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3. TRANSFORMER NOISE

Basic theory ContinueHere.com

One definition of noise is 'an unpleasant or unwanted sound.' 'Sound' is the sensation at the ear which is the
disturbance in the air in which an elementary portion of the air transfers momentum to an adjacent elementa
that elementary portion motion. A vibrating solid object sets the air in contact with it in motion and thus starts
Any movement of a solid object may cause sound provided that the intensity and frequency are such that the

Thus any piece of machinery which vibrates radiates acoustical energy.

Sound power is the rate at which energy is radiated (energy per unit time). Sound intensity is the rate of ene
that is, through a unit area.

To completely describe this flow rate the direction of flow must be included.

Sound intensity is thus a vector quantity. Sound pressure is the scalar equivalent quantity, having only magn
microphones are only capable of measuring sound pressure, but this is sufficient for the majority of transform
measurement situations.

A sound source radiates power. What we hear is the sound pressure, but it is caused by the sound power em
The sound pressure that we hear or measure with a microphone is dependent on the distance from the sourc
environment (or sound field) in which sound waves are present. By measuring sound pressure we cannot ne
how much noise a machine makes. We have to find the sound power because this quantity is more or less in
environment and is the unique descriptor of the 'noisiness' of a sound source.

Sound propagation in air can be likened to ripples on a pond. The ripples spread out uniformly in all direction
amplitude as they move further from the source. This is only true when there are no objects in the sound pat
the sound path, part of the sound will be 'reflected,' part 'absorbed' and the remainder will be transmitted thro
much sound is reflected, absorbed or transmitted depends on the properties of the object, its size, and the w
sound. In order to be able to predict or modify sound pressure levels at any position away from a 'vibrating' m
therefore necessary to know both its sound power and its surrounding environmental properties.

Noise emission by transformers in operation is inevitable. It can give rise to complaints which, for various rea
resolve. The two main problems are: first, distribution transformers are normally located closer to houses or o
types of equipment; and, second, since they operate throughout the 24 hours of every day, the noise continu
when it is most noticeable.
In approaching the noise problem it is therefore essential to consider not only the engineering aspects, but a
noise is a subjective phenomenon involving the vagaries of human nature.
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The subjective nature of noise tax form -

The subjective nature of noise is underlined by the standard definition in IEC 60050-801: 1994 Glossary of e
which states that it is 'sound which is undesired by the recipient.' It is thus easy to see how people at a party
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neighbors wishing to sleep find it both disturbing and annoying. It also shows why some soundsContinue
suchtoas the
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be classified as noise, especially since intermittent sounds are usually more annoying than continuous
tax form
ones.

Fortunately, transformer noise is not only continuous, but also largely confined to the medium range of audio
are the least disagree able to the human ear. The absence of inherently objectionable features means that th
transformer noise is roughly proportional to its apparent loudness. A good starting point for tackling the probl
determine the apparent loudness of the noise emitted by transformers of different types and sizes.

Methods of measuring noise

The measurement of noise is by no means as simple as that of physical or electrical quantities. Loudness, lik
subjective sensation dependent to a large extent on the characteristics of the human ear. It must therefore be
statistical basis, and research in this field has shown that the loudness figure allocated to a given sound by a
observers is a reasonably well-defined function of its sound pressure and frequency. ContinueHere.com

Since sound pressure and frequency are the objective characteristics measured by a sound level meter, it is
rating proportional to the loudness of a sound from the appropriate meter readings. A sound level meter is ill
while a more comprehensive analyzing meter is shown in FIG. 11.

FIG. 10 Sound level meter (Brüel & Kjaer)

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FIG. 11 Sound level meter with octave band filter (Brüel & Kjaer)

FIG. 12 Equal loudness curves (Robinson and Dadson)

To enable meter readings to be correlated with loudness values, a quantitative picture of the response of the
different sounds must be available. Standardized loudness curves from BS 3383 (now replaced by ISO 226)
FIG. 12. They show how the sensitivity of hearing of the average person varies with changes in both the freq
of the sound. Sensitivity decreases towards the low and high limits of the audio frequency range, so that sou
band from approximately 16 Hz to 16 kHz are inaudible to most human observers.

The microphone of sound measuring instruments is in effect a transducer for measuring sound pressures, w
expressed in newtons/meter^2 or pascals. Since the sensitivity of the human ear falls off in a roughly logarith
increasing sound pressure, it is usual to calibrate instruments for measuring sound levels on a logarithmic sc
decibels, or dB.

The scale uses as base an r.m.s. pressure level of 20 µPa, which is approximately the threshold of hearing o
1000 Hz. Thus noise having an r.m.s. pressure level of d pascals (or d newtons/meter^2 ) would be said to h
level of 20 log10 d/0.00002 dB. The decibel scale is used for the ordinate of FIG. 12, each 20 dB rise in soun
ten fold increase in sound pressure.

The curves of FIG. 12 represent equal loudness contours for a pure note under free-field conditions. They sh
human ear will ascribe equal loudness to pure notes of sound level 78 dB at 30 Hz, 51 dB at 100 Hz, 40 dB a
3000 Hz. 40 dB at 6000 Hz and 47 dB at 10 000 Hz.

Thus at 30 Hz the ear is 38 dB less sensitive than at 1000 Hz and so on. - federal
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The loudness level of any pure tone is numerically equal to the decibel rating of the 1000 Hz note appearing
From this definition, it follows that the loudness level of any 1000 Hz tone is equal to the decibel rating. At ot
does not hold, as the figures in the previous paragraph show.
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Determining loudness
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The equal-loudness curves show how the sensitivity of the ear varies with frequency, but do not indicate how
changes in sound pressure level. For this purpose the sone scale of loudness has been standardized. The re
scale is taken arbitrarily as a loudness of 1 sone for a level of 40 phons, that is 40 dB at 1000 Hz. It has been
or fall of 10 phons in loudness level corresponds to a doubling or halving respectively of the loudness (FIG. 1

The sone scale is linear, so that a noise having a loudness of 2A sones sounds twice as loud as a noise of A
noted that the noise emitted by two similar sources does not sound twice as loud as the noise emit ted by ea
The sound pressure level is increased only by 3 dB and the apparent loudness by about one-quarter.

Sound measuring instruments

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The equal loudness contours shown in FIG. 12 were used to derive simple weighting networks built into instr
sound level.

FIG. 13 Relation between loudness and loudness level.

Sound level is defined as the weighted sound pressure level. The construction of a sound level meter is show
in FIG. 14. Historically, A, B and C weighting networks were intended to simulate the response of the ear at l
sound levels, respectively. However, extensive tests have shown that in many cases the A-weighted sound le
correlate best with subjective noise ratings and is now used almost exclusively. Although C weighting is retai
comprehensive meters, B weighting has fallen into disuse.
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FIG. 14 Block diagram for sound level meter tax form

The meter illustrated in FIG. 11 and shown in block form in FIG. 14 offers A and C weightings at the touch of
linear (unweighted)

option for frequency analysis purposes and where the actual sound pressure level is to be measured.

The microphone used in a sound level meter is non-directional and the A-weighted frequency characteristic a
response of the meter closely follow that of the human ear. As the range of the ear is around 140 dB, while th
has a linear 30 dB scale, attenuators are necessary to cover the full measuring range required. The range sw
a convenient scale reading is obtained, and the sound level of the noise is then the sum of the meter reading
setting.
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If noise is fluctuating very rapidly, the meter response may not be fast enough to reach the actual level of a n
has subsided again.

The meter illustrated will, however, measure and display the maximum r.m.s. level of a noise event at the tou

A sound level meter effectively sums up a given noise in terms of a single decibel value. Although sufficient f
requirements, this yields little information as to the character of the noise, as it represents only its magnitude

To determine the character of noise, a frequency spectrum must be measured by means of an audio frequen
that illustrated in FIG. 15.

This instrument is essentially a variable filter which suppresses noise components at all frequencies outside
it is tuned over the audio band, any marked amount of noise at a particular frequency is clearly demonstrated
the meter reading. From the readings obtained, a continuous spectrum can be derived.

Where less discrimination is acceptable, a filter of wider bandwidth may be used to sum up all components o
certain frequency range. The most common bandwidth is one octave, although one-third octave filters are als
precise applications. The mid-band frequencies are inter nationally standardized; for octave band filters they
250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000 Hz and higher for precision (Class 1) grade meters. The 250 Hz band, for examp
180-360 Hz.

The day-to-day performance of a sound level meter is usually checked periodically using a calibrator. The lat
accurately known sound level against which the meter can be set up. To ensure that the calibration is not affe
noise, the calibrator is usually fitted over the micro phone to form a closed cavity. This not only greatly reduc
also ensures that the source to microphone spacing is exactly the same at every calibration.
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FIG. 15 Audio frequency analyzer (Brüel & Kjaer)

Sound level measurements of transformers

As explained above, in making measurements of noise at a particular point in space using a microphone, the
the sound pressure level.

The quantity is expressed in decibels, usually with an A scale weighting, and abbreviated as dBA. For many
users and manufacturers quantified the noise produced by a transformer in terms of these microphone readi
average surface sound pressure level or average surface noise level which was an average of sound pressu
taken at approximately 1 m intervals around its perimeter at a distance of 0.3 m from the tank ContinueHere.com
surface. As a m
the noise produced by individual transformers this provided a fairly satisfactory method of making an assess
transformer with an average surface noise level (usually simply termed 'noise level') of 65 dBA was quieter th
noise level of 70 dBA. However, with recent environmental requirements demanding low noise levels, it has
be able to predict the sound pressure level at a distance of, say, 100 m from the substation. It is therefore es
sound power level of the transformer(s). This is expressed in terms of the integral of sound pressure over a h
having the transformer at its center. The units of measurement remain decibels. This approach has the bene
noise contribution from the transformer to be assessed at any distance and the contributions from different s
(applying an inverse square law to the distance and adding logarithmically), and is now the preferred method
for expressing transformer noise levels. There is, unfortunately, confusion between the two quantities which
fact that both are measured in the same units. Many transformer users still specify average surface noise lev
transformer or expect the sound power level to be the same in numerical terms as the average surface noise
numerical terms the sound power level is likely to be around 20 dB greater than the average surface sound p
actual relationship will be derived below.

In the UK noise measurements were formerly made in accordance with EN 60551 Determination of transform
levels. In 2001, the standard covering transformer noise measurement was incorporated into the EN 60076 s
with the issue of Part 10 of that document.

EN 60076-10 introduced further changes into transformer noise measurement practice in addition to the cha
sound pressure levels to sound power levels identified above. The first of these changes followed as a result
reductions that have been made in recent years in transformer core noise with the result that noise produced
load current in transformer windings, which had hitherto generally been ignored when specifying and measu
no longer automatically be regarded as negligible. A method of determining the noise contribution due to the
therefore included. The second change is to allow an alternative method of deducing the sound power of a tr
the measurement of sound intensity rather than sound pressure. It is claimed that this alternative method is l
errors due to environmental factors such as external sound sources, reflections and standing waves.

When the sound pressure method of measurement is used, EN 60076-10 recommends that the test environm
as near as possible free-field conditions, that is it should be essentially undisturbed by reflections from objec
environment boundaries but, recognizing that such an ideal environment cannot generally be found within a
the method requires that an environmental correction based on the size of the transformer radiating envelope
boundary surface enclosing the test bay is calculated and subtracted from the average A-weighted sound pre
from the test measurements.
If the sound intensity method of measurement is to be used, the standard again recommends that an environ
undisturbed by reflections from nearby objects and environment boundaries should be provided, but states th
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accurate determinations to be made with up to two reflecting walls so long as these are at least 1.2 m from th
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of the test object or three reflecting walls at least 1.8 m distant.

Sound pressure measurements are made using a type 1 sound level meter complying with EN 60651. A che
a calibrated noise source should be made before and after the measurement sequence. Click Here to
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If using the sound intensity method, measurements are made with a Class 1 sound intensity meter complying
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instrument measures sound intensity by the use of a pair of pressure sensing microphones separated by a fi
provide the directional element. The method of calibration of this instrument is described in EN ISO 9614-1.

The methods of making measurements are essentially similar regardless of which system is used. It is first n
determine the principal radiating surface. This is the surface defined by the vertical projection of a string con
transformer from floor level up to the height of the tank cover. The string contour is to include all cooling equi
tank, tank stiffeners, cable boxes, tapchanger, jacking and transport lugs, etc., but exclude any forced air coo
bushings, oil pipework, valves or any projection above the tank cover height.

Separate free-standing coolers mounted at a distance 3m from the transformer are treated as separate soun
principal radiating surface being that enclosed within a string contour encircling the equipment but excluding
framework, pipework valves and other secondary devices. ContinueHere.com

For transformers with a tank height less than 2.5 m, measurements are taken at half the tank height. For tran
height equal to or greater than 2.5 m, measurements are taken at one-third and two-thirds of the tank height
around the tank perimeter are to be spaced not more than 1 m apart. For transformers having no forced coo
cooling equipment mounted on a separate structure at least 3 m distant from the main tank, or for dry-type tr
within enclosures, the micro phone is placed at a distance of approximately 0.3 m from the principal radiating
16).

For measurements made on separate free-standing coolers up to a height of 4m (excluding conservators) m

taken at half the cooler height.

For coolers with a height 4m, measurements are taken at one-third and two thirds of the cooler height.

Sound pressure level measurements are taken at no-load and all readings are recorded using the A-weightin
analysis is required the linear response is used. The transformer is excited on its principal tapping at rated vo
but preliminary check tests may be made to see if there is any significant variation of noise between different

If it is required to perform load-current measurements these are carried out in the same way as the open-circ
except that one set of winding terminals are short circuited and a sinusoidal voltage equal to impedance volts
circuit current, is applied to the other terminals. This assumes that exciting the core with impedance volts doe
significant core noise.

To enable a decision to be made as to whether load-current measurements should be made the standard giv
obtaining a rough estimate of their magnitude as

(eqn. 1)

where LWA, IN is the A-weighted sound power level of the transformer at rated current, rated frequency and

Sr is the rated power in MVA

Sp is the reference power (1 MVA)

It will be seen that if, for example Sr is 100 MVA, substituting the appropriate value in Eq. (eqn. 1) gives a va
approximate rated current A-weighted sound power. The standard goes on to suggest that if the guaranteed
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level for the transformer including the core noise is more than 8 dB greater than this approximate rated curre
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there is no merit in performing a formal load-current measurement.

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FIG. 16 Plan view of transformer with tank-mounted radiators showing principal sound radiating surface and
contours for self-cooled and forced-cooled ratings.

For separate cooling structures mounted at least 3 m from the main tank a series of measurements are taken
from the principal radiating surface with pumps and fans running but with the transformer de-energized.

FIG. 17 shows the location of the principal radiating surface and the microphone positions.

The average A-weighted background noise level is calculated before and after the tests. Initial and final back
pressure levels should not differ by more than 3 dB, and the higher background level must be at least 8 dB F
microphone positions for noise measurement on forced air cooling auxiliaries mounted on a separate structu
than 3 m away from the principal radiating surface of the transformer tank lower than the uncorrected averag
energized transformer, but if the uncorrected average for the transformer is less than guarantee it may be de
guarantee regardless of the background measurement.

The average surface sound pressure level is then generally computed by taking a simple arithmetic average
measurements taken around the perimeter of the equipment as described above. Strictly speaking how ever
be logarithmic but provided the range of values does not exceed 5 dB, taking an arithmetic average will give
greater than 0.7 dB. A true average is given by the expression:

(eqn. 2)

where LpA is the A-weighted surface sound pressure level in decibels

LpAi

is the A-weighted sound pressure level at the ith measuring position in decibels - federal
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N is the total number of measuring positions

The corrected average A-weighted sound pressure level, LpA, can then be calculated by subtracting the env
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from the average value in accordance with the expression below
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(eqn. 3) where K is the environmental correction to take account of test location.

K is generally of the order of 2-5 dB depending on the volume of the test bay in relation to the size of the tran

A similar process is used to give the average sound intensity level if sound intensity measurements have bee
there is no environmental factor to be subtracted.

Calculation of sound power level The sound power level can be calculated using the sound pressure levels d
computing the effective area for the measurement surface according to the relevant method of measurement
the standard measurement surface, which is 1 m2. The A-weighted sound power level is thus

LWA is the A-weighted sound power level in decibels with respect to 10_12
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W S is the area of the measurement surface, in square meters with respect to S0 _ 1 m2.

The measurement surface S then has the following values:

For self-cooled transformers, or forced cooled transformers with the forced cooling equipment unenergized, a
made at 0.3 m from the principal radiating surface:

S _ 1.25hlm (eqn. 4)

where h is the height in meters of the transformer tank

lm is the length in meters of the contour along which measurements were made

1.25 is the empirical factor to take account of the sound energy radiated by the upper part of the transformer
measurements were made

For forced cooled transformers with forced cooling equipment also energized or for measurements on separa
cooling structures:

S_ (h _ 2)lm (eqn. 5)

where 2 is the measurement distance in meters

h is the height in meters of the transformer tank or of the cooling equipment, including fans (see FIG. 18)
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FIG. 18 Cooler with forced air cooling auxiliaries showing boundaries of principal radiating surface.

Addition and subtraction of sound power values

Sound power levels can be added and subtracted to provide sound powers for cooling equipment alone whe
obtained for transformer and cooler or to add the sound power contributions from iron circuit (no-load measu
current measurements, but this must be done logarithmically. For example to determine, LWA0, the sound po
cooling equipment:

(eqn. 6)

where LWA1 is the sound power of the transformer and cooler

LWA2 is the sound power of the transformer or, the combined A-weighted sound power due to core and rated

(eqn. 7)

where LWA,UN is the A-weighted sound power level of the transformer at rated voltage on open circuit

LWA, IN is the A-weighted sound power level at rated current

Interpretation of transformer noise

The point has already been made that in order to obtain accurate measurement of transformers noise these
made in free-field conditions, and this requirement always presents problems in the investigation of noise rel
identified at the start of this section, a great deal of valuable information can be gained by making measurem
surface noise level, and provided these measurements are always made in the same or similar environment
identify, and to a significant extent quantify, those design and construction measures that will enable a reduc
be obtained. A free-field environment, or its equivalent, is how ever necessary if absolute measurements are
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FIG. 19 Transformer undergoing a noise test in an anechoic chamber (ABB Power T&D Ltd.).

The closest approximation that can generally be obtained to a free-field environment is an anechoic chambe
create zero reflection of incident sound pressure. Such chambers were widely used in early experimentation
transformer noise and FIG. 19 shows a distribution transformer undergoing a noise test in an anechoic cham
because distribution transformers can often be located closer to housing than larger transformers, these unit
investigated with the object of reducing noise. There is a limit to the size of such chambers, however, and the
be provided for large high-voltage transformers (although the automotive industry does use very large chamb
reason for the development of measuring techniques involving the use of correction factors applied to measu
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normal test bay.

A typical analysis of transformer noise is reproduced in FIG. 20, which can be considered as a composite gra
of readings. In this diagram, the ordinates indicate the magnitude of the various individual constituents of the
frequencies represent the abscissae. The most striking point is the strength of the component at 100 Hz or tw
operating frequency of the transformer. Consideration of magnetostrictive strain in the transformer core revea
magnetostriction can be expected to produce a longitudinal vibration in the laminations at just this measured

Unfortunately, the magnetostrictive strain is not truly sinusoidal in character, which leads to the introduction o
in FIG. 20.

FIG. 20 Typical analysis of noise emitted by transformers

Deviation from a 'square-law' magnetostrictive characteristic would result in even harmonics (at 200, 400, 60
different values of magnetostrictive strain for increasing and decreasing flux densities - a pseudo-hysteresis
introduction of odd harmonics (at 300, 500, 700 Hz, etc.). Reference to FIG. 12 indicates that the sensitivity o
increases rapidly at frequencies above 100 Hz. On the 40 phon contour, it requires an increase of 12 dB in in
sound at 100 Hz appear as loud as one at 1000 Hz. The harmonics in a transformer noise may thus have a s
an observer even though their level is 10 dB or more lower than that of the 100 Hz fundamental.

Although longitudinal vibration is the natural consequence of magnetostriction, the need to restrain the lamin
also leads to transverse vibrations, this effect being illustrated in FIG. 21. Measurements taken on this effect
transverse vibrations contribute roughly as much sound energy to the total noise as do the longitudinal vibrat
pointed out, two similar sources sound about 25 percent louder than one. By the same token, complete elimi
transverse vibration would reduce the loudness of the transformer noise by only about a ? fth. Although valua
even if technically and economically possible, is insignificant com pared with the halving of the loudness whic
a reduction of 10 dB in the noise level of both longitudinal and transverse vibrations.
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FIG. 21 Vibrations de to magnetostriction: (a) longitudinal and (b) transverse

The other main source of noise from the transformer core is due to alternating attractive and repulsive forces
laminations caused by flux transfer across the air gaps at the leg to yoke and inter-yoke joints. These forces
special building and design techniques of which the best known and most widely used is the step-lap form of
described in Section 4.1.

FIG. 20 covers typical transformers incorporating cold-rolled laminated cores operating at flux densities betw
Tesla. Even variations of 10 percent in flux density have been shown to produce changes of noise level of th
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2 dB, although the character of the noise may vary appreciably. From this it will be apparent that it is most un
reduction in noise level by the employment of low flux densities. This is perhaps demonstrated best by refere
with cold-rolled steel.

To make the optimum use of these newer materials, it is necessary to operate them at flux densities of 1.65-
operating conditions permit this. While this higher flux density tends to lead to a higher noise level for a given
results suggest that the difference is quite small for a given transformer rating, due to the smaller core made
of the higher flux density material. Considerable work is being undertaken to obtain even quieter operation b
the raw material and by particularly careful assembly of the finished core laminations.

Turning to other possible sources of noise emitted by a transformer, as indicated earlier, the forces present b
conductors in the winding when the transformer is loaded must be considered. These forces are, however, o
so that any vibration consists of a fundamental at 100 Hz with negligible harmonics. The fundamental is thus
by the much greater 100 Hz fundamental generated by the core, while there are no harmonics to add to the a
Acoustic measurements confirm this conclusion by showing that, except on very large transformers the noise
no more than 2 dB (15 percent rise in loudness) from no load to full load. Any variation is in fact attributable m
flux density than to variations in the forces in the windings.

The other major source of noise is the transformer cooler. Fans produce noise in the frequency range 500-20
which the ear is more sensitive than it is to the 100 Hz fundamental produced by the core. The pre dominant
dependent on many factors including speed, number of blades and blade profile. Sound power level is depen
and size of fans as well as speed and, for many forced-cooled transformers, the cooler can prove to be a sig
source of noise than the transformer itself. An example is the transformer shown in plan view in FIG. 16.

This is a 40 MVA ONAN rated 132/33 kV transformer with tank-mounted radiators having an emergency ODA
pumps and eight fans, of 80 MVA. By careful attention to core design and use of modern HiB steel, an avera
pressure level of only 47 dBA, corrected for back ground, has been achieved at the ONAN rating with a soun
dBA. However, with all pumps and fans running for the emergency ODAF rating, the average surface sound
increased to 60 dBA and the sound power level to 82 dBA.

These comments on transformer noise assume the absence of resonance in any part of the unit. Normally th
frequency of the core and windings lies in the region of 1000 Hz. FIG. 20 indicates that the exciting forces ar
higher frequencies. Accordingly, it can confidently be expected that the unfortunate effects associated with re
avoided. The natural frequency of the tank or fittings being lower, resonance of these is much more likely to o
vibrations of the core can be transmitted by the oil to the tank. If any part of the structure has a natural freque
200, 300, 400 Hz, etc., the result will be an amplification of noise at that particular frequency.
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Noise reduction on site tax form -

Control of the noise emitted by a transformer rests almost entirely with the manufacturer, who must Endeavo
customer's specified requirements wherever possible. A certain amount of noise is, however, inevitable and,
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must be dealt with by the purchaser who can do much to ensure acceptance of the transformerContinue
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i
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Typical average sound levels of a range of transformers are given in FIG. 22. They should, of course, be com
figures for the actual transformer to be installed, as soon as any figures become available. The levels quoted
however, provide a reasonable basis for preparatory action. The reduction of noise level with distance must b

Doubling the distance from a point source of noise means that a given amount of sound must be spread ove
From this cause alone, doubling of distance results in a 6 dB fall in sound level. In practice, scattering combi
absorption by the air itself ensures that the noise reduction is greater, particularly at the higher frequencies.

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FIG. 22 Typical transformer average surface noise levels FIG. 23 Curves showing measured attenuation of t
distance

FIG. 23 shows measured values of attenuation with distance for typical transformer ratings. Assuming that th
between the transformer and a given building, these curves enable the noise level outside the building to be

Normally it is not necessary to reduce transformer noise in the vicinity of residential buildings to such a level
Experience suggests that the transformer noise will be acceptable if it is not audible inside a bed room of the
night time when a small window of the room is open. Under these conditions the transformer noise level outs
considered as the permitted maximum transformer noise at this position.

Provided the sound level meter reading taken outside the house is not more than 2 dB above the bedroom b
being measured at the A weighting, the acceptable noise level inside will not be exceeded. From Table 2 wh
calculated equivalent 'phon' values of the transformer noise as obtained from the typical composition and eq
and tone summation curve, it will be seen that three types of background level have been given, and these a
representative of conditions existing at night in neighborhoods of the kinds referred to.
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Table 2 Acceptable maximum noise levels outside dwellings [From CIGRE Paper No 108 (1956) tax form -
Transforme
Brownsey. Glever and Harper.]

Using the values from Table 2 as a basis, it is possible to determine whether the noise level within nearby be
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acceptable if the transformer is sited at various alternative locations. One or other location may Continue
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t
subjected to an unduly high noise level. tax form

Failing this, the investigation may still show the minimum attenuation necessary to bring the noise level down
level. The most appropriate method of achieving this object can then be selected and work put in hand imme
site is ready when the transformer is delivered.

Provided the noise level resulting from transformer operation is below that given in the above table, condition
satisfactory and no corrective action is necessary. In fact, with well-designed transformers, acoustic condition
satisfactory under urban conditions at all points beyond 15 m from the transformer for a rating of 200 kVA an
500 kVA. Assuming that bedroom windows do not face directly on the transformer, it is possible to decrease
about two-thirds.

Attenuation ContinueHere.com

In urban areas, it is normally impracticable to site transformers more than 100 m from the nearest dwelling. I
transformers with ratings in excess of about 60 MVA will probably need to be provided with some form of atte
noise reduction of between 10 and 25 dB.

The most obvious method of attenuation is by the provision of a suitable barrier between the transformer and
simplest form of barrier is a screening wall, the effectiveness of which will vary with height and density as we
frequency of the noise. The attenuation of a 100 Hz noise by a 6m wall will not normally exceed 10 dB outsid
'shadow' cast by the wall.

Such attenuation just reaches the bottom of the range cited but some slight further attenuation can be achiev
of absorbent material.

This treatment may result in an attenuation as small as 2 dB and will seldom give a figure in excess of 6 dB.
material may give some relief on existing installations or may make a single wall shielding a transformer in o
effective, it will not usually provide a complete solution where an untreated screen wall is itself unsatisfactory

Noise and vibration from large transformers will also be transmitted via the ground. Ground-borne vibration c
structures to vibrate which may then amplify and retransmit the noise. These effects can be reduced by placi
anti-vibration mountings -- strips of rubber or other resilient material, usually 80 mm wide and 40 mm thick. T
and the spacing of these is arranged to ensure that the loading is optimized as near as possible for the mate
simply set out perpendicular to the major dimension of the tank base with an even spacing or in a more elabo
example, in FIG. 24 which aims to provide a more even loading taking into account irregularities in the plinth
Whichever arrangement is used, the openings around the perimeter of the tank base should be closed, othe
between the pads can provide resonant chambers for amplification of the sound.
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FIG. 24 Typical arrangement of anti-vibration mountings for 60 MVA transformer

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FIG. 25(a) Typical acoustic enclosure for 1.32 kV transformer

It is generally necessary to provide concrete or steel acoustic enclosures for large generator transformers, si
source of high levels of off site noise. For transmission transformers and grid bulk-supplies transformers the
reduction measures will depend on the location of the sub station, but consideration should be given to spec
least made suitable for the future fitting of an acoustic enclosure should this be found to be necessary after t
entered service. Such provision also allows for the transformer to be installed at alternative sites, some of wh
environmentally sensitive than others. Provision mainly involves the installation of bushings on extended turr
through the structure of the enclosure. A typical acoustic enclosure capable of producing an attenuation of a
shown in FIG. 25.

The need for enclosures of this type has tended to lessen in recent years in view of the steady improvements
measures adopted by transformer manufacturers and, of course, installation within an acoustic enclosure ha
disadvantage that a separate free-standing cooler bank must be provided outside the enclosure. This adds to
the transformer, and any fans associated with the cooler will probably contribute considerably more to the off
than would the transformer itself, as will be evident from the typical cooler noise levels quoted above. Fan no
by the provision of attenuators in the form of inlet and outlet ducts. These add considerably to the size of the
effective they must have a length of the order of one or 2 times the diameter of the fans on either side of the
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large induced draught transformer oil cooler with fans installed within inlet and outlet noise attenuators. The c
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18 fans provided to dissipate over 3.3 MW of losses from a large quadrature booster. The attenuators enable
dBA to be obtained at a distance of 2m from the cooler.

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Provided openings are located at the optimum position, the attenuation given by any reasonable structure wi
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that necessary to give tolerable conditions in nearby houses. An important factor in this connection is the rela
attenuation of the harmonic content of the noise, which has been shown earlier in this section to have a nuis
proportion to its magnitude.

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FIG. 25(b) Typical details of acoustic enclosure.

Once such a structure has been erected, adequate maintenance is of the utmost importance if the initial atte
maintained. Any openings and doors should be checked frequently, as gaps may develop to a sufficient size
considerable escape of sound energy.

It is often advisable to compare a frequency spectrum of the noise emitted by the transformer to be installed
of the background noise at the proposed location. In the values quoted earlier, typical frequency spectra hav
marked deviations of the actual noises from the character attributed to them can lead to a considerable redu
power of the background noise. For this reason alone, a frequency analysis on site is valuable, even if it is co
average spectrum for transformer noise, such as that given in FIG. 20.
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FIG. 26 Induced draft cooler for 2000 MVA quadrature booster.

The cooler has five sections for the shunt unit and four for the series unit. These are designed to dissipate 19
respectively, with one section of each out of service. A noise level of 60 dBA at 2 m from the cooler was obta
inlet and outlet attenuators on each of the fans (GEA Spiro-Gills Ltd.)

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Topographical features of the site should be exploited to the full in order to reduce noise. Where possible the
be located in the prevailing down-wind direction from houses. Existing walls and mounds should, if possible,
dwellings and the transformer. Natural hollows can sometimes be used to increase the effective height of scr
artificially constructed pits.

Cultivated shrubs and trees form only an ineffective barrier to noise as sound attenuation is largely determine
barrier. In some cases where the smaller ratings of distribution transformers are installed, the psycho logical
be sufficient to avoid a complaint simply because the transformer becomes hidden by the trees and is therefo
Notes Frequency 100 Hz Adjacent Air Can Amplitude Calibrate Comprehensive Contours Convert feet to meters Notes Frequency
Air Can Amplitude Calibrate Comprehensive Contours Convert feet to meters Notes Frequency 100 Hz Adjacent Air Can Amplitude

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