Block Diagram and the Closed-Loop Response

For each of its four components (process, measuring device, controller mechanism, and final control
element) we can write the corresponding transfer function relating its output to its inputs. In particular, if we
neglect the dynamics of the transmission lines, we have:

Process:

(Equation 1)

Measuring device:

(Equation 2)

Controller mechanism:

comparator (Equation 3a)

control action (Equation 3b)

Final control element:

(Equation 4)

where Gp Gd, Gm, Gc, and Gf are the transfer functions between the corresponding inputs and outputs.

Figure 1. Block diagram of generalized closed – loop system

Figure 1. shows the block diagram for the generalized closed-loop system and it is nothing more than a
pictorial representation of equations 1, 2, 3a, 3b and 4.

Figure 2. Simplified block diagrams

 The series of blocks between the comparator and the controlled output (i.e., Gc, Gf and Gp) constitutes the
forward path, while the block Gm is on the feedback path between the controlled output and the comparator. If
G = GcGfGp, then Figure 2 shows a simplified but equivalent version of the block diagram.

Algebraic manipulation of the equations above yields

Using equation 3b

Using equation 3a

Using equation 2

Put the last equation in equation 1.

and after readjustment take

(Equation 5)

Equation 5 gives the closed – loop response of the process. We notice that it is composed of two terms. The first
term shows the effect on the output of a change in the set point, while the second constitutes the effect on the
output of a change in the load (disturbance). The corresponding transfer functions are known as closed – loop
transfer functions. In particular,

(Equation 6)

is the closed – loop transfer function for a change in the set point and

(Equation 7)

is the closed – loop transfer function for a change in the load. Figure 2b shows a block diagram equivalent to that
of Figure 2a but further simplified.

For every feedback control system, we can distinguish two types of control problems: the servo and the
regulator problem.

Servo problem: The disturbance does not change while the set point undergoes a change. The feedback controller
acts in such way as to keep y close to the changing ySP. In such a case,

(Equation 8)

Regulator problem: The set point remains the same while the load changes. Then

(Equation 9)
and the feedback controller tries to eliminate the impact of the load changes and keep y at the desired set point.

From the equations 6 and 7, it can be easily seen that the closed – loop overall transfer functions GSP and
Gload depend not only on the process dynamics but also on the dynamics of the measuring sensor, controller and
final control element.

Effect of Proportional Control

Effect of Proportional control on the response of a controlled process

First order system
𝑑𝑦
𝜏𝑝 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑦 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑚 + 𝐾𝑑 𝑑 with y(0) = m(0) = d(0) = 0
Which gives
𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑑
𝑦 (𝑠 ) = 𝑚 (𝑠 ) = 𝑑(𝑠)
𝜏𝑝 𝑠 + 1 𝜏𝑝 𝑠 + 1
Thus for uncontrolled system:
Time constant 𝜏𝑝
Static gains 𝐾𝑝 for the manipulation and 𝐾𝑑 for the load
Put
𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑝
𝐺𝑝 (𝑠) = 𝜏 and 𝐺𝑑 (𝑠) = 𝜏
𝑝 𝑠+1 𝑝 𝑠+1

in
𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)𝐾𝑐 𝐺𝑑 (𝑠)
𝑦(𝑠) = 𝑦𝑆𝑃 + 𝑑
1 + 𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)𝐾𝑐 1 + 𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)𝐾𝑐 𝑠
And take the closed-loop response:
𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑑
𝑦(𝑠) 𝑦𝑆𝑃 (𝑠) + 𝑑(𝑠)
𝜏𝑝 𝑠 + 1 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐 𝜏𝑝 𝑠 + 1 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐

rearrange the last equation and take

𝐾′ 𝑝 𝐾′ 𝑑
𝑦(𝑠) = 𝜏′ 𝑦 (𝑠) + 𝜏′ 𝑑(𝑠)
𝑝 𝑠+1 𝑆𝑃 𝑝 𝑠+1

where
𝜏𝑝
𝜏′𝑝 =
1 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐
𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐
𝐾′𝑝 =
1 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐
and
𝐾𝑑
𝐾 ′𝑑 =
1 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐

The parameters 𝐾′𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 ′ 𝑑 are known as closed-loop static gains.

Closed-loop response of a first order system has the following characteristics:
1. It remains first-order with respect to load and set point changes.
2. The time constant has been reduced which means that the closed-loop response has become faster, than
the open-loop response, to changes in set point or load.
3. The static gains have been decreased.
Remarks
1. Although the offset tends to zero as Kc → ∞, we will never use extremely large values of Kc for
proportional control. The reason will become very clear in the next chapter.
2. If Gm = Km and Gf = Kf, it is easy to show that the offsets become:
For set point unit step changes,
 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑓
Offset =1- 1+𝐾
𝑝 𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑓 𝐾𝑚

For load unit step changes,

𝐾𝑑
Offset =1- 1+𝐾
𝑝 𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑓 𝐾𝑚

3. In subsequent sections we will examineonly the response for the servo problem assuming that the reader
has gained the facility to repeat a similar analysis for the regulator problem.
4. Processes having the term 1/s in their transfer function, when they are controlled with proportional
controoler, do not exhibit offset point changes but they do for sustained load changes. Let us demonstrate
this important feature for the liquid-level control system shown in the figure.

The output Fo is constant and the level by manipulating the inlet flow rate Fi. The load (disturbance) is
the flowrate Fd. In terms of deviation variables, tha mass balance around the tank yields
𝑑ℎ′
𝐴 = 𝐹 ′ 𝑖 + 𝐹 ′ 𝑑(𝑠)
𝑑𝑡
Therefore
1
𝐺𝑝 (𝑠) =
𝐴𝑠

Second order system

The transfer function for a second-order process is

𝑦(𝑠) 𝐾𝑝
𝐺𝑝 (𝑠) = = 2 2
𝑚(𝑠) 𝜏 𝑠 + 2𝜏𝑠 + 1
Put this equation in
𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)𝐾𝑐 𝐺𝑑 (𝑠)
𝑦(𝑠) = 𝑦𝑆𝑃 + 𝑑
1 + 𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)𝐾𝑐 1 + 𝐺𝑝 (𝑠)𝐾𝑐 𝑠
where
𝜏
𝜏′ =
√1 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐
𝜍
𝜍′ =
√1 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐
𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐
𝐾′𝑝 =
1 + 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐
For the above we notice that the closed loop response of a second-order system with proportional control has the
following characteristics:
It remains second-order.
The static gain decreases.
 Both the natural period and damping factor decrease. This implies that an overdamped process, with
proportional control and appropriate value of Kc, may become underdamped. (oscillatory).

Remarks
1. Depending on the value of the damping factor 𝜍 for the uncontrolled second-order system shows that 𝜍 ≷
1. If 𝜍 < 1, the overdamped response of the closed-loop system is very sluggish. Therefore, we prefer to
increase the value of Kc and make 𝜍 < 1. Then closed-loop response reacts faster but it becomes
oscillatory. Also, by increasing Kc, the offset decreases.
2. The increase in the speed of system’s response and the decrease in the offset, both very desirable features,
come at the expense of higher overshoots (maximum errors) and longer oscillating responses. Thus, as Kc
increases, causing 𝜍 to decrease.

Effect of Integral Control Action

The analysis makes use of integral controller.

Recall the servo problem đ(s) = 0; 𝐺𝑚 = 𝐺𝑓 = 1;

𝐺𝑝 𝐺𝑓 𝐺𝑐
ȳ(𝑠) = 𝐺 ȳ𝑆𝑃 (𝑠) Equation (25)
𝑝 𝐺𝑓 𝐺𝑐 𝐺𝑚 +1

𝐾𝑝
For 1st-order process: 𝐺𝑝 = 𝜏 Equation (26)
𝑝 𝑆+1

𝐾
For a simple integral control action: 𝐺𝑐 = 𝜏 𝑐𝑆 Equation (27)
𝐼

1
Equation (2) and (3) in (1) yields: ȳ(𝑠) = 𝜏2 𝑠2 +2Ϛ𝜏𝑆+1 ȳ𝑆𝑃 (𝑠) Equation (28)

𝜏𝐼 𝜏𝑝
Where: 𝜏 = √𝐾 𝐾 Equation (29)
𝑝 𝑐

1 𝜏𝐼
Ϛ = 2 √𝜏 Equation (30)
𝑝 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐

Equation (4) indicates an important effect of the integral control action, It increases the order of dynamics for the
closed-loop response.

For a 1st order uncontrolled process, the response of the closed-loop becomes 2nd order and may have different
dynamic characteristics. Integral control action alone is expected to make the response of the closed-loop
system more sluggish.
Integral control action produces 2nd order closed-loop response and leads to zero offset.
Equation (6) means that the form of the closed-loop response depends on the controller gain value Kc and reset
time τI.

As Kc increases, damping factor Ϛ decreases.

Consequences of decreasingϚ:

 Response moves in general from sluggish overdamped to faster but oscillatory underdamped behavior.
 Overshoot and decay ratio increases.
 We can improve the speed of the closed-loop response at the expense of higher deviations and longer
oscillations.

Increasing the integral control action (increasing Kc, decreasing τI) makes the response of the closed-loop system
more sensitive.

Effect of derivative Control Action

For derivative control action alone, we have

Assuming again for simplicity that Gm=Gf=1, the closed-loop response of a first-order system with
derivative control action is given by

The above equation leads to the following observations on the effects that the derivative control action
has on the closed-loop response of a system:
1. The derivative control does not change the order of the response.
2. It is clear that the effective time constant of the closed-loop response is larger
than the ԏp. This means that the response of the controlled process is slower than that of the original
first-order process. Furthermore, as Kc increases, the effective time constant increases and the response
becomes progressively slower.
Effect of Composite control Actions
Although proportional can be used alone, this is almost never the case for integral or derivative
control actions. Instead, proportional-integral (PI) and proportional-integral-derivative modes of control.
Effect of PI Control
Combination of proportional and interal control modes leads to the following effects on the
response of a closed-loop system;
1. The order of the purpose increases (effect of integral mode)
2. The offset is eliminated (effect of integral mode).
3. As Kc increases, the response becomes faster [effect of proportional and integral modes] and
more oscillatory to set point changes. Large values of Kc create a very sensitive response and may
lead to instability.
4. As ԏI decreases, for constant Kc, the response becomes faster but more oscillatory with higher
overshoots and decay rates (effect of integral mode).
Effect of PID Control
 The figure summarizes the effect of PID controller on the response of a controlled process. Notice that
although increasing Kc leads to faster responses, the overshoot remains almost the same and the setting time is
shorter. Both are results of the derivative control action.