spinal
Hindbrain Medulla
cord
oblongata
Cerebellum
REPRODUCTION
 Oviduct Ovaries

Follicles

Corpus luteum
Wall of uterus Uterus

Endometrium
(lining of uterus)
Cervix
(“neck” of uterus
Vagina
 Urinary
bladder
Seminal
vesicle
(behind
bladder)
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral
gland
Urethra
Erectile tissue
of penis
Scrotum
Vas deferens
Epididymis

Testis Glans of
penis
 Methods of Birth
• Oviparous – egg laying animals
• Ovoviparous – egg is inside parent with no
placental connection; fed by yolk; hatches
inside; live birth
• Viviparous – baby in uterus with placental
connection; live birth