UPPER AIR OBSERVATIONS USING RADIOSONDE,RAWINSONDE, GPS SONDE

Radiosonde:

A radiosonde is a small box-like instrument that is carried into the upper atmosphere by balloon.
As it travels upward, it transmits meteorological measurements to ground stations. Radiosondes
measure temperature with a thermometer, humidity with a hygrometer, and air pressure with a
barometer. Radiosondes are attached to helium-filled neoprene balloons that are designed to
burst when they reach a specified altitude. They can operate up to an altitude of 30 km.
Radiosondes may operate at a radio frequency of 403 MHz or 1680 MHz and both types may be
adjusted slightly higher or lower as required

Operation:

A rubber or latex balloon filled with either

helium or hydrogen lifts the device up through the
atmosphere. The maximum altitude to which the
balloon ascends is determined by the diameter and
thickness of the balloon. Balloon sizes can range
from 150 grams to 3000 grams. As the balloon
ascends through the atmosphere, the pressure
decreases, causing the balloon to expand.
Eventually, the balloon will expand to the extent
that its skin will break, terminating the ascent. An
800 gram balloon will burst at about 21 kilo meters (69,000 ft). When the balloon has expanded
beyond its elastic limit and bursts (about 6 m or 20 feet in diameter), a small parachute slows the
descent of the radiosonde, minimizing the danger to lives and property.

Meteorologists send these instruments up into the upper atmosphere on balloons twice a
day simultaneously around the world at midnight and at noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
Radiosondes take continuous measurements as the balloon rises through the air. This information
is transmitted by radio back to the ground. Special tracking equipment monitors the movement of

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the radiosonde, which is converted into wind speed and wind direction data. When the balloon
bursts, the radiosonde falls back to Earth by parachute.

The radiosonde flight can last in excess of two hours, and during this time the radiosonde
can ascend to over 35 km (about 115,000 feet) and drift more than 200 km (about 125 miles)
from the release point.

Sometimes radiosondes are deployed by being dropped from an aircraft instead of being carried
aloft by a balloon. Radiosondes deployed in this way are called dropsondes. They are most often
used in special research projects, such as when it is desired to obtain a profile through a specific
feature of a storm.

Uses of upper air observations:

By using the pressure , temperature, humidity(PTH) data from the Radiosonde we can obtain the
corresponding PTH profiles. With the help of Skew-T log-P or T-Phigram we can derive the
thermodynamical parameters related to the upper air from the Radiosonde and are useful for the
interpretation of the atmosphere's vertical thermodynamics profile of temperature and moisture
as well as kinematics of vertical wind profile. Raw upper air data is routinely ingested by
numerical models.

Radiosonde data is a crucially important component of numerical weather prediction. Because a

sonde may drift several hundred kilometers during the 90 to 120 minute flight, there may be
concern that this could introduce problems into the model initialization. However, this appears
not to be so except perhaps locally in jet stream regions in the stratosphere .

The Radiosonde data having Pressure, Temperature, Humidity, Wind speed and wind direction is
more for studying the variations, instability in the vertical structure of atmosphere and also
important for the thunderstorm prediction.

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Rawinsonde:

By tracking the position of the radiosonde in flight, information on wind speed and direction
aloft is also obtained. Observations where winds aloft are also obtained are called "rawinsonde"
observations.

A rawinsonde is a radiosonde that is designed to also measure wind speed and direction.
Colloquially, rawinsondes are usually referred to as radiosondes. The first rawinsondes were
observed from the ground with a theodolite, and gave only a wind estimation by the position.

A radiosonde is a balloon-borne instrument used to simultaneously measure and transmit

meteorological data while ascending through the atmosphere. The instrument consists of sensors
for the measurement of pressure, temperature, and relative humidity. The sensors information is
transmitted in a predetermined sequence to the ground receiving station where that information is
processed at some fixed time interval. When wind information is processed by tracking the
balloon's movement the instrument package is termed a rawinsonde. Thus, rawinsonde
observations of the atmosphere describe the vertical profile of temperature, humidity, and wind
direction and speed as a function of pressure and height from the surface to the altitude where the
sounding is terminated. Other derived parameters are also determined from a rawinsonde
observation. The rawinsonde system consists of a balloon-borne radiosonde, receiving and
tracking equipment, and computer systems for data processing.

GPS Radiosonde:

In ordinary radiosonde or raiwnsonde the position of the balloon and sonde is tracked
with the help of a radar. As GPS Radiosonde will give position and velocity information of the
balloon with the help of GPS receiver module in addition to the normal PTH parameters the use
of radar tracking can be avoided. Hence the indigenously developed low cost GPS Radiosondes
can replace the existing non-GPS radiosondes used for the meteorological applications. In India
GPS Radisondes are used in various fields like meteorology, military, navy, launch vehicle
programs etc.

Graphical plotting of the meteorological variables serves to identify problems during the
flight, providing the operator with an additional method for determining such as sensor failures,

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unusual meteorological phenomena, and potential hardware problems. Data versus time plots are
useful in identifying problems or phenomena that require observer editing, as are thermodynamic
diagrams such as a Skew T-log P chart. In addition, the data processing subsystem shall have the
capability of performing signal processing, managing the meteorological information, and
performing general file management and data-base tasks.

Rocketsonde

A rocketsonde, a kind of sounding rocket, is a system for atmospheric observations that consists
of a rocket that launches instruments that can make weather
observations up to an altitude of 75km. A typical rocket is 3.7 m tall
and is powered by a 10 cm diameter solid rocket engine. The rocket
engine separates at an altitude of 1500 m and the rest of the
rocketsonde coasts to apogee (highest point). This can be set to an
altitude of 20 km to 113 km. The meteorological instruments record
data on temperature, moisture, wind speed and direction, wind shear,
atmospheric pressure, and air density. Position data (altitude and
latitude/longitude) may also be recorded.

Sounding rocket

A sounding rocket, sometimes called a research rocket, is an instrument-carrying rocket designed

to take measurements and perform scientific experiments during its sub-orbital flight. The
rockets are commonly used to take readings or carry instruments from 50 to 1,500 kilometers
(30–932 mi) above the surface of the Earth, the altitude generally between weather balloons and
satellites; the region above the maximum altitude for balloons is about 40 km (25 miles) and the
minimum for satellites is approximately 120 kilometers.

CONSTRUCTION OF T-φ GRAM (Tephigram)

A `T-Phigram` is one of four thermodynamic diagrams commonly used in weather analysis and
forecasting adopted in meteorology by Sir Napien shaw. . The name evolved from the original
name `T-phi-gram` to describe the axes of temperature (T) and entropy (phi-φ) used to create the

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plot. Entropy is related to potential temperature θ by equation, φ =C p log θ + Constant. Potential
temperature is plotted along y-axis. Usually, temperature and dew point data from Radiosonde
are plotted on these diagrams to allow calculations of convective stability or convective available
potential energy (CAPE).

The isobars can be obtained from Poisson’s equation. T/θ = (P/100) K by putting values of T and
computing θ for constant pressure. Since one coordinate is logarithmic ( C log θ) and in linear
scale of T the isobar are curved . However in normal range of meteorological condition the
isobars are nearly straight. The isohygric lines are nearly straight but pseudo adiabat are
appreciably curves.

In the tephigram, isotherms are straight and have a 45 degree inclination to the right while
isobars are horizontal and have a slight curve. Dry adiabats are also straight and have a 45 degree
inclination to the left while moist
adiabats are curved.

In T- φ gram since entropy

lines and isotherms have max angle
90o All isopleths are almost straight
except pseudo adiabat, above all
equal area transformation is there
when any cyclic reversible process
along isotherm and adiabat is
represented by area of rectangle
representing work done by air or
extracted from air in atmospheric process. By tilting the diagram clockwise isobars become
horizontal lines representing height upward for convenience.

Normand’s Theorom:

Normand’s theorem sates that at particular pressure P, dry bulb temperature T, wet bulb
temperature Tw and dew point temperature Td of a parcel of air. The dry adiabats through T,

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 pseudo adiabat through Tw and isohygric through Td all meet at a point in the Tephigram (point
o) the point of intersection is the lifting condensation level (LCL) of the air parcel. It is also
known as Normand’s point. Therefore out of these three temperatures two are known the third
temperature value can be determined over any Isobaric level using Normands theorem.

Use of T- φ gram

1. To study stability condition of atmosphere layers

2. To derive meteorological parameters such as T*, θ, θc , Tc and R/W etc.

3. To compute height of pressure levels

4. To compute perceptible water in atmospheric layers

THERMO DYNAMICAL PARAMETERS:

a. Convection Condensation Level(CCL)

The convection condensation level (CCL) is the height to which a parcel of air, if heated
sufficiently from below, will rise adiabatically until it is just saturated (condensation starts). It is
the height of the base of cumuliform clouds which are produced by thermal convection from
surface heating.

b. LCL ( lifting condensation level)

The lifting condensation level (LCL) is the height at which a parcel of air becomes saturated
when it is lifted dry- adiabatically. The LCL for a surface parcel is always found at or below the
CCL ( convective condensation level) ; note that when the lapse rate is, or once it becomes, dry
adiabatic from the surface to the cloud base, the LCL and CCL are identical.

c. L.F.C ( Level of free Convection)

The 1eve1 of free convection (LFC) is the height at which a parcel of air lifted dry-adiabatically
until saturated and saturation-adiabatically thereafter would first become warmer (less dense)

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 than the surrounding air. The parcel will then continue to rise freely above this level until it
becomes colder (more dense) than the surrounding air.

d. Equilibrium level- E.L

The equilibrium level (EL) is the height where the temperature of a buoyantly rising parcel again
becomes equal to the temperature of the environment . The next meeting point of the same curve
and the dry bulb curve yields the position of EL and is represented on same as above.

e. Convective Temperature-Tc

The convection temperature (Tc) is the surface temperature that must be reached to start the
formation of convection clouds by solar heating of the surface-air layer
f. wet bulb temperature)- Tw

The wet-bulb temperature (Tw) is the lowest temperature to which a volume ,of air at constant
pressure can be cooled by evaporating water into it, This assumes that the heat required for
evaporation is taken from the air itself. (WMO definition) Physically, the wet-bulb temperature is
the temperature of the wet-bulb thermometer rather than of the air.
g. Virtual temperature -Tv:

The virtual temperature (Tv) of a moist air sample is defined as the temperature at which dry air
at the same pressure, would have the same density as the moist air.

This is the sum of dry bulb temperature over surface and W/6 where W is the mixing ratio
obtained against dew point temp over surface.

Tv = T(1 + 0.61w)
T= temperature in Kelvins
w= mixing ratio in kg of moisture per kg of dry air

h. Relative humidity- RH
Relative humidity is a ratio, expressed in percent, of the amount of water vapor in the air
(actual mixing ratio) compared to the amount of water vapor the air can hold (saturation mixing
ratio). Since we have already found these values, we can find the relative humidity for any
plotted pressure level by using the formula

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 Since the units (grams per kilogram) cancel, we are left with a number, expressed as a
percentage.

i. Virtual Temperature (Tv)

The virtual temperature represents the temperature to which a sample of dry air must be heated in
order to have the same density as a sample of moist air at the same pressure

j. Potential temperature( θ):

The potential temperature (6) is the temperature that a sample of air would have if it were
brought dry-adiabatically to a pressure of 1000 mb.
PT = T(1000/P)^Rd/cp = T(1000/P)^0.286
T = temperature in Kelvins
P = pressure in millibars
Rd = gas constant for dry air
Cp = constant pressure process

k. wetbulb potential temperature- Θw

This may be obtained by the same fashion required for evaluating of Tw but inserted of
extending to auxiface same is to be extended to 1000 hpa level. The temperature is also exin
degeee absolute or Kelvin.

l. Equivalent potential temperature - Θe

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 The equivalent potential temperature (Θe ) is the temperature a sample of air would have
if all its moisture were condensed out by a pseudo-adiabatic process (I. e., With the latent heat of
condensation being used to heat the air sample), and the sample then brought dry-adiabatically
back to 1000 mb. The equivalent temperature (TE ) is the temperature a sample of air would
have if all its moisture were condensed out by a pseudo-adiabatic process (i. e., with the latent
heat of condensation being used to heat the air sample), and the sample then brought dry-
adiabatically to its original pressure. This equivalent temperature is sometimes termed the
‘adiabatic equivalent temperature,” and should not be confused with the “isobaric equivalent
temperature” which is always slightly lower.

Equivalent potential temperature

Theta-E = T(1000/P)^0.286 + 3w = PT + 3w
T = Temperature in Kelvins
P = Pressure in millibars
w = Mixing ratio in grams per kilogram
PT = Potential temperature

J. Mixing ration
The mixing ratio represents the amount of water vapor in the air and is normally given in
grams of water vapor per kilogram of dry air (g/kg). Normally, when using the mixing ratio in
computations, you should convert the grams of water vapor to kilograms of water vapor to keep
the units consistent and in agreement with SI units. So enter the mixing ratio in the units of g/kg.
Definition: In a sample of moist air, the mixing ratio (w) is the ratio of the mass of water vapor
(Mv) to the mass of dry air (Md), i.e., w = Mv/ Md? It is expressed in parts per thousand, usually
grams of water vapor per kilograms of dry air.

k. Vapor Pressure
The vapor pressure (e) is that part of the atmospheric pressure which water vapor contributes to
the total atmospheric pressure.

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l. Saturation Vapor Pressure.
The saturation vapor pressure (e) is the partial pressure which water vapor would contribute to
the total atmospheric pressure if the air were saturated.

m. Mixing Condensation Level.

The mixing condensation level (MCL) is the lowest height, in a layer to be mixed by wind
stirring, at which saturation occurs after the complete mixing of the layer; it is located at the
intersection of the saturation mixing- ratio line through the mean dry adiabat of the mixed layer.

INTRODUCTION TO SPACEBORNE INSTRUMENTS

The U.S. space agency plans to launch the 21-channel radiometer along with three other
instruments July 10 aboard its Aura satellite from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California.

HIRDLS will capture the chemistry and dynamics of four layers of the atmosphere that
together scan a region 8 to 80 kilometers (5 to 50 miles) above Earth’s surface: the upper
troposphere, the tropopause, the stratosphere, and the mesosphere.

Using infrared radiation the radiometer will look through Earth’s atmosphere toward the
planet’s limb, or edge. It will find and measure the different chemical species, characterize
airborne particles known as aerosols, and track thin cirrus clouds, all at a vertical resolution of
half a kilometer (a third of a mile) and a horizontal resolution of 50 kilometers (30 miles). The
signal-to noise ratio is one tenth that of previous detectors.

Good and bad ozone at different altitudes

At 50 kilometers (30 miles) above the ground, ozone is good: it blocks dangerous
ultraviolet radiation and prevents it from harming life and materials at ground level. At 10
kilometers (6 miles), ozone is a greenhouse gas, which is good because the natural greenhouse
effect is necessary to warm the planet, but bad if the warming continues to increase at too rapid a
rate. At 5 kilometers (3 miles), ozone is a source of the hydroxyl radical, which cleanses the

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atmosphere of pollutants. But at ground level, ozone is a primary pollutant in smog, causing
respiratory problems and damaging trees and crops.

Spaceborne scatterometers

Spaceborne scatterometers are satellite instruments that were originally designed to map
wind speed and direction over the oceans, but they also measure various land and ice variables.
Scatterometers actively transmit electromagnetic pulses to the Earth's surface and measure the
backscatter response, or the power of the return pulse scattered back to the antenna. Researchers
can derive various geophysical variables from the backscatter response; wind speed and direction
are not measured directly, but are inferred from backscatter responses. Scatterometers measure
surface properties with relatively coarse spatial resolutions. Since they must average pulses
received over a wide area to accurately measure the return amplitude. While this does not allow
detailed analyses of surfaces, it does have the advantage of covering a larger portion of the earth
on a more frequent basis than synthetic aperture radar (SAR). This coverage is desirable for
monitoring synoptic-scale phenomena such as global ocean winds and snow cover, continental
ice sheets, and polar sea ice extent.

To date, four spaceborne scatterometers have been deployed. All were originally designed
to measure ocean winds

:SASS: Seasat-A Satellite Scatterometer System

SASS was launched on board NASA's Seasat-A satellite on 27 June 1978.

The mission lasted until 10 October 1978 when a satellite power failure
terminated the mission. However, the mission did provie
a baseline for studies of global change.

ESCAT: ERS Scatterometer

ESCAT is the name given to the Active Microwave

Instrument (AMI) on board the European Space Agency's

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(ESA) Earth Remote Sensing (ERS)-1 and -2 satellites when it is in scatterometer mode. ERS-1
launched on 17 July 1991 and ERS-2 launched on 21 April 19

NSCAT: NASA Scatterometer

The NSCAT
instrument flew on
the Japanese
Aerospace
Exploration (JAXA)
Advanced Earth
Observing Satellite-I
(ADEOS-I) that was
launched 16 August 1996. On 30 June 1997 a power failure terminated the mission. NSCAT's
primary science objective was to measure surface wind speed and direction over the global
oceans, with a requirement to provide coverage every two days under all weather and cloud
conditions.

SeaWinds

The SeaWinds scatterometer flies on NASA's Quick

Scatterometer (QuikSCAT) satellite and was launched on 19
June 1999. A similar scatterometer, SeaWinds-II, flew on
JAXA's ADEOS-II satellite from 14 December 2002 to 24
October 2003 when a power failure terminated the mission.
SeaWind's primary science objective is to acquire high-
resolution, continuous, all-weather measurements of near-
surface vector winds over the ice-free global oceans (Kramer
1994)

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The advanced scatterometer (ASCAT) on the European Space Agency's meteorological
operational (MetOp) platforms will be the follow-on to European wind scatterometers. The first
mission (MetOp-1) is planned for 2005, MetOp-2 is planned for 2007, and MetOp is planned for
2012. The MetOp orbit is planned to be a sun-synchronous, polar, 29-day, repeat-cycle orbit with
an ascending node at 21:30 local time and a minimum altitude of 822 km. The ASCAT mission
was primarily designed to provide operational global ocean wind vectors (Figa-Saldaña et al.
2002)..

Principles of Operation

A scatterometer is an incoherent surface-based radar that measures reflectivity over a set of

different incident angles. Scatterometers average the detected returns from a sequence of pulses,
a process known as post-detection integration (Henderson and Lewis 1998). Averaging ensures
more accurate measurements of the backscattering coefficient, since single return pulses are
typically noisy. Because pulses from multiple ground targets interfere with one another, the
return signal is distorted: a process referred to as fading. Averaging together a sufficient number
of return pulses has the effect of canceling out the noise caused by fading, often achieving ± 0.10
to 0.15 dB accuracy. The downside to averaging together multiple return pulses is a significant
reduction in spatial resolution: 25 to 50 km, compared to 1 to 10 km with SAR.

The intensity of the backscattered signal depends on the roughness and the dielectric properties
of the target. Changes in wind velocity cause changes in ocean surface roughness, modifying the
radar cross section of the ocean and the magnitude of the backscattered power. Multiple collated
measurements acquired from several directions can be used to solve wind speed and direction
simultaneously (Kramer 1994).

For ice and snow, the backscatter is influenced by surface roughness (including orientation of the
surface scatterers), liquid water content, snow grain size, brine concentration in sea ice, and
density. Scatterometers can be calibrated to less than a few tenths of a decibel (dB); thus,
seasonal and interannual differences of only 1 to 2 dB can be accurately monitored using
scatterometry data.

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ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal
Emission and Reflection Radiometer) is an
imaging instrument that is flying on Terra, a satellite
launched in December 1999 as part of NASA's
Earth Observing System (EOS). ASTER is a
cooperative effort between NASA and Japan's
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI)
and the Earth Remote Sensing Data Analysis Center
(ERSDAC). ASTER will be used to obtain detailed
maps of land surface temperature, emissivity,
reflectance and elevation. The EOS platforms are
part of NASA's Earth Science Enterprise, whose
goal is to obtain a better understanding of the
interactions between the biosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere and atmosphere.

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