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What
is the
The electron’s intrinsic electromagnetic field has both energy and angular momentum.
Electron
The electron has electromagnetic origin.
The electron is the smallest magnet, oriented in the same direction that the electron is
spinning. The electron’s south pole has one unit positive magnetic charge ‘g’, the north
The multiple of electric charge unit ‘e’ and magnetic charge unit ‘g’ equals Planck’s
constant ‘h’.
Both the electron’s electric charge and magnetic charge have the continuum spherical
Spin?
distribution inside the electron.
The electron as whole has one unit negative electric charge ‘e’.
All the particles that make up physical materials include electrons, protons and neutrons
BY GENGYUN LI
have electromagnetic origin. Thus all materials have electromagnetic origin.
ISBN 0-9743974-9-0
]|xHSKJREy397498zv*:+:!:+:!@
EAN
Gengyun Li
What is the electron spin?
By Gengyun Li
1
What is the electron spin?
Copyright © 2003
Gengyun Li
All rights reserved
2
What is the electron spin?
Table of Contents
1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………5
3
22. The electron impedance ……………………………………………………….....65
Appendix……………………………………………………………………………..81
Index………………………………………………………………………….………89
4
Chapter
1 Introduction
The electron has both an intrinsic electric field and an intrinsic magnetic field.
The electron’s intrinsic electromagnetic field has both energy and angular momentum.
In our book, we have the assumption that the electron has the electromagnetic origin,
the electron spin is the electron’s electromagnetic field angular momentum, and the
electron’s self-energy is the electron’s electromagnetic field energy.
e2
me c 2 = (1.1)
4πε 0 r0
Combine electron mass me with radius r0 , and we get electron spin angular
momentum:
=
me vr0 = (1.2)
2
=
v= (1.3)
me r0
4πε 0 c 2 =
v= (1.4)
e2
And so:
c
v= (1.5)
α
5
e2
α= (1.6)
4πε 0 =c
As we know:
1
α≈ (1.7)
137
Therefore:
v
≈ 137 (1.8)
c
Based on the above model of electron spin, the classical electron velocity is
much greater than the velocity of light! Why did the spinning electric charge ball
model fail for the electron spin? The basic assumption of the above electron spin
model is that the electron’s mass originates from electric field energy.
Then we make the assumption that both the electron mass and spin have
electromagnetic origin. Thus we obtain the electron’s self-energy from the
electromagnetic field energy, and the electron spin from the electron’s
electromagnetic field angular momentum.
In our book, we also provide a possible solution for the hydrogen atom
spectrum, in which the hydrogen atom spectrum is regarded as the hydrogen
electromagnetic field stationary wave energy spectrum.
The particles that comprise all physical materials include electrons, protons
and neutrons; all of which have electromagnetic origin. Therefore, all materials have
electromagnetic origin.
6
Chapter
e 1 r
ρ e ( r ,θ ) = − exp( − ) sin θ (2.1)
π ae r
2 2
ae
We use the spherical polar coordinates in our book, in which r is the radial
coordinate, θ is the polar angle, e is the electric charge of the electron, ae is the
electron radius constant.
By integrating the electric charge density equation (2.1), we can find the volume
electric charge:
Qe (r ,θ ) = ∫ ρ e (r ,θ )dr 3 (2.2)
V
e 1 r
Qe (r , θ ) = − ∫ exp(− ) sin θ 2πr 2 sin θdθdr (2.3)
V
π ae r
2
2
ae
2e r r r
Qe (r ,θ ) = −
π ∫a
V e
exp(−
ae
)d ( ) sin 2 θ dθ
ae
(2.4)
r θ
r2e r r
Qe (r ,θ ) = − [ ∫ exp(− )d ( )][ ∫ sin 2 θ dθ ] (2.5)
π 0 ae ae ae 0
r r 1 1 (2.6)
Qe ( r ,θ ) = −e[1 − (1 + ) exp( − )] (θ − sin 2θ )
ae ae π 2
7
r r
Qe (r , π ) = −e[1 − (1 + ) exp( − )] (2.7)
ae ae
Equation (2.7) is the electric charge equation within the sphere of radius r.
When r → ∞ , thus:
Qe = −e (2.8)
Thus we can see that the electron as a whole has one unit negative electric charge e.
8
Chapter
g 1 r
ρ m (r , θ ) = − exp( − ) cos θ (3.1)
πae r
2
ae
By integrating the magnetic charge density equation (3.1), we can get the volume
magnetic charge:
Qm (r ,θ ) = ∫ ρ m (r ,θ )dr 3 (3.2)
V
In which dr
3
= 2π r 2 sin θ d θ dr thus
g 1 r
Qm (r , θ ) = − ∫ exp(− ) cos θ 2πr 2 sin θdθdr (3.3)
V
πae r
2
ae
Therefore,
r r r
Qm (r ,θ ) = −2 g ∫ exp(− )d ( ) cosθ sin θ dθ (3.4)
V
ae ae ae
Thus:
r θ
r r r
Qm (r ,θ ) = −2 g[ ∫ exp(− )d ( )][ ∫ cos θ sin θ dθ ] (3.5)
a
0 e
ae ae 0
Consequently,
r r 1 (3.6)
Qm (r ,θ ) = − g[1 − (1 + ) exp( − )] (1 − cos 2θ )
ae ae 2
9
From equation (3.6), we find out that:
When θ = π , Thus:
Qm (r , π ) = 0 (3.7)
From equation (3.7), we learn that within the sphere of any radius r, the
magnetic charge total is always zero.
We find out that inside of the electron, within the sphere of any radius r, the
magnetic charge as a whole is always zero, even though magnetic charge distribution
exists inside of the electron.
π
When θ = , thus:
2
π r r
Qm ( r , ) = − g[1 − (1 + ) exp( − )] (3.8)
2 ae ae
The above equation (3.8) is the electron north pole area magnetic charge
distribution within the sphere of radius r, from which we can see the magnetic charge
distribution is also the cumulative gamma distribution [B].
When r → ∞ thus:
Qm = − g (3.9)
Which shows us that the electron has one unit negative magnetic charge ‘g’ in the
whole north pole area ( 0 ≤ θ < π ).
2
Inside the electron, the whole area of the north pole, has one unit negative magnetic
charge ‘g’.
As we know, the electron has total zero magnetic charge, so the electron whole south
pole area ( π ≤ θ < π ) has one unit positive magnetic charge ‘g’.
2
Inside the electron, the whole area of south pole has one unit positive magnetic charge
‘g’.
Reference
10
Phys. Rev. 74, 817-830 (1948)
Thomson's monopoles
I. Adawi
Am. J. Phys. 44, 762 (1976)
11
Chapter
As we know, the Gauss Law of Electric Field defines the relationship between electric
charge and electric field as follows:
G ρ
∇⋅E = e (4.1)
ε0
G
In which E is the electric field strength, and ρ e is the electric charge density.
If we combine the Gauss Law of Electric Field equation (4.1) and the electric charge
density distribution equation (2.1), we will obtain the follows electric field solution:
G e1 r
E= exp(− )(rˆ sin θ − θˆ cosθ ) (4.2)
π ε 0 ae r
2
ae
Below, we will prove that the above equation (4.2) satisfies the Gauss Law of Electric
Field.
∂ 1 ˆ ∂ 1 ˆ ∂
∇ = rˆ + θ + φ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
G e ∂ 1 r 1 r ∂
∇⋅E = { [ exp(− )] sin θ − 2 exp(− ) cos θ } (4.3)
ε 0π a e
2
∂r r ae r ae ∂θ
Thus:
G e ∂ 1 r 1 r
∇⋅E = { [ exp(− )] sin θ + 2 exp(− ) sin θ } (4.4)
ε 0π 2 ae ∂r r ae r ae
G e 1 r 1 r 1 r
∇⋅E = {[ − exp(− ) − exp(− )] sin θ + 2 exp(− ) sin θ } (4.5)
ε 0π 2 a e r2 ae ra e ae r ae
Therefore:
12
G e 1 r 1 r 1 r
∇⋅E = {[ − exp(− ) − exp(− )] sin θ + 2 exp(− ) sin θ } (4.6)
ε 0π a e
2
r 2
ae ra e ae r ae
And so:
G 1 e r
∇⋅E = − exp(− ) sin θ (4.7)
ε 0π a r 2 2
eae
If we combine equation (4.7) and (2.1), then we will get the Gauss Law of Electric
Field.
G ρ
∇⋅E = e
ε0
Thus we have proved that the electric field equation (4.2) indeed satisfies the Gauss
Law of Electric Field.
13
Chapter
Similar to the electric field, the Gauss Law of Magnetic Field has defined the
relationship between magnetic charge and magnetic field. The Gauss Law of
Magnetic Field is:
G ρ
∇⋅H = m (5.1)
µ0
G
In which H is the magnetic field strength, ρ m is the magnetic charge density.
Combine the Gauss Law of Magnetic Field (5.1) and magnetic charge density
distribution equation (3.1), and we get the follows magnetic field strength solution:
G g 1 r
H= exp( − )(rˆ cos θ + θˆ sin θ ) (5.2)
πµ 0 ae r ae
We will prove that the above equation (5.2) satisfies the Gauss Law of Magnetic Field.
As we know the gradient in spherical coordinate is:
∂ 1 ˆ ∂ 1 ˆ ∂
∇ = rˆ + θ + φ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
G g ∂ 1 r 1 r ∂
∇⋅H = { [ exp(− )] cos θ + 2 exp(− ) sin ϑ ]} (5.3)
µ 0πae ∂r r ae r a e ∂θ
Therefore,
G g 1 r 1 r 1 r
∇⋅H = {[ − exp(− ) − exp(− )] cos θ + 2 exp(− ) cos ϑ ]} (5.4)
µ 0πae r 2
ae ra e ae r ae
Thus:
G g 1 r
∇⋅H = − exp(− ) cos θ (5.5)
µ 0πa r
2
ae
14
G ρ
∇⋅H = m
µ0
Thus we have proved that the magnetic field solution equation (5.2) satisfied the
Gauss Law of Magnetic Field.
Reference
15
Chapter
As we know, the electromagnetic field has the properties of energy, momentum and
angular momentum. The electromagnetic field momentum density is:
G 1 G G
p = 2 E×H (6.1)
c
Based upon the electromagnetic field momentum, and then we can define the field
angular momentum density as follows:
G G G
ς =r×p (6.2)
Thus:
G 1 G G G (6.3)
ς = r × (E × H )
c2
Then integrating equation (6.3), we can get the field angular momentum:
G 1 G G G
L = ∫ 2 r × ( E × H )dr 3 (6.4)
c
G eg 1 2r
ς =− exp(− )θˆ (6.5)
π ae r
3 2
ae
For the cylindrical coordinate ( ρ , φ , z), which has the follows relationship with the
spherical coordinate (r, φ , θ ):
ρ = r sin θ
z = r cos θ
We can separate the angular momentum density into the z component and ρ
component,
The z component of angular momentum density is:
16
eg 1 2r
ςz = exp(− ) sin θ (6.6)
π ae r
3 2
ae
eg 1 2r
ςρ = − exp(− ) cosθ (6.7)
π ae r
3 2
ae
π
(6.8)
∫ cosθ sin θdθ = 0
θ =0
Lρ = 0
eg 1 2r
Lz = ∫ exp(− ) sin θ 2πr 2 sin θdθdr (6.9)
π ae r
3 2
ae
Thus:
2eg 2r
2 2 ∫
Lz = r exp(− )dr sin 2 θdθ (6.10)
π ae ae
r θ
2eg 2r
2 2 ∫
Lz = r exp(− )dr ∫ sin 2 θdθ (6.11)
π ae 0 ae 0
Therefore:
eg 2r 2r 1
Lz ( r , θ ) = [1 − (1 + ) exp(− )](θ − sin 2θ ) (6.12)
4π 2
ae ae 2
eg 2r 2r
Lz (r , π ) = [1 − (1 + ) exp(− )] (6.13)
4π ae ae
17
The equation (6.13) is the angular momentum within the sphere of radius r of an
electron.
When r → ∞ thus:
eg
Lz= (6.14)
4π
The above angular momentum is the electron’s electromagnetic field angular
momentum in total.
What is the electron spin? As we know, the electron spin is the electron
intrinsic angular momentum. Let us make an assumption that electron spin is the
electromagnetic field angular momentum, which also means that the electron spin is
of purely electromagnetic origin.
Thus:
=
Lz = (6.15)
2
Combine (6.14) and (6.15), thus:
eg = h (6.16)
From equation (6.16), we found out that the multiple of electric charge unit ‘e’ and
magnetic charge unit ‘g’ equal the Planck’s constant ‘h’.
Then, we can also calculate the ratio of magnetic charge ‘g’ and electric charge ‘e’ as
follows:
g h
= (6.17)
e e2
Thus:
g 2ε 0 hc
= (6.18)
e 2ε 0 ce 2
So:
g 1
= (6.19)
e 2ε 0 cα
18
Thus:
g 1 µ0
= (6.20)
e 2α ε0
µ0
Z0 = (6.21)
ε0
So we can see the ratio of magnetic charge unit ‘g’ and electric charge unit ‘e’ has the
unit of impedance.
Reference
Dipoles at rest
David J. Griffiths
Am. J. Phys. 60, 979 (1992)
Rotating waves
Peter H. Ceperley
Am. J. Phys. 60, 938 (1992)
19
Conservation of linear and angular momentum and the interaction of a moving charge
with a magnetic dipole
V. Hnizdo
Am. J. Phys. 60, 242 (1992)
What is spin?
Hans C. Ohanian
Am. J. Phys. 54, 500 (1986)
20
Chapter
1
ue = ε0E2 (7.1)
2
Integrating energy density for the sphere of radius r, we can get the electric field
energy:
1
U e = ∫ ε 0 E 2 dr 3 (7.2)
2
With the electric field strength equation (4.2), then we can get:
e2 1 2r
Ue = ∫ exp(− )4πr 2 dr (7.3)
2π ε 0 a r
4 2 2
e ae
Thus:
e2 2r
U e (r ) = [1 − exp(− )] (7.4)
π ε 0 ae
3
ae
Equation (7.4) is the electric energy distribution equation of electron. We find out that
the electric field energy has the spherical exponential distribution inside of the
electron.
When r → ∞ , thus:
e2
Ue = (7.5)
π 3ε 0 ae
21
Chapter
1
um = µ0 H 2 (8.1)
2
Integrating energy density to volume of the sphere of radius r, from the magnetic field
equation (5.2), then we can get the electron magnetic field energy
2g 2 2r
Um = ∫ exp(− )dr (8.2)
πµ0 ae2
ae
Thus:
g2 2r
U m (r ) = [1 − exp(− )] (8.3)
πµ0 ae ae
The equation (8.3) is the magnetic field energy within the sphere of the radius r.
From equation (8.3), We find out that the magnetic field energy of electron has the
spherical exponential distribution.
When r → ∞ , thus:
g2
Um = (8.4)
πµ0 ae
22
Chapter
1 1
u= ε 0 E 2 + µ0 H 2 (9.1)
2 2
U = Ue +Um (9.2)
Ue e 2 πµ 0 ae
= (9.3)
U m π 3ε 0 a e g 2
Thus:
Ue e2µ
= 2 20 (9.4)
Um π g ε0
As we know:
ge = h (9.5)
And also:
e2
α= (9.6)
4πε 0 =c
1
c= (9.7)
ε 0µ0
Thus:
Ue 2α
= ( )2 (9.8)
Um π
23
Thus:
g2 4α 2
U= (1 + 2 ) (9.9)
πµ0 ae π
Thus:
=c 4α 2
U= (1 + 2 ) (9.10)
aeα π
As we know, the electron mass is one of the basic properties of electrons. Where does
the electron mass come from? One of the most popular theories is the electromagnetic
origin of electron mass.
From the above equation (9.10), we get the electron’s electromagnetic energy; let us
make an assumption here that the electron’s mass origin is from the electromagnetic
field energy, thus:
U = me c 2 (9.11)
In which U is the electron electromagnetic field energy, and me is the electron mass,
then combine the equation (9.10) and (9.11), we can get
=c 4α 2
me c 2 = (1 + 2 ) (9.12)
aeα π
Thus:
= 4α 2
ae = (1 + 2 ) (9.13)
me cα π
=
a0 = (9.14)
me cα
Thus:
4α 2
ae = a0 (1 + ) (9.15)
π2
1
α≈ (9.16)
137
24
Thus:
2α
( ) 2 << 1 (9.17)
π
Thus:
a0 ≈ ae (9.18)
Reference
Singularity-Free Electrodynamics for Point Charges and Dipoles: Classical Model for
Electron Self-Energy and Spin
S. M. Blinder
Eur. J. Phys. 24 (May 2003) 271-275
25
Chapter
Let us make the assumption that the above relationship is also valid within the
electromagnetic field. As we know for the electromagnetic field, the momentum
density is:
G 1 G G
p = 2 E×H (10.2)
c
Per our assumption, the mass origin is from the electromagnetic field energy, so the
mass density inside the electromagnetic field is:
u
ρ= (10.3)
c2
1 1
u= ε 0 E 2 + µ0 H 2 (10.4)
2 2
G pG
V= (10.5)
ρ
Thus:
G G
G E×H
V= (10.6)
1 1
(ε 0 E 2 + µ 0 H 2 )
2 2
26
As we know:
1
c=
ε 0µ0
Thus:
G G G
V ( ε 0 E) × ( µ0 H ) (10.7)
=
c 1
[( ε 0 E ) 2 + ( µ 0 H ) 2 ]
2
And
ε 0 E = µ0 H (10.9)
Thus:
V =c (10.10)
Combine the equations (4.2) and (5.2) into (10.7), then we can get the velocity of
electromagnetic field inside the electron as follows:
4
G cα
V= π φˆ (10.11)
2
1+ ( α ) 2
From the above equation, we find out that inside of the electron, the velocity is around
the azimuthal direction, and that the speed inside of the electron has constant value.
As we know:
2α
( ) 2 << 1
π
Thus:
27
G 4cα
V≈ φˆ (10.12)
π
Reference
A note on magnetic monopoles and the one dimensional MHD Riemann problem
Paul J. Dellar
Journal of Computational Physics 172, 392–398 (2001)
28
Chapter
The electric charge conservation is one of the basic conservation law in physics.
The electric charge conservation law is as follows:
∂ρ e G
+ ∇ ⋅ ( ρ eV ) = 0 (11.1)
∂t
Let us prove that the electric charge conservation equation is valid for the electron.
Combine the electron velocity equation (10.11) and the electric field equation (4.2),
then we can get:
G G Ve 1 r
V ×E = exp(− )(θˆ sin θ + rˆ cosθ ) (11.2)
π ε 0 ae r
2
ae
As we know:
∂ 1 ˆ ∂ 1 ˆ ∂
∇ = rˆ + θ + φ (11.3)
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
Thus:
G G eVφˆ 1 r
∇ × (V × E ) = − 2 2 exp(− ) sin θ (11.4)
π ε 0 ae r a
G G 1 G
∇ × (V × E ) = ρ eV (11.5)
ε0
29
Thus, we can get
G
G G G ∂E
ε 0 ∇ × (V × E ) = ρ eV + ε 0 (11.7)
∂t
We can see that there are many similarities between these two equations; we then call
the equation (11.7) as the hydroelectric equation of electromagnetic field.
Because:
G G
∇ ⋅ [∇ × (V × E )] = 0 (11.9)
Thus:
∂ρ e G
+ ∇ ⋅ ( ρ eV ) = 0 (11.10)
∂t
Equation (11.10) is the electron electric charge conservation equation, which is also
called the electric charge continuity equation.
30
Chapter
Similar to the electric charge, the magnetic charge conservation law is as follows:
∂ρ m G
+ ∇ ⋅ ( ρ mV ) = 0 (12.1)
∂t
Let us prove that the magnetic charge conservation equation is valid for the electron.
Combine the electron velocity equation (10.11) and the magnetic field equation (5.2),
then we get:
G G Vg 1 r
V ×H = exp(− )(θˆ cosθ − rˆ sin θ ) (12.2)
πµ0 ae r ae
As we know:
∂ 1 ˆ ∂ 1 ˆ ∂
∇ = rˆ + θ + φ (12.3)
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
Thus:
G G gVφˆ 1 r
∇ × (V × H ) = − exp(− ) cosθ (12.4)
πµ0 ae r
2
a
G G 1 G
∇ × (V × H ) = ρ mV (12.5)
µ0
31
Thus, we can get:
G
G G G ∂H
µ 0 ∇ × (V × H ) = ρ mV + µ 0 (12.7)
∂t
We can see there is much similarity between these two equations. We then call the
equation (12.7) as the hydromagnetic equation of electromagnetic field.
Because:
G G
∇ ⋅ [∇ × (V × H )] = 0 (12.9)
Thus:
∂ρ m G
+ ∇ ⋅ ( ρ mV ) = 0 (12.10)
∂t
Equation (12.10) is the electron magnetic charge conservation equation, which is also
called the magnetic charge continuity equation.
32
Chapter
From our electron model, we find out that the electromagnetic field has satisfied the 5
equations (4.1), (5.1), (10.7), (11.7), (12.7), here we rewrite each one of the equations
as follows:
G ρ
∇⋅E = e (13.1)
ε0
G ρ
∇⋅H = m (13.2)
µ0
Let us consider one special case based on the above 5 electromagnetic field equations,
the free charge electromagnetic field in vacuum, which satisfies the following four
conditions:
ρe = 0 (13.6)
33
ρm = 0 (13.7)
K G
E⋅H = 0 (13.8)
ε 0 E = µ0 H (13.9)
V =c (13.10)
G G G
ε 0V × E = ε 0 µ 0 cH (13.11)
Thus:
G G G
ε 0V × E = H (13.12)
And:
G G G
µ 0V × H = − ε 0 µ 0 cE (13.13)
Thus:
G G G
µ 0V × H = − E (13.14)
Thus, we can get the following 5 equations of the electromagnetic field in vacuum of
free charge, which are:
G
∇⋅E = 0 (13.15)
G
∇⋅H =0 (13.16)
V=c (13.17)
G
G ∂E
∇ × H = ε0 (13.18)
∂t
G
G ∂H
∇ × E = −µ 0 (13.19)
∂t
Then based on the above 5 equations, we can get the Maxwell Electromagnetic Wave
Equation in vacuum of free charge:
34
G
G 1 ∂2E
∇ E= 2 2
2
(13.20)
c ∂t
G
G 1 ∂ 2
H
∇2H = 2 (13.21)
c ∂t 2
35
Chapter
The electric field and magnetic field can be expressed in complex form.
ρm ρ
ρ= +i e (14.1)
µ0 ε0
And also:
G G G
Γ* = µ 0 H − i ε 0 E (14.3)
1 1
u= ε 0 E 2 + µ0 H 2 (14.4)
2 2
Thus, we have:
1 G G*
u= Γ⋅Γ (14.5)
2
G 1 G G
p = 2 E×H (14.6)
c
Thus, we have:
G 1 G G*
p= Γ×Γ (14.7)
i 2c
36
Then we can rewrite the electromagnetic field equation as follows:
∇⋅Γ = ρ (14.8)
G c Γ×Γ*
V = (14.9)
i Γ⋅Γ*
G
G G ∂Γ
∇ × (V × Γ) = ρV + (14.10)
∂t
As we know:
G G G G G G G G G
∇ × (V × Γ) = (Γ ⋅ ∇)V − (V ⋅ ∇)Γ + V (∇ ⋅ Γ) − Γ(∇ ⋅ V ) (14.11)
Thus:
G G G G G G G G
∇ × (V × Γ) = (Γ ⋅ ∇)V − (V ⋅ ∇)Γ + ρV − Γ(∇ ⋅ V ) (14.12)
Thus the hydro-electromagnetic equation can be rewritten in the complex form as:
G
∂Γ G G G G G G
= (Γ ⋅ ∇)V − (V ⋅ ∇)Γ − Γ(∇ ⋅ V ) (14.13)
∂t
e 1 r
ρ e ( r ,θ ) = − exp( − ) sin θ (14.17)
π ae r
2 2
ae
And
37
g 1 r
ρ m (r , θ ) = − exp( − ) cos θ (14.18)
πae r
2
ae
As we know:
g ε0 1
= (14.19)
e µ 0 2α
Thus:
π µ0 e 1 r
ρ m ( r ,θ ) = − exp( − ) cos θ (14.20)
2α ε 0 π ae r
2 2
ae
Let us define:
ρm π ρe
ρα = +i (14.21)
µ0 2α ε 0
Thus:
π 1 e 1 r
ρα = − exp(− + iθ ) (14.22)
2α ε 0 π ae r
2 2
ae
So:
g 1 1 r
ρα = − exp(− + iθ ) (14.23)
µ 0 πae r
2
ae
Let us define:
G G π G
Γα = µ 0 H + i ε0 E (14.24)
2α
As we know:
G e1 r
E= exp(− )(rˆ sin θ − θˆ cosθ ) (14.25)
π ε 0 ae r
2
ae
G g1 r
H= exp( − )(rˆ cos θ + θˆ sin θ ) (14.26)
πµ 0 ae r ae
Thus:
G e 1 r
ε0 E = exp(− )(rˆ sin θ − θˆ cos θ ) (14.27)
π 2
ε 0 ae r ae
38
G g 1 r
µ0 H = exp(− )(rˆ cos θ + θˆ sin θ ) (14.28)
π µ 0 ae r ae
G π e 1 r
µ0 H = exp( − )(rˆ cos θ + θˆ sin θ ) (14.29)
2α π ε 0 ae r
2
ae
Thus:
G π e 1 r
Γα = exp(− + iθ )(rˆ − iθˆ) (14.30)
2α π ε 0 ae r
2
ae
Thus:
G g 1 r
Γα = exp(− + iθ )(rˆ − iθˆ) (14.31)
µ 0 πae r ae
39
Chapter
The conservation of energy is one of the most basic physics laws, for the
electromagnetic field, the energy conservation equation is as follows:
∂ρ G
+ ∇ ⋅ ( ρV ) = 0 (15.1)
∂t
G
In which ρ is the mass density, V is the field velocity.
The mass density and energy density have the following relationship:
u = ρc 2
And
G
∂H G G G G G G
+ (V ⋅ ∇) H + H (∇ ⋅ V ) = ( H ⋅ ∇)V (15.3)
∂t
Thus:
G
G ∂E G G G G G G G
E⋅ + E ⋅ [(V ⋅ ∇) E ] + E 2 (∇ ⋅ V ) = E ⋅ [( E ⋅ ∇)V ] (15.4)
∂t
And
G
G ∂H G G G G G G G
H⋅ + H ⋅ [(V ⋅ ∇) H ] + H 2 (∇ ⋅ V ) = H ⋅ [( H ⋅ ∇)V ] (15.5)
∂t
Thus:
40
1 ∂E 2 1 G G G G G
+ [(V ⋅ ∇) E 2 ] + E 2 (∇ ⋅ V ) = E ⋅ [( E ⋅ ∇)V ] (15.6)
2 ∂t 2
And
1 ∂H 2 1 G G G G G
+ [(V ⋅ ∇) H 2 ] + H 2 (∇ ⋅ V ) = H ⋅ [( H ⋅ ∇)V ] (15.7)
2 ∂t 2
∂u G G G G G G G G
+ (V ⋅ ∇)u + 2u (∇ ⋅ V ) = ε 0 E ⋅ [( E ⋅ ∇)V ] + µ 0 H ⋅ [( H ⋅ ∇)V ] (15.8)
∂t
∂u G
+ ∇ ⋅ (uV ) = 0 (15.9)
∂t
Thus:
∂u G G
+ V ⋅ ∇u + u (∇ ⋅ V ) = 0 (15.10)
∂t
Thus, we have:
G G G G G G G
u (∇ ⋅ V ) = ε 0 E ⋅ [( E ⋅ ∇)V ] + µ 0 H ⋅ [( H ⋅ ∇)V ] (15.11)
As we know:
1
ue = ε0E2 (15.12)
2
1
um = µ0 H 2 (15.13)
2
Let us define:
G
E = Enˆ e (15.14)
G
H = Hnˆ m (15.15)
From the electromagnetic field energy conservation equation, then we can get the
following equation:
G 2u G 2u G
(∇ ⋅ V ) = e nˆ e ⋅ [(nˆ e ⋅ ∇)V ] + m nˆ m ⋅ [(nˆ m ⋅ ∇)V ] (15.16)
u u
41
Then we can rewrite the electromagnetic field as follows:
G ρ
∇⋅E = e (15.17)
ε0
G ρ
∇⋅H = m (15.18)
µ0
G G G
V ( ε 0 E) × ( µ0 H )
= (15.19)
c 1
[( ε 0 E ) 2 + ( µ 0 H ) 2 ]
2
G
∂E G G G G G G
+ (V ⋅ ∇) E + E (∇ ⋅ V ) = ( E ⋅ ∇)V (15.20)
∂t
G
∂H G G G G G G
+ (V ⋅ ∇) H + H (∇ ⋅ V ) = ( H ⋅ ∇)V (15.21)
∂t
G 2u G 2u G
∇ ⋅V = e nˆ e ⋅ [(nˆ e ⋅ ∇)V ] + m nˆ h ⋅ [(nˆ h ⋅ ∇)V ] (15.22)
u u
42
Chapter
As we know the atom consisted of electrons and nucleus, and the nucleus
consists of protons and neutrons.
Both protons and neutrons have the half spin just like electrons do. But the
proton has one positive electric charge unit ‘e’ and the neutron as a whole has zero
electric charge.
Comparing protons and electrons, the proton’s mass is much larger than the
electron’s mass, but they have the same amount of electric charge (with different
signs), protons have positive electric charges, and the electrons have negative electric
charges, both the electrons and protons have the same value of half spin.
Let us make an assumption that the proton has a similar internal structure as
electrons, the difference is that the proton has one positive electric charge, and the
mass of the proton is much larger than that of the electron.
e 1 r
ρ e (r ,θ ) = exp( − ) sin θ (16.1)
π ap r
2 2
ap
g 1 r
ρ m ( r ,θ ) = exp( − ) cos θ (16.2)
πa p r
2
ap
Based on the above charge distribution equation, we can get the proton’s
electromagnetic field distribution equation as follows:
G e 1 r
E=− exp(− )(rˆ sin θ − θˆ cos θ ) (16.3)
π ε0a p r
2
ap
G g 1 r
H =− exp( − )(rˆ cos θ + θˆ sin θ ) (16.4)
πµ 0 a p r ap
43
Based on the electromagnetic field distribution equation, similar to the electron, we
can get the proton’s electromagnetic field energy:
=c 4α 2
U= (1 + 2 ) (16.5)
a pα π
Then, we make the assumption similar to the electron that the proton mass also has
electromagnetic origin, then we have:
=c 4α 2
mpc2 = (1 + 2 ) (16.6)
a pα π
=c 4α 2
me c 2 = (1 + 2 ) (16.7)
a eα π
mp ae
= (16.8)
me ap
As we know that:
4α
ae = a0 [1 + ( )2 ] (16.9)
π
Thus:
4α me
a p = a0 [1 + ( )2 ] (16.10)
π mp
44
Chapter
As we know that the simplest hydrogen atom consists of one proton and one
electron, the hydrogen atom as total has zero electric charge. Combine both electron
charge distribution and proton charge distribution together, then we can get the
hydrogen atom’s electric charge distribution as follows:
e 1 r 1 r 1
ρe = [− exp(− ) + exp(− )] sin θ (17.1)
π 2
ae ae aP aP r
g 1 r 1 r 1
ρm = [− exp(− ) + exp(− )] cosθ (17.2)
πa 2
ae ae aP aP r
r r r r 1 1
Qe = e[ − exp(− )(1 + ) + exp(− )(1 + )] (θ − sin 2θ ) (17.3)
ae ae ap ap π 2
r r r r 1
Qm = g[exp( − )(1 + ) − exp( − )(1 + )] (1 − cos 2θ ) (17.4)
ae ae ap ap 2
G e 1 r 1 r 1
E= [ exp(− ) − exp(− )] (rˆ sin θ − θˆ cos θ ) (17.5)
π ε0
2
ae ae aP aP r
G g 1 r 1 r 1
H= [ exp( − ) − exp( − )] ( rˆ cos θ + θˆ sin θ ) (17.6)
πµ 0 a e ae aP aP r
45
Base on these equation, we can get hydrogen magnetic field energy:
2g 2 1 1 2a d
Um = ( + − ) (17.7)
πµ 0 2ae 2a p ae a p
In which
1 1 1
= + (17.8)
ad ae a p
Thus:
2g 2 1 1 2
Um = ( + − ) (17.9)
πµ 0 2ae 2a p ( ae + a p )
Thus:
2g 2 1 1 2
Um = ( + − ) (17.10)
πµ 0 2ae 2a p ( ae + a p )
Thus:
g2 1 1 4
Um = ( + − ) (17.11)
πµ 0 ae a p (ae + a p )
2e 2 1 1 2
Ue = ( + − ) (17.12)
π ε0
3
2a e 2a p a e + a p
e2 1 1 4
Ue = ( + − ) (17.13)
π ε0
3
ae a p ae + a p
UH = Um +Ue (17.14)
Thus:
46
ae
U H = U proton + U electron − 4U electron (17.15)
ae + a p
As we know
ap
<< 1 (17.16)
ae
Thus:
Thus:
m H ≈ m p − 3me (17.18)
As we know:
G e 1 r 1 r 1
E= [ exp(− ) − exp(− )] (rˆ sin θ − θˆ cos θ ) (17.19)
π ε0
2
ae ae aP aP r
G g 1 r 1 r 1
H= [ exp(− ) − exp( − )] (rˆ cos θ + θˆ sin θ ) (17.20)
πµ 0 a e ae aP aP r
Thus:
K G egG 1 r 1 r
E×H = ϕ[
exp(− ) − exp(− )]2 (17.21)
π ε 0 µ0 r
3
ae 2
ae aP aP
G eg G 1 r 1 r
p = 3 2 ϕ[ exp(− ) − exp(− )]2 (17.22)
π r ae ae aP aP
1 1
u= ε 0 E 2 + µ0 H 2 (17.23)
2 2
1 e2 g2 1 1 r 1 r
u= ( + ) 2 [ exp(− ) − exp(− )]2 (17.24)
2π 2 π 2 ε 0 µ 0 r ae ae aP aP
47
G 2c 2 eg 1 G
V = ϕ (17.25)
π e 2
g 2
( + )
π 2ε 0 µ0
G 2e 1 G
V = ϕ (17.26)
πgε 0 e µ
2
(1 + 2 20 )
g π ε0
Thus:
4
G cα
V= π φˆ (17.27)
2
1+ ( α ) 2
We find out that inside the hydrogen atom, the velocity is the same as for the electron,
which has a constant speed value.
G 1 G G G
ς = r × (E × H ) (17.28)
c2
Thus, the hydrogen atom field angular momentum is as follows:
G eg G 1 r 1 r
ς = − 3 θ [ exp(− ) − exp(− )] 2 (17.29)
π r ae ae aP aP
Then, integrating equation (17.28), we can get the field angular momentum:
G 1 G G G
L = ∫ 2 r × ( E × H )dr 3 (17.30)
c
G eg G 1 r 1 r 2
ς =− θ [ exp( − ) − exp( − )] (17.31)
π 3 r ae ae aP aP
For the cylindrical coordinates ( ρ , φ , z), which has the following relationship with
the spherical coordinate (r, φ , θ ):
ρ = r sin θ
z = r cos θ
We can separate the angular momentum density into z component and ρ component,
48
The z component of angular momentum density is:
eg 1 1 r 1 r
ςz = [ exp(− ) − exp(− )]2 sin θ (17.32)
π r ae
3
ae aP aP
eg 1 1 r 1 r
ςρ = − [ exp(− ) − exp(− )]2 cosθ (17.33)
π r ae
3
ae aP aP
π
(17.34)
∫ cosθ sin θdθ = 0
θ =0
Lρ = 0 (17.35)
eg 1 1 r 1 r
Lz = ∫ [ exp(− ) − exp(− )]2 sin θ 2πr 2 sin θdθdr (17.36)
π r ae
3
ae aP aP
Thus:
2eg 1 r 1 r
Lz =
π 2 ∫ r[ a e
exp(−
ae
) − exp(− )]2 dr sin 2 θdθ
aP aP
(17.37)
Thus:
r θ
2eg 1 r 1 r
Lz = 2 ∫ r[ exp(− ) − exp(− )]2 dr ∫ sin 2 θdθ (17.38)
π 0 ae ae aP aP 0
Thus:
r
eg 1 r 1 r 1
Lz =
π 2 ∫ r[ a
0 e
exp(−
ae
) − exp(− )]2 dr (θ − sin 2θ )
aP aP 2
(17.39)
r
eg 1 r 1 r
Lz =
π ∫ r[ a
0 e
exp(−
ae
) − exp(− )]2 dr
aP aP
(17.40)
49
When r → ∞ thus:
eg 1 1 2ad2
Lz = { + − } (17.41)
π 4 4 ae a p
In which
1 1 1
= + (17.42)
ad ae a p
Thus:
eg 4a 2
Lz = {1 − d } (17.43)
2π ae a p
As we know eg= h
Thus:
4ad2
Lz = ={1 − } (17.44)
ae a p
Thus:
ad2
L = =(1 − 4 ) (17.45)
ae a p
Thus:
ae a p
L = =(1 − 4 ) (17.46)
( ae + a p ) 2
Thus:
1 ap
L = =(1 − 4 ) (17.47)
ap ae
(1 + ) 2
ae
As we know
ap
<< 1 (17.48)
ae
50
Thus:
L≈= (17.49)
Based on the equations (17.3) and (17.4), we can get the ratio of magnetic charge and
electric charge inside the hydrogen atom:
Qm ( r , θ ) πg (1 − cos 2θ )
=− (17.50)
Qe ( r , θ ) 2e 1
(θ − sin 2θ )
2
π
For the whole north pole area which θ is within (0 → )
2
Thus:
π
Qm (r ,0 → )
2 = − 2g (17.51)
π e
Qe (r ,0 → )
2
π
For the whole south pole area which θ is within ( →π)
2
Thus:
π
Qm ( r , →π)
2 2g
= (17.52)
π e
Qe ( r , →π)
2
51
Chapter
The neutron as a whole has zero electric charge and zero magnetic charge, but
the neutron still has an intrinsic electric field and magnetic field.
The neutron in total has zero electric charge and magnetic charge, but similar
to the electron and proton, the neutron still has half spin.
Let us compare the neutron and hydrogen atoms, both as a total have zero
electric charge and zero magnetic charge, and both have intrinsic electric field and
magnetic field. The major difference is the neutron alone has half spin.
e 1 r 1 r 1
ρe = [ exp(− ) − exp(− )] sin θ (18.1)
π 2
a+ a+ a− a− r
g 1 r 1 r 1
ρm = [ exp(− ) − exp(− )] cosθ (18.2)
πa a+
2
a+ a− a− r
The neutron as whole has no electric charge, but has half spin. Here is the
model for the neutron, which has a similar electromagnetic structure as a hydrogen
atom. The difference is that the hydrogen atom has spin 1, but the neutron has half
spin.
Similar to the hydrogen atom spin formula, we can get the neutron’s angular
momentum as follows:
a+
a− (18.3)
L = =(1 − 4 )
a
(1 + + ) 2
a−
52
=
L= (18.4)
2
a+ < a−
Thus:
a+
= 3− 2 2 (18.5)
a−
Thus:
a−
= 3+ 2 2 (18.6)
a+
2g 2 1 1 2
Um = ( + − ) (18.7)
πµ 0 2a + 2a − a + + a −
Thus:
2 g 2 (2 + 2 )
Um = (18.8)
πµ 0 2a+
Thus:
g 2 (2 + 2 )
Um = (18.9)
πµ 0 a+
Thus:
g2 1
Um = (18.10)
πµ 0 an
In which
2
an = a+ (1 − ) (18.11)
2
Thus:
53
2
a+ = 2an (1 + ) (18.12)
2
2e 2 1 1 2
Ue = ( + − ) (18.13)
π ε0
3
2a+ 2a− a+ + a−
Thus:
2e 2 ( 2 + 2 )
Ue = 3 (18.14)
π ε 0 2a+
Thus:
e 2 (2 + 2 )
Ue = (18.15)
π 3ε 0 a+
Thus:
e2 1
Ue = (18.16)
π ε 0 an
3
U = Um +Ue (18.17)
Thus:
=c 4α 2
U= (1 + 2 ) (18.18)
anα π
Thus:
U = mn c 2 (18.19)
=c 4α 2
mn c 2 = (1 + 2 ) (18.20)
anα π
Thus:
54
= 4α 2
an = (1 + 2 ) (18.21)
mn cα π
Thus:
a+ = an (2 + 2 ) (18.22)
= 4α 2
a+ = (2 + 2 )(1 + 2 ) (18.23)
mn cα π
As we know,
a−
= 3+ 2 2 (18.24)
a+
Thus:
= 4α 2
a− = (3 + 2 2 )(2 + 2 )(1 + 2 ) (18.25)
mn cα π
Thus:
= 4α 2
a− = (10 + 7 2 )(1 + 2 ) (18.26)
mn cα π
=c 4α 2
me c =
2
(1 + 2 ) (18.27)
aeα π
Thus:
= 4α 2
ae = (1 + 2 ) (18.28)
me cα π
As we know,
=
a0 = (18.29)
me cα
Thus:
4α 2
ae = a0 (1 + ) (18.30)
π2
55
Thus, we get the relationship between the electron mass, neutron mass and their
radius relationship:
a− m
= (10 + 7 2 ) e (18.31)
ae mn
a+ m
= (2 + 2 ) e (18.32)
ae mn
56
Chapter
The simplest helium atom consists of two protons and two electrons.
The helium atom’s electric charge and magnetic charge density distribution is:
e 1 r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1 (19.1)
ρe = [ exp(− ) + exp(− )− exp(− )− exp(− )] sin θ
π 2
ae1 ae1 ae 2 ae 2 a p2 aP2 a p1 a P1 r
g 1 r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1 (19.2)
ρm = [ exp( − )− exp( − )+ exp( − )− exp( − )] cos θ
2πa a e1
2
a e1 ae2 ae2 a P1 a P1 aP2 aP2 r
Qe = e[exp(−
r
)(1 +
r
) + exp(−
r
)(1 +
r
) − exp(−
r
)(1 +
r
) − exp(−
r
)(1 +
r 1 1
)] (θ − sin 2θ )
(19.3)
a e1 a e1 ae2 ae2 a p1 a p1 a p2 a p2 π 2
Q m = g[exp( −
r
)(1 +
r
) − exp( −
r
)(1 +
r
) + exp( −
r
)(1 +
r
) − exp( −
r
)(1 +
r 1
)] (1 − cos 2θ )
(19.4)
a e1 a e1 ae2 ae2 a p1 a p1 a p2 a p2 2
G g 1 r 1 r 1 r 1 r 1
H= [ exp(− ) − exp(− ) + exp(− ) − exp(− )] (rˆ cosθ + θˆ sinθ ) (19.6)
πµ0 ae1 ae1 ae2 ae2 aP1 aP1 aP2 aP 2 r
Thus:
G G eg G 1 r 1 r 2 1 r 1 r 2
E×H = ϕ{[ exp(− ) − exp(− )] − [ exp(− )− exp(− )] } (19.7)
π 3ε 0 µ 0 r 2 ae1 ae1 aP2 aP2 ae2 ae2 a P1 a P1
57
G 1 G G G
ς = r × ( E × H) (19.8)
c2
Thus:
G eg G 1 r 1 r 2 1 r 1 r 2 (19.9)
ς =− θ {[ exp( − ) − exp( − )] − [ exp( − )− exp( − )] }
π 3r a e1 a e1 aP2 aP2 ae2 ae2 a P1 a P1
For the cylindrical coordinates ( ρ , φ , z), which has the following relationship with
the spherical coordinate (r, φ , θ ):
ρ = r sin θ
z = r cos θ
We can separate the angular momentum density into ‘z’ component and ‘ ρ ’
component,
The ‘z’ component of angular momentum density is:
eg 1 1 r 1 r 2 1 r 1 r 2 (19.10)
ςz = {[ exp(− ) − exp(− )] − [ exp(− )− exp(− )] }sin θ
π3 r ae1 ae1 a P 2 aP2 ae 2 ae 2 a P1 a P1
eg 1 1 r 1 r 2 1 r 1 r 2 (19.11)
ςρ = − {[ exp(− ) − exp(− )] − [ exp(− )− exp(− )] } cos θ
π3 r a e1 ae1 aP2 aP2 ae 2 ae 2 a P1 a P1
θ =0
∫ cosθ sin θdθ = 0
Lρ = 0 (19.12)
Lz = ∫
eg 1
{[
1 r
exp(− ) −
1
exp(−
r 2
)] − [
1
exp(−
r
)−
1
exp(−
r 2
)] } sin θ 2πr 2 sin θdθdr (19.13)
π3 r ae1 a e1 aP2 aP2 ae 2 ae 2 a P1 a P1
Thus:
2eg 1 r 1 r 2 1 r 1 r 2 (19.14)
Lz =
π2 ∫ r{[ a e1
exp(−
ae1
)−
aP2
exp(−
aP2
)] − [
ae 2
exp(−
ae 2
)−
a P1
exp(−
a P1
)] }dr sin 2 θdθ
Thus:
58
r θ
2eg 1 r 1 r 2 1 r 1 r 2 (19.15)
Lz =
π 2 ∫ r{[ a
0 e1
exp(−
ae1
)−
aP2
exp(−
aP2
)] − [
ae 2
exp(−
ae 2
)−
a P1
exp(−
a P1
)] }dr ∫ sin 2 θdθ
0
Thus:
eg r
1 r 1 r 2 1 r 1 r 2 1 (19.16)
L z (r , θ ) =
π 2 ∫ r{[ a
0 e1
exp(−
a e1
)−
a P2
exp(−
a P2
)] − [
ae2
exp(−
ae2
)−
a P1
exp(−
a P1
)] }dr (θ − sin 2θ )
2
When r → ∞ , thus:
2
2eg ae 2 p1 ae21 p 2
Lz (∞, π ) = { − } (19.18)
π ae 2 a p1 ae1a p 2
In which
1 1 1
= + (19.19)
ae 2 p1 ae 2 a p1
1 1 1
= + (19.20)
ae1 p 2 ae1 a p 2
As we know, eg=h
Thus:
a p1 1 a p2 1
Lz (∞,π ) = 4={ − } (19.21)
ae 2 a p1 ae1 a p2
(1 + ) 2
(1 + ) 2
ae 2 ae1
As we know:
a p1
<< 1 (19.22)
ae 2
And
a p2
<< 1 (19.23)
ae1
59
Thus:
Lz (∞, π ) ≈ 0 (19.24)
60
Chapter
20 The electromagnetic
characteristic impedance
For the Fractional Quantum Hall effect, in which the two-dimensional electron
gas within extremely low temperature and high magnetic field perpendicular to
current, the Hall Resistance has the following equation:
m h
Z= ( ) (20.1)
n e2
As we know, the electron has electric charge and magnetic charge, the
magnetic charge distributes along with the electron spin directional, and the electron
spin will align with the external magnetic field. The one side of the two dimensional
electron gases will have positive magnetic charge distribution; the other side of the
two dimensional electron gases has negative magnetic charge distribution.
Let us make an assumption that the characteristic impedance is the ratio of magnetic
charge and electric charge, then:
Qm
Z= (20.2)
Qe
As we know, the electron is the smallest unit of electron gas, the ‘e’ is the electric
charge unit of the electron, and ‘g’ is the magnetic charge unit of an electron. Thus,
we have:
Qm = mg (20.3)
And
Qe = ne (20.4)
61
Then we have
m g
Z= ( ) (20.5)
n e
As we know:
ge = h (20.6)
Thus, we have:
m h
Z= ( ) (20.7)
n e2
62
Chapter
There are two kinds wave within the electromagnetic field, one is the field
wave, and the other is the charge density wave.
According to the Gauss Law for both electric field and magnetic field, the electric
charge is the source of electric field, and the magnetic charge is the source of the
magnetic field.
When an electric current flows through a wire, it creates the electromagnetic
field both inside and outside the wire.
Outside the electric wire is a vacuum, both the electric charge density and
magnetic density in the vacuum is zero.
When the electric wire has ac current, there exists electromagnetic field wave
propagate along the wire.
Inside the electric wire, the electric charge density wave and magnetic charge
density charge wave is the source of the electromagnetic field wave.
v z0
=
c z
In which ‘v’ is the velocity of charge density sound wave, ‘c’ is the speed of light in
vacuum, ‘ z 0 ’ is the impedance of the vacuum, and ‘z’ is the impedance of the
transmission line.
The velocity factor is the ratio of the speed of waves in transmission line to the
speed of light in the vacuum.
63
The electromagnetic wave in a transmission line may reflect at the end. If the
load is smaller than the line impedance, a reflection will occur with a 180-degree
phase shift.
The forwarding wave and reflection of the incoming wave travels back and
forth along the wire, which can form a standing wave.
The charge density wave is a kind of sound wave. The oscillation is in and
opposite to the direction of the wave propagation.
64
Chapter
The electric charge density wave and magnetic charge density wave are kinds
of sound waves. The wave speed has an inverse relationship with the characteristic of
electromagnetic impedance.
µ0 (22.1)
Z0 =
ε0
Based on the equation (2.7), we have the electron’s electric charge in the sphere of
radius ‘r’:
r r
Qe (r , π ) = −e[1 − (1 + ) exp( − )] (22.2)
ae ae
The electric charge has the same distribution in both the north pole and south pole.
In the north pole area of sphere of radius ‘r,’ the electric charge is:
π 1 r r
Qe (r ,0 → ) = − e[1 − (1 + ) exp( − )] (22.3)
2 2 ae ae
In the south pole area of the electron sphere of radius ‘r’, the electric charge is:
π 1 r r
Qe (r , → π ) = − e[1 − (1 + ) exp( − )] (22.4)
2 2 ae ae
65
Based on the equation (3.7), the magnetic charge distribution in a sphere of radius ‘r’
is zero:
Q m ( r ,0 → π ) = 0 (22.5)
In the north pole area of sphere of radius ‘r,’ the magnetic charge is:
π r r
Qm ( r , ) = − g[1 − (1 + ) exp( − )] (22.6)
2 ae ae
The south pole area of sphere of radius ‘r,’ the magnetic charge is:
π r r
Qm ( r , → π ) = g[1 − (1 + ) exp( − )] (22.7)
2 ae ae
Thus, within the north pole area of a sphere of any radius r, the ratio of magnetic
charge and electric charge is:
π
Qm (r ,0 → )
2 = 2g (22.8)
π e
Qe (r ,0 → )
2
The ratio is the constant, it doesn’t depend on the sphere radius ‘r’.
In the south pole area of sphere of radius r, the ratio of magnetic charge and electric
charge is:
π
Qm (r , →π)
2 2g
=− (22.9)
π e
Qe (r , →π)
2
The ratio is the constant; it doesn’t depend on the sphere radius ‘r’.
So we can see that inside the electron, for a sphere of any radius ‘r’, both the north
pole and south pole have the same ratio of magnetic charge and electric charge, but
with opposite signs.
2g
Z= (22.10)
e
66
As we know, ge=h, thus:
2h
Z= (22.11)
e2
e2
α= (22.12)
2ε 0 hc
Thus:
1
Z= (22.13)
αε 0 c
Thus:
1 µ0 (22.14)
Z=
α ε0
Thus:
Z0
=α (22.15)
Z
The ratio of vacuum impedance and electron impedance is the alpha fine
structure constant.
As we know, the electromagnetic wave velocity varies inversely with the wave
impedance, and we also know that the wave velocity in the vacuum is the speed of
light, and then we have following relationship:
Vwave Z 0
= (22.16)
c Z
Thus:
Vwave
=α (22.17)
c
Thus:
Vwave = cα (22.18)
67
As we know the velocity factor is the ratio of the speed of waves to the speed
of light in a vacuum, we find out that the velocity factor of an electron is the alpha
fine structure constant.
As we know, the ratio of magnetic charge unit and electric charge unit is as follows:
g h
= (22.19)
e e2
h
As we can see, the value is also the quantum hall resistance unit, which is also the
e2
ratio of the magnetic charge unit and electric charge unit.
68
Chapter
e 1 r 1 r 1
ρe = [ exp(− ) − exp(− )] sin θ (23.1)
π 2
ae ae aP aP r
g 1 r 1 r 1
ρm = [ exp(− ) − exp(− )] cos θ (23.2)
πa a e
2
ae aP aP r
G e 1 r 1 r 1
E = 2 [ exp(− ) − exp(− )] (rˆ sinθ −θˆ cosθ ) (23.3)
π ε0 ae ae aP aP r
G g 1 r 1 r 1
H= [ exp( − ) − exp( − )] (rˆ cosθ + θˆ sin θ ) (23.4)
2πµ 0 ae ae aP aP r
1 1 1
= RH ( − 2) (23.5)
λ nm m 2
n
According the equation (17.51) and (17.52), we find out that the ratio of the
magnetic charge and electric charge within both the north pole and south pole of a
hydrogen atom have the same value but opposite sign.
69
south pole. Thus we can derive the hydrogen atom’s electromagnetic characteristic
impedance as follows:
1
Z = Z0 (23.6)
α
Outside the hydrogen atom is the vacuum. The vacuum impedance is:
µ0
Z0 = . (23.7)
ε0
As we know, the velocity has an inverse relationship with impedance, so the wave
velocity inside the hydrogen atom has the following relation with the speed of light.
V Z0
= (23.8)
c Z
V
=α (23.9)
c
The inside of the hydrogen atom has constant impedance and wave velocity.
Outside the hydrogen atom, exists a vacuum that has light speed as its wave velocity.
Inside of the hydrogen atom, there are both outgoing and incoming waves
along the radial direction, which form a standing wave.
Let’s introduce a new function which we can temporally call the zeta-
exponential function [C] as follows:
∞
xn
g m ( x) = ∑ ξ [2(n + m)] (23.10)
n =0 n!
For m =1 thus:
∞
xn
g1 ( x) = ∑ ξ [2(n + 1)] (23.11)
n =0 n!
In which
∞
1
ξ [2(n + 1)] = ∑ 2n+ 2
(23.12)
m =1 m
The value of ξ [2(n + 1)] is always larger than 1, with the increase of the integer n, the
value becomes more and more close to the number 1.
70
As we know, the spherical wave equation [D] is:
1 ∂ 2ψ
∇ 2ψ = (23.13)
V 2 ∂t 2
We can see both the following functions are the solution of the spherical wave
equation [D]:
1 r − Vt ∞
1 1 r − Vt
g1 (i ) = ∑ 2 exp(i 2 ) (23.14)
r ae k =1 k r k ae
And
1 r + Vt ∞
1 1 r + Vt
g1 (i ) = ∑ 2 exp(i 2 ) (23.15)
r ae k =1 k r k ae
1 r − Vt
The first solution g1 (i ) is a kind of outgoing wave.
r ae
1 r + Vt
The second solution g1 (i ) is a kind of incoming wave.
r ae
Let us make an assumption that the hydrogen atom electric field with the stationary
wave function is as follows:
G e 1 r r + Vt r − Vt 1 r 1
E = 2 [ exp(− )(1 + p Re[g1(i ) + g1(i )] − exp(− )] (rˆ sinθ − θˆ cosθ ) (23.16)
π ε 0 ae ae ae ae aP aP r
The hydrogen atom magnetic field equation with the stationary wave is as follows:
G g 1 r r + Vt r − Vt 1 r 1
H= [ exp( − )(1 + q Im[ g 1 (i ) − g 1 (i )]) − exp( − )] (rˆ cos θ + θˆ sin θ ) (23.17)
2πµ 0 a e ae ae ae aP aP r
In which:
B π 4α 2 (23.18)
p= 1 +
me c 2 2α π2
And
B 4α 2 (23.19)
q= 1+ 2
me c 2
π
71
π
tan β = (23.20)
2α
Thus:
sin β =
1 (23.21)
4α 2
1+
π2
2α 1 (23.22)
cos β =
π 4α 2
1+
π2
me c 2 4α 2 (23.23)
Ue =
4α 2 π 2
(1 + 2 )
π
Thus:
2α 1 (23.24)
Uep = B
π 4α 2
1+
π 2
Thus:
U e p = B cos β (23.25)
me c 2 (23.26)
Um =
4α 2
(1 + 2 )
π
Thus:
1 (23.27)
U mq = B
4α 2
1+
π2
U m q = B sin β (23.28)
Thus:
G e 1 r ∞
1 r + Vt r − Vt 1 r 1
E= [ exp(− ){1 + p ∑ 2 [cos( 2 ) + cos( 2 )]} − exp(− )] (rˆ sin θ − θˆ cosθ ) (23.29)
π 2ε 0 ae ae k =1 k k ae k ae aP aP r
72
G g 1 r ∞
1 r + Vt r − Vt 1 r 1
H = [ exp( − ){1 + q ∑ 2 [sin( 2 ) − sin( 2 )]} − exp( − )] (rˆ cos θ + θˆ sin θ ) (23.30)
πµ0 ae ae k =1 k k a e k a e a P a P r
Thus:
G e 1 r ∞
2 r Vt 1 r 1
E= { exp(− )[1 + p ∑ 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 )] − exp(− )} (rˆ sin θ − θˆ cos θ )) (23.31)
π 2ε 0 ae ae k =1 k k ae k ae aP aP r
G e 1 r 1 r 1 r ∞ 2 r Vt 1 (23.32)
E= { exp(− ) − exp(− ) + p exp(− )∑ 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 )} (rˆ sin θ − θˆ cosθ ))
π ε0
2
ae ae aP aP ae ae k =1 k k ae k ae r
G
H=
g 1 r
{ exp( − ) −
1 r
exp(− ) + q
1 r ∞ 2 r Vt 1
exp(− )∑ 2 [cos( 2 ) sin( 2 )]} (rˆ cos θ + θˆ sin θ )
(23.33)
πµ 0 a e ae aP aP ae a e k =1 k k ae k ae r
1 r 1 r
f (r ) = exp(− ) − exp(− ) (23.34)
ae ae aP aP
Thus:
G e 1 r ∞ 2 r Vt 1
E= { f (r ) + p exp( − )∑ 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 )} (rˆ sin θ − θˆ cos θ )) (23.35)
π ε0
2
ae ae k =1 k k ae k ae r
G g 1 r ∞ 2 r Vt 1
H= { f (r ) + q exp( − )∑ 2 cos( 2 ) sin( 2 )} (rˆ cos θ + θˆ sin θ ) (23.36)
πµ 0 ae a e k =1 k k ae k ae r
e2
Ue = (23.37)
π 3ε 0 ae
1
ue = ε 0 E 2 (23.38)
2
Thus:
1 e2 1 1 r 1 r 1 r ∞ 2 r Vt (23.39)
ue = { exp(− ) − exp(− ) + p exp(− )∑ 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 )}2
2 π ε 0 r ae
4 2
ae aP aP ae a e k =1 k k ae k ae
1 e2 1 1 r ∞ 2 r Vt
ue = { f ( r ) + p exp( − )∑ 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 )}2 (23.40)
2 π ε0 r
4 2
ae a e k =1 k k ae k ae
73
1 e2 1 1 r ∞ 2 r Vt
ue = { f ( r ) 2
+ 2 f ( r ) p exp( − )∑ 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) +
2 π ε0 r
4 2
ae a e k =1 k k ae k ae
1 2r ∞ 2 r Vt
+ p2 2
exp( − )[∑ 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 )] 2 } (23.41)
ae a e k =1 k k ae k ae
1 e2 1 1 r ∞ 2 r Vt
ue = { f (r)2
+ 2 f (r) p −
exp( )∑ 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) +
2 π ε0 r
4 2
ae ae k =1 k k ae k ae
1 2r ∞ 1 r r Vt Vt
+ 4 p2 2
exp(− )[ ∑ 2 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) cos( 2 )]2} (23.42)
ae ae m,n=1 m n m ae n ae m ae n ae
1 r ∞ 2 r Vt
ue = { f (r)2
a U + 2 pf (r)U −
exp( )∑ 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) +
2πr 2 e e e
ae k =1 k k ae k ae
B2 1 2r ∞ 1 r r Vt Vt
+4 2
exp(− )[ ∑ 2 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) cos( 2 )]2} (23.43)
mec ae ae m,n=1 m n m ae n ae m ae n ae
1 r ∞ 2 r Vt
ue = { f (r)2 aeUe + 2Bf (r)cosβ exp(− )∑ 2 cos( 2 )cos( 2 ) +
2πr 2
ae k =1 k k ae k ae
B2 1 2r ∞ 1 r r Vt Vt
+4 2
−
exp( )[ ∑ 2 2 cos( 2 )cos( 2 )cos( 2 )cos( 2 )]2} (23.44)
mec ae ae m,n=1 m n m ae n ae m ae n ae
g2
Um = (23.45)
πµ0 ae
1
um = µ0 H 2 (23.46)
2
Thus:
1 g2 1 1 r ∞ 2 r Vt
um = { f ( r ) + q exp( − )∑ 2 cos( 2 ) sin( 2 )}2 (23.47)
2 π µ0 r
2 2
ae a e k =1 k k ae k ae
1 g2 1 1 r ∞ 2 r Vt
um = {[ f ( r )] 2
+ 2 qf ( r ) exp(− )∑ cos( 2 ) sin( 2 ) +
2 π 2 µ0 r 2 ae a e k =1 k 2 k ae k ae
1 2r ∞ 2 r Vt
+ q2 2
exp(− )[∑ 2 cos( 2 ) sin( 2 )]2 } (23.48)
ae ae k =1 k k ae k ae
74
1 g2 1 1 r ∞ 2 r Vt
um = {[ f ( r )] 2
+ 2 qf ( r ) exp( − )∑ 2 cos( 2 ) sin( 2 ) +
2 π µ0 r
2 2
ae a e k =1 k k ae k ae
1 2r ∞ 1 r r Vt Vt
+ 4q 2 2
exp(− ) ∑ 2 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) sin( 2 ) sin( 2 )} (23.49)
ae ae m , n = 1 m n m ae n ae m ae n ae
1 r ∞ 2 r Vt
um = {[ f (r )] 2 a eU m + 2 f (r ) B sin β exp(− )∑ 2 cos( 2 ) sin( 2 ) +
2πr 2
a e k =1 k k ae k ae
B2 1 2r ∞ 1 r r Vt Vt
+4 2
exp(− ) ∑ 2 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) sin( 2 ) sin( 2 )} (23.50)
me c ae a e m, n = 1 m n m ae n ae m ae n ae
1 1
u= ε 0 E 2 + µ0 H 2 (23.51)
2 2
Thus:
1 r ∞ 2 r Vt
u=
2πr 2
{ f (r ) 2
ae me c 2
+ 2Bf (r ) −
exp( )∑
ae k =1 k 2
cos(
k 2 ae
) cos(
k 2 ae
− β) +
B2 1 2r ∞ 1 r r Vt 1 1
+4 2
−
exp( ) ∑ 2 2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 ) cos[ ( 2 − 2 )]} (23.52)
mec ae ae m, n =1 m n m ae n ae ae m n
From here we can see that the hydrogen atom’s electromagnetic energy spectrum
frequency has the following format:
V 1 1
v mn = ( 2 − 2) (23.53)
ae m n
V = cα (23.54)
Thus:
cα 1 1
v nm = ( 2 − 2) (23.55)
ae m n
1 α 1 1
= ( − 2) (23.56)
λ nm ae m 2
n
75
4α 2
ae = a0 (1 + ) (23.57)
π2
Thus:
1 α 1 1 1
= ( 2 − 2) (23.58)
λnm a0 4α 2
m n
(1 + 2 )
π
Compared with the hydrogen atom spectrum formula (23.5), we can get:
α
RH = (23.59)
ae
Then:
α
RH = (23.60)
4α 2
a0 (1 + )
π2
Reference
Quantum Spin Chains and Riemann Zeta Function with Odd Arguments
H.E. Boos, V.E. Korepin
J.Phys. A34 (2001) 5311-5316
The Phase of the Riemann Zeta Function and the Inverted Harmonic Oscillator
R.K. Bhaduri,Avinash Khare, J. Law
Phys.Rev. E52 (1995) 486
Path Integrals and Voronin's Theorem on the Universality of the Riemann Zeta
Function
Khalil M. Bitar
Nucl. Phys. Proc. Suppl. 26 (1992) 656
Free nonlinear vibrations for a class of two-dimensional plate equations: standing and
discrete-rotating waves
76
T. Healey and H. Kielhofer
Nonlinear Anal. 29 (1997), 501-531.
Phase of the Riemann zeta function and the inverted harmonic oscillator
R. K. Bhaduri, A. Khare, and J. Law
Phys. Rev. E, 52 (1995), pp. 486-491
77
Chapter
In our book, we make an assumption that all the particles, electrons, protons
and neutrons have electromagnetic origin.
We know all the material was made by the molecules, the molecule was
consisted of atoms, the atom consists of electrons, protons and neutrons, and so all
material has electromagnetic origin.
Electric charge and magnetic charge are the most basic properties of
electromagnetic field.
Based on the distribution of electric charge and magnetic charge in space, and
according the Gauss Law for electric field and magnetic field, we can get the electric
field and magnetic field distribution.
And then, based on the electric field and magnetic field space distributions, we
can get the electromagnetic field velocity, and then all of the electric and magnetic
charges will move according to the electromagnetic field velocity.
The electric charge and magnetic charge space distribution will keep changing,
then the electric field and magnetic field will keep changing, and then electromagnetic
field velocity will also keep changing.
However the change happened, the electric charge and magnetic charge will
keep conserved.
All the basic particles include electrons, protons and neutrons, they are no
longer regarded as point-like particles, but are instead considered to have a spherical
electromagnetic field with the continuum distribution of electric charge and magnetic
charge.
78
The key relationship between time-space and energy-momentum is the
velocity of the electromagnetic field.
G pG
V= (24.1)
ρ
G
In which ‘ p ’ is the electromagnetic field momentum density, and ‘ ρ ’ is the
electromagnetic field mass density.
dr
V= (24.2)
dt
u 02 = u 2 − c 2 p 2 (24.3)
u = ρc 2
(24.4)
In which ‘ ρ ’ is the electromagnetic field mass density
u0 = ρ 0c 2 (24.5)
Thus:
79
G
G ρ 0v
p= (24.7)
2
1− v
c2
The symmetrical part of the rest energy is the absolute time ‘s,’ which is defined as:
c 2 ds 2 = c 2 dt 2 − dr 2 (24.8)
Thus the time ‘t’ and the absolute time ‘s’ have following relationship:
ds
dt = (24.9)
v2
1− 2
c
The energy always has positive value, and the time is always one-directional.
Time flows from the past into the future along with the direction of field velocity, the
arrow of time is the direction of the field velocity.
80
Appendix A
The gamma distribution function:
1 r r
f (r , k , a ) = ( ) k −1 exp(− )
aΓ(k ) a a
In which k is the shape parameter, a is the scale parameter, Γ is the gamma function
which has the formula:
∞
Γ(k ) = ∫ r k −1e − r dr
0
81
Appendix B
The cumulative gamma distribution:
r h 1 r
f (r , h, a) = 1 − exp(− )∑ ( ) k
a k = 0 k! a
r r
f (r ,1, a) = 1 − (1 + ) exp(− )
a a
82
Appendix C
Zeta-exponential function
∞
xn
exp( x) = ∑
n = 0 n!
∞
1
ξ ( x) = ∑ x
n =1 n
Combine the exponential function and zeta function, and then we can have a new
function, which we temporally called the zeta-exponential function as follows:
∞
xn
g m ( x) = ∑ ξ [2(n + m)]
n =0 n!
∞
xn ∞ 1
g m ( x) = ∑ ∑ 2n+2m
n =0 n! k =1 k
Thus:
∞ ∞
1 xn 1
g m ( x) = ∑ 2m ∑
[ ]
k =1 k n =0 n! k 2 n
Thus:
∞ ∞
1 1 x n
g m ( x) = ∑ 2m ∑
[ ( 2) ]
k =1 k n = 0 n! k
Thus:
∞
1 x
g m ( x) = ∑ 2m
exp( )
k =1 k k2
Thus, we have:
∞
1 x
g m (ix) = ∑ 2m
exp(i )
k =1 k k2
The above equation is the Fourier serial of the complex zeta-exponential function.
83
∞
1 x
Re[ g m (ix)] = ∑ 2m
cos( )
k =1 k k2
∞
1 x
Im[ g m (ix)] = ∑ 2m
sin( )
k =1 k k2
As we know:
∞
1 x
[ g m ( x)]' = ∑ 2m+ 2
exp( )
k =1 k k2
Thus:
[ g m ( x)]' = g m +1 ( x)
Re[exp(ix)] = cosx
Im[exp(ix)] = sinx
Similar to the exponential function, the complex zeta-exponential function has the
following relationship:
∞
1 x x
g m (ix) = ∑ 2m
[cos( 2
) + i sin( 2 )]
k =1 k k k
∞ ∞
1 x 1 x
g m (ix) = [∑ cos( )] + i[ ∑ sin( 2 )]
k =1 k 2m k 2
k =1 k
2m
k
∞
1 x
Re[ g m (ix)] = ∑ 2m
cos( )
k =1 k k2
∞
1 x
Im[ g m (ix)] = ∑ 2m
sin( )
k =1 k k2
r − vt
for m =1 and x = , thus we have
a
r − vt ∞
1 r − vt ∞
1 r − vt
g1 (i ) = [∑ 2 cos( 2 )] + i[∑ 2 sin( 2 )]
a k =1 k k a k =1 k k a
84
r + vt
for m =1 and x = , thus we have
a
r + vt ∞
1 r + vt ∞
1 r + vt
g1 (i ) = [∑ 2 cos( 2 )] + i[∑ 2 sin( 2 )]
a k =1 k k a k =1 k k a
85
Appendix D
Spherical wave equation:
∂ 1 ˆ ∂ 1 ˆ ∂
∇ = rˆ + θ + φ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
1 ∂ 2ψ
∇ψ = 2 2
2
v ∂t
Where ‘v’ is the speed of the wave which propagate through radial direction, for the
special case in which it has angular symmetry (not dependent on the θ ,φ ), then we
will have the following wave equation:
∂ 2ψ 2 ∂ψ 1 ∂ 2ψ
+ =
∂r 2 r ∂r v 2 ∂t 2
Thus:
∂ 2 (rψ ) 2 ∂ ( rψ )
2
=v
∂t 2 ∂r 2
A r − vt B r + vt
ψ= exp(i ) + exp(i )
r a r a
Thus:
A B
ψ = exp[i ( kr − wt )] + exp[i ( kr + wt )]
r r
In which
1
k=
a
v
w=
a
86
Appendix E
The gradient in spherical coordinate is:
∂ 1 ˆ ∂ 1 ˆ ∂
∇ = rˆ + θ + φ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
87
Index
A
distribute, 61
absolute time, 79, 80 distribution, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 17,
ac current, 63 18, 21, 22, 43, 44, 45, 52, 57, 61, 65,
air, 64 66, 69, 78, 79, 81, 82
align, 61 dynamo equation, 32
alpha fine structure constant, 67, 68
angular momentum, 5, 6, 11, 16, 17, 18, E
19, 20, 48, 49, 58, 59, 60
antiparticles, 28 electric charge, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 15, 18,
around, 27 19, 20, 29, 30, 31, 43, 45, 51, 52, 57,
arrow of time, 80 61, 63, 65, 66, 68, 69, 78
assume, 6, 41, 52, 69 electric field, 5, 6, 12, 13, 14, 21, 29,
assumption, 5, 6, 7, 9, 18, 24, 26, 43, 33, 36, 45, 46, 52, 54, 57, 63, 64, 69,
44, 52, 53, 61, 65, 66, 71, 78 71, 72, 73, 78,
atom, 6, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52, 57, electric field strength, 12, 21,
60, 69, 70, 71 electromagnetic field, 5, 6, 10, 16, 18,
atomic, 19 19, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 32,
axis, 5 33, 34, 36, 37, 40, 42, 43, 44, 54, 63,
azimuthal, 27 64, 69, 75, 78, 79
electron, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 17,
B 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29,
30, 31, 32, 33, 37, 43, 44, 45, 48, 49,
Bohr radius, 24, 44 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, 61, 65, 66, 67, 68,
69, 72, 73, 74, 78
C energy, 5, 6, 16, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25,
26, 36, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 47, 53, 54,
calculate, 6, 18, 65 69, 72, 73, 74, 75, 78, 79, 80
characteristic impedance, 61, 63, 65, expansions, 64
66, 69, 70 exponential, 21, 22, 70, 83, 84
charge density, 7, 9, 12, 14, 29, 31, 36,
43, 45, 52, 57, 63, 64, 65, 69 F
classical radius of the electron, 5
classical velocity for electron spin, 5 forwarding, 64
complex, 36, 37, 82, 83 fourier, 82
component, 16, 17, 48, 49, 58, 59 fractional quantum hall effect, 61
compression, 64 frequency, 75, 85
conservation, 29, 30, 31, 32, 40, 42
continuity equation, 30, 32 H
continuum distribution, 7, 9, 79
coordinate axes, 84, 85 helium, 6, 57, 60
cumulative gamma distribution, 8, 9, hydroelectric equation, 30
10, 18, 82 hydro-electromagnetic equation, 37
hydrogen, 6, 45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52, 69,
D 70, 71, 75, 76
88
hydromagnetic equation, 30 originates, 6
oscillation, 64
I oscillator, 76
outgoing, 70, 71
impedance, 19, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67,
69, 70 P
incoming, 64, 70, 71
Integer Quantum Hall effect, 61, 62 particle, 6, 7, 9, 25, 28, 78
intrinsic electric field, 5, 52 perpendicular, 61, 64
intrinsic magnetic field, 5 physical, 6
intrinsic electromagnetic field, 5 planck’s constant, 18
intrinsic angular momentum, 5 point-like particle, 6, 7, 9, 78
inverse, 65, 70 polar coordinates, 7, 85, 86
inversely, 67 polar angle, 7
pole, 10, 11, 51, 65, 66, 69
L positive, 11, 43, 61, 71, 80
longitudinal wave, 64 propagate, 63, 85
propagation, 64
M properties, 16, 24, 78
proton, 6, 43, 44, 45, 52, 57, 78
magnetic charge, 6, 9, 10, 11, 14, 18,
19, 31, 32, 36, 43, 45, 51, 52, 57, 61, Q
63, 65, 66, 68, 69, 78, 79
magnetic field, 5, 6, 10, 14, 15, 16, 18, quantised, 10
19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, quantization, 11
31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 40, 42, 43, 44, quantum, 19, 61, 62, 65, 68, 76
45, 46, 52, 53, 54, 57, 61, 63, 64, 69,
71, 72, 74, 75, 78, 79 R
magnetic field strength, 14, 36,
magnetohydrodynamics, 28 radial, 7, 10, 70, 85
mass, 5, 6, 24, 25, 26, 40, 43, 44, 54, radius, 5, 7, 8, 10, 18, 21, 22, 24, 44,
56, 79 56, 65, 66
material, 6, 78 ratio, 18, 19, 51, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67,
maxwell electromagnetic wave, 34 68, 69
molecule, 78 reflect, 64
monopole, 11, 19, 20, 28 reflection, 64
resistance, 61, 68
N rest energy, 5, 79
rest mass, 79
negative, 8, 10, 43, 61, reversion, 63
neutrality, 45 Riemann zeta function, 76, 83
neutron, 6, 43, 52, 53, 54, 56, 78 rotating, 5, 19, 20, 28, 76
nonlinear, 28, 76 rydberg constant, 69
nucleus, 43
S
O
self-energy, 5, 6, 25
opposite, 64, 66, 69 singularity, 10, 25
origin, 5, 6, 18, 24, 26, 44, 78 sound wave, 63, 64, 65
89
space, 7, 9, 78, 79
spectrum, 6, 69, 75, 76
speed, 27, 63, 65, 68, 70
sphere, 5, 8, 10, 18, 21, 22, 65, 66, 76
spherical, 6, 7, 12, 14, 16, 21, 22, 28,
48, 58, 71, 78, 85, 86
spin, 5, 6, 18, 20, 25, 43, 52, 60, 61, 65,
66, 76
spinning, 5, 6, 28
standing wave, 64, 69, 70
stationary wave, 6, 71
symmetrical, 79
symmetry, 11, 85
T
temperature, 61
time, 79, 80
time-space, 78, 79
transmission line, 63, 64
transverse wave, 64
travels, 64
two-dimensional, 61
V
vacuum, 19, 33, 34, 63, 65, 67, 68, 69,
70, 75
velocity, 5, 6, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, 40,
47, 48, 63, 67, 68, 70, 75, 77, 78, 79
W
wave, 6, 19, 34, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69,
70, 71, 75, 76, 85
Z
zero, 10, 43, 45, 52, 60, 63, 66
Zeta, 83
zeta-exponential, 70, 83, 84
90
P7936c 9/19/03 4:14 PM Page 1
What
is the
The electron’s intrinsic electromagnetic field has both energy and angular momentum.
Electron
The electron has electromagnetic origin.
The electron is the smallest magnet, oriented in the same direction that the electron is
spinning. The electron’s south pole has one unit positive magnetic charge ‘g’, the north
The multiple of electric charge unit ‘e’ and magnetic charge unit ‘g’ equals Planck’s
constant ‘h’.
Both the electron’s electric charge and magnetic charge have the continuum spherical
Spin?
distribution inside the electron.
The electron as whole has one unit negative electric charge ‘e’.
All the particles that make up physical materials include electrons, protons and neutrons
BY GENGYUN LI
have electromagnetic origin. Thus all materials have electromagnetic origin.
ISBN 0-9743974-9-0
]|xHSKJREy397498zv*:+:!:+:!@
EAN
Gengyun Li