Education Sector Technical Notes

United Nations
Educational, Scientific and

Gender Equality in Education

Cultural Organization

JUNE 2013
ADG/ED

At a glance
MESSAGE BY

Dear colleagues,

The Education Sector is called to

implement a significant and broad
mandate, covering many challenging
issues in education in a diverse and
fast-changing world.  More than ever,
we need to better focus and ensure
greater cohesion in implementing this
mandate. This document is part of a
series of Technical Notes that have been
developed by colleagues in the
Education Sector in order to facilitate
programme delivery in thematic areas
related to the work of the Sector. The
Technical Notes are meant to serve as a
quick reference tool for UNESCO staff,
providing a brief overview including
basic knowledge, key priorities for
UNESCO and future directions as well
as practical information on each topic.
They will be available both in print and
electronic versions, and they will be
updated regularly.
I hope that the Technical Notes will be
useful in your daily work.
Qian Tang,
Assistant Director-General for Education
◗◗ It’s a right
For UNESCO, gender equality and education are fundamental and
inalienable human rights. UNESCO promotes gender equality to, in and
through education so as to ensure women’s and men’s, girls’ and boys’
equal access to learning opportunities, fair treatment in the learning
process, equitable outcomes as well as access to opportunities in all
spheres of life.
◗◗ It’s the right thing to do
Gender equality, in general and in education in particular, is a priority
on the international development agenda and should remain a central
issue in the post-2015 discussions. Education, especially girls’ and
women’s education, is considered to be one of the most effective
investments for development. Educating girls and women is decisive
not only for improving their own living conditions but also because
it yields personal, social and development benefits: e.g. it empowers
women and improves their life chances, those of their families and their
communities; it reduces poverty and vulnerability to violence, diseases
and child mortality. Nevertheless, girls and women still constitute
the majority of out-of-school children and illiterate adults, and their
learning opportunities are compromised by a number of in-school and
out-of school factors.
◗◗ Getting it right
Gender inequalities are manifested in all aspects of the education process
(e.g. access, retention, completion, treatment, learning outcomes, as
well as education and career choices), disproportionately affecting girls
and women. This is both a cause and a result of systemic discrimination
and gender stereotyping. In some contexts, the gender gap is against
boys, however the worst forms of discrimination are undeniably
experienced by girls and women. If gender equality in education is to
be achieved, the entire education system – from laws and policies to
educational content, pedagogies and learning environments – must be
gender-sensitive, responsive and transformative.

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 Defining the issue – key terms
In order for the following terms to be relevant, it is important to understand and distinguish between sex (biological
differences) and gender (a social construct, determined by social norms, culture, attitudes, values, tradition, beliefs,
practices and which refers to roles, responsibilities, identities or other qualities attributed to people because they are men
or women). Gender norms refer to attitudes about what is appropriate or not for women and men in terms of behaviour,
language, practice, education, profession, etc. They are produced and reproduced, including through social institutions (e.g.
in families and schools, through textbooks, teaching practices, division of labour, etc.). Gender roles are learnt and thus
can be challenged and changed. Gender identity refers to the individual experience of gender, which may or may not
correspond to the sex determined at birth or with the social expectations of that sex. Many people face harassment, stigma
and exclusion if the expression of their gender identity, for example through dress, speech and mannerisms, is different from
what others might expect.

Gender equality in education (the ultimate goal): is achieved when female and male learners have equal access to
learning opportunities, are treated and benefit from education equally, so that they can fulfil their potential and become
empowered to contribute to and benefit from social, cultural, political and economic development equally. Gender equality
in any sphere of life, including education, can be achieved only when all types of discrimination are eliminated and equal
conditions, treatment and opportunities are provided to both girls and boys, women and men. Education institutions can
play a significant role in the effort to achieve wider gender equality by promoting new patterns of beliefs and attitudes, and
by avoiding the reproduction or reinforcement of social inequalities. The education system must be sensitive to the physical,
psychological and social differences between male and female learners, but should value and respect both equally and
provide equal opportunities to all learners. There is a tendency to equate gender equality with gender parity and gender
equity, however a clear distinction needs to be made among these terms.

Gender parity in education (an indicator of the ratio of girls to boys): gender parity is reached when there is equal
representation and participation of male and female learners in education. It is a useful indicator but by itself does not
measure gender equality. The gender parity index (GPI) of the EFA Global Monitoring Report measures the ratio of female-to-
male value of a given indicator. A value between 0.97 - 1.03 indicates that gender parity was reached.

Gender equity in education (conditions or means to achieve equality, but not the end result): special treatment/action taken
to reverse the historical and social disadvantages that prevent female and male learners from accessing and benefiting
from education on equal grounds. For example, equity measures can favour girls in order to empower them and help them
overcome disadvantages of chronic discrimination and catch up with boys. Equity measures, also referred to as ‘positive
discrimination’ or ‘affirmative action’, are not necessarily ‘fair’ per se, but are implemented to ensure fairness and equality of
outcome. For example, providing scholarships or stipends for girls is considered as an incentive for increasing their access
to education.

Gender analysis: a diagnosis of the differences between women’s and men’s conditions, needs, access to and control
of resources or other benefits. It begins by collecting and analysing sex-disaggregated statistics and information about
the targeted population in order to know who does what (division of labour); who has what (access to and control over
resources, services, decision-making, e.g. access to education); what the socio-economic context is (how structural factors –
demographic, economic, political, legal, institutional – as well as culture, religion, attitudes, etc. affect access and control
of resources or decision-making); and what gender considerations are relevant (at all stages of education, from planning to
monitoring and evaluation).
TECHNICAL NOTES

Gender mainstreaming: this involves systematically integrating a gender equality perspective in the design,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation of interventions in order to ensure that both girls and women, boys and men
equally benefit from these interventions and that gender equality is being promoted.

Gender-specific programming: programmes designed to even out gender imbalances by targeting a specific group of persons of the
same gender (or gender identity). 

The UNESCO Priority Gender Equality Action Plan (GEAP) seeks to promote gender equality through both gender mainstreaming and
gender-specific programming.

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 Context and trends
Girls and women represent the majority of people who live in poverty, who are subject to discrimination and gender-based violence
(GBV), and who are less likely to have access to services, including education. Gender equality is provided for in human rights instruments
and it is a development priority, as reflected in both the Education for All (EFA) goals and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

◗◗ Between 1999 and 2010, the number of out-of-

school girls of primary school age halved and that
of secondary school age fell by over a third.
◗◗ The number of countries with severe gender
disparities (with GPI below 0.90) was reduced
by almost half between 1999 and 2010, from 33
countries to 17.
◗◗ 68 countries have still not achieved gender parity
in primary education, and 97 countries at the
secondary level.
◗◗ Two-thirds of the 774 million adults who cannot
read or write are women.

Figure 1. Number of out-of-school children by region and sex, 1990-2010 Source: EFA Global Monitoring Report 2012 and UIS
Source: UIS database 2012, reproduced from UIS Fact Sheet No. 18.1 2013

In the field of education, considerable progress has been made since Dakar 2000, especially in terms of access. However, persisting
challenges remain and disparities are still evident in school enrolment, retention, completion and performance. Girls still constitute
the majority of out-of-school children and women the vast majority of illiterate adults. This is due to various factors including poverty,
geographical isolation, early marriage and pregnancy, GBV, parents’ and teachers’ attitudes about the value of girls’ education or
expectations about their role in society. Even in school, girls and women endure various forms of discrimination, reflected in all aspects of
the education system – its laws, policies and plans, educational contents, teaching and learning practices and the learning environment,
inadequate infrastructure (e.g. lack of toilets, water supply, privacy for girls) and greater concerns over girls’ safety at school or on the
way to school, and fear of GBV. All these affect girls’ education choices, performance and achievements, which in turn affect their life
prospects, as indicated in numerous reports. Within the school environment, bullying, violence and discrimination are often gender-
based and impact negatively on a learner’s attendance and achievement. Both boys and girls can be affected by GBV, but girls are the
most common victims. Moreover, boys and girls whose perceived sexuality or whose gender identity does not ‘fit in’ with the norm are
also victims of high levels of bullying and abuse, which impacts on their education.

Gender disparities in education become worse during the transitory period from primary to secondary education. Many girls drop out of
school at this point, as it coincides with adolescence, when gender roles become more prominent. The disadvantages that boys face in
secondary education are more difficult to define than those affecting girls. Existing research in this area focuses on statistical variations in
measuring learning outcomes among girls and boys on topics such as reading, science and mathematics, while findings from qualitative
analysis are at best limited in scope and at worst contradictory. An important explanation seems to be the clash between notions of
‘masculinity’ and education, perceived as a ‘feminine’ practice that makes education unattractive to boys. Moreover, the fact that men
continue to earn more and have a better status in the workforce is thought to cause complacency among boys. The nature of labour
markets and personal aspirations also play an important role. Other reasons include poverty, especially in certain social and ethnic
contexts, crime and violence, and culture and traditions that expect particular occupational choices from boys.1

However, the situation varies vastly from region to region, from country to country and among specific groups. Gender roles are
affected by and interact with economic and social status, ethnicity, religion, culture, age, physical and mental ability and other factors
to determine power relationships between females and males. Even though education plays a major role in addressing gender-based
discrimination, it cannot always dismantle deep-rooted discrimination embedded in culture, tradition, socio-economic and political
structures, policies or laws, and bring about social change. This is why education, alone, cannot always guarantee equal opportunities
and remuneration in the world of work, or may do little to change the status, responsibilities and opportunities for girls and women,
even if their achievements in education match or even exceed those of boys.

1. Jha J., Bakshi S. and Martins Faria E. 2012. Understanding and challenging boys’ disadvantage in secondary education in developing countries.
Background paper for EFA Global Monitoring Report 2012. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002178/217868e.pdf

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 UNESCO key priorities and future directions
The right to education is at the very heart of UNESCO’s mandate and an integral part of its constitution, expressing the
belief of its founders in ‘full and equal opportunities for education for all’ and the determination ‘to advance the ideal of
equality of educational opportunity’. Gender equality is also one of the two overarching priorities for UNESCO.

Achieving gender equality in education necessitates an approach that facilitates access, retention and completion
for both male and female learners and that empowers them equally. The education system must be sensitive to
their physical, psychological and social differences and respect them equally. This requires action at multiple levels,
ensuring equality of access to education (providing equal opportunities for learning), within education (gender-
sensitive, non-discriminatory and transformative learning environments, educational contents, and pedagogies), and
through education (equality of outcome, life and work opportunities). According to the 2012 EFA Global Monitoring
Report, countries that adopted interventions to promote gender equality at various levels have been most successful
in narrowing the gender gap in primary enrolment. Successful strategies include mobilizing communities, targeting
financial support for girls, ensuring gender-sensitive, responsive and transformative pedagogies and providing safe
learning environments.

UNESCO promotes social norms that value girls’ and women’s education and works at multiple levels, through advocacy,
policy dialogue, normative and standard setting, technical assistance and capacity development, especially in the
following areas where it has a comparative advantage, including:

◗◗ education laws and policies: effective legislation and policies and their implementation are important for creating
an enabling environment for the institutionalization and sustainability of gender equality and for promoting girls’
and women’s education (e.g. fee-free and cost-free education). It is also important to develop/improve the capacity
of those responsible for their development and implementation. UNESCO reviews legal and policy frameworks in
order to ensure that they are gender-sensitive and trains education planners, administrators and other education
personnel.

◗◗ teaching and learning approaches and assessment: teachers’ beliefs and attitudes about gender roles, their
teaching approaches as well as the way they treat girls and boys in the classroom can positively or negatively affect
girls’ and boys’ participation in the learning process, educational achievement and learning outcomes. Teachers
must be appreciated, empowered, engaged and supported in developing gender-sensitive, responsive and
transformative curricula. To be most effective, training on gender equality should be integrated into both pre- and
in-service training programmes, ensuring that teacher training institutions have relevant and adequate capacity.

◗◗ curriculum (learning objectives, expected outcomes and educational content): UNESCO carries out
reviews to eliminate gender biases from curricula, textbooks and teacher training materials, and promotes content
that challenges gender biases and promotes girls’ and women’s empowerment.

◗◗ learning environment: schools and other learning environments must be healthy and safe for all students and
teachers, particularly for girls and women who are the most vulnerable. They should be free from GBV or other
forms of bullying and discrimination, and cater to the specific needs of learners, particularly girls’. Gender-sensitive
learning environments can be an important factor in reducing girls’ drop-out and in promoting gender equality in
education.

◗◗ reaching those hardest to reach: special attention must be given to the most vulnerable groups that are less
TECHNICAL NOTES

likely to enrol and more likely to drop out of school. Women and girls, especially adolescents, including those from
(extremely) poor socio-economic backgrounds; living in remote rural areas; living in (post-)conflict and/or (post-)
disaster situations; belonging to ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities; with disabilities or learning difficulties; that
are subject to GBV, early marriage and pregnancy; or are heavily tied to the care of the elderly and other household
chores face additional barriers that prevent them from going to school.

Priority Africa: despite significant progress, sub-Saharan Africa still accounts for half of all out-of-school children
worldwide, the majority of whom are girls. Africa is one of the overarching priorities of UNESCO, reflected in both
the resources allocated to the region and the number of activities implemented, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. For
example, all the projects within the framework of the UNESCO Global Partnership for Girls’ and Women’s Education are
implemented in Africa, representing an investment of some USD 7.4 million, mobilized through partnerships with the
private sector for girls’ and women’s education.

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 Target groups and key partners
At the international level, UNESCO engages in high-level advocacy aiming at securing political and financial
support, strengthening collaboration with key development partners and sensitizing the general public. This
is done under the EFA umbrella, within the framework of the UN Secretary-General’s Global Education First
Initiative (GEFI) and the UNESCO Global Partnership for Girls’ and Women’s Education, among others.

At country level, in addition to national frameworks and plans, gender equality is usually treated as a priority
within the United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF), which provides a broader framework
and an ideal entry point for collective work on gender equality in general and in education in particular. It is also
important that gender analysis feature prominently in UNESCO assessment documents such as the UNESCO
National Education Support Strategy (UNESS) and the UNESCO Country Programming Document (UCPD).

Major target groups and key partners of UNESCO’s work on gender equality include:

◗◗ G
 overnment officials: especially ministry of education personnel but also education law- and policy-makers,
planners, curriculum developers, teachers and teacher training institutions, and researchers, among others;
◗◗ U
 N agencies and UN bodies such as the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women
(CEDAW), the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) and special UN initiatives promoting girls’ and
women’s education such as the United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative (UNGEI), the UN Adolescent Girls
Task Force (UNAGTF), the Coalition for Adolescent Girls (CAG);
◗◗ n
 ational women’s groups, civil society organizations, international and local NGOs, religious communities
and the private sector; and
◗◗ mass and social media.

Key resources
Statistics
Gender and Education (UIS): http://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Pages/gender-education.aspx
e-Atlas of Gender Equality in Education: http://www.app.collinsindicate.com/atlas-gender-education/en-us
World Inequality Database on Education (WIDE): http://www.education-inequalities.org/

Key publications
Asia-Pacific End of Decade Notes on Education for All: Goal 5 - Gender Equality (2012): http://unesdoc.unesco.org/
images/0021/002191/219185E.pdf
Because I am a Girl: The State of the World’s Girls 2012, Plan International: http://plan-international.org/girls/
reports-and-publications/all-reports-en.php?lang=en
EFA Global Monitoring Report 2003/2004: The Leap to Equality: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/
themes/leading-the-international-agenda/efareport/reports/20034-gender/
EFA Global Monitoring Report 2012: Gender Overview: http://unesdoc.unesco.org images/0021/002185/218569E.pdf
From Access to Equality: Empowering Girls and Women through Literacy and Secondary Education (2012): http://unes-
doc.unesco.org/images/0021/002184/218450e.pdf
Gender Equality in Education (GENIA) Toolkit for Promoting Gender Equality in Education: http://www.unescobkk.
TECHNICAL NOTES

org/education/gender/resources/genia-toolkit/
Gender Issues in Education in the Arab States (2010): http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002107/210798e.pdf
Journal of Gender Studies: http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/cjgs20/current
UNESCO Priority Gender Equality Action Plan (GEAP, 2008-2013): http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/themes/
gender-equality/features/unesco-priority-gender-equality-action-plan-2008-2013/

Online resources
IIEP Evidence-based Policy Forum on Gender Equality in Education: http://genderpolicyforum.wordpress.com/
relive/
The SACMEQ Gender Research Programme: http://www.sacmeq.org/Gender-research.htm
UNESCO Gender Equality in Education: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-interna-
tional-agenda/gender-and-education/
UN Girls’ Education Initiative (UNGEI) Resources: http://www.ungei.org/index_2459.html

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 Advocacy messages
◗◗ Education for all boys and girls, men and women is above all a fundamental human right. Countries have
the obligation to respect, protect and fulfil the right to education for all their citizens, especially girls and
women, who constitute the majority of out-of-school children and the illiterate adult population.

◗◗ Gender equality is a goal in itself and a precondition for the full and equal enjoyment of human rights by all,
leading to just, safe and democratic societies and sustainable development.

◗◗ Gender equality in education is an integral part of and underpins the Education for All (EFA) movement.

◗◗ Investing in girls’ and women’s education yields individual, societal and development gains: when girls
and women are educated, they become empowered and are less vulnerable to violence, exploitation and
poverty. Their families and communities benefit too and their children have a greater chance to survive and
be healthier, better nourished and better educated.

◗◗ We must go beyond ‘business as usual’ in order to reach the most vulnerable groups and promote innovative
approaches, building on successful practices and capitalizing on collective efforts.

◗◗ International days and other events provide a very good opportunity for advocacy and for highlighting the
importance of gender equality in education. For example:

• International Women’s Day: 8 March

• International Literacy Day: 8 September
• International Day of the Girl Child: 11 October (new – first celebrated in 2012)
• International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women: 25 November, followed by 16 Days of
Activism against Gender-Based Violence (GBV)
TECHNICAL NOTES

•C
 ommission on the Status of Women (CSW) - annual meeting in winter/spring each year

ED/ADG/2013/05

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