THEORY OF RESIDUES

Residue Theorem:

It is a very powerful tool to evaluating contour integrals where the

closed contour contains several singularities inside,

Theorem: Let f(z) be analytic within and on a simple closed path c

except at a finite number of singular points z1,z2,….,zn inside c. then
n

 f ( z ).dz  2i. Re s[ f ( z )]
z  zi
c i 1

where the integral is taken counterclockwise around c.

Proof: Enclose each of the singular points z i in a circle ci of small radius
such that all these n circles and curve c are all separated. Then f(z) is
analytic in the multiply connected domain D bounded by B consisting of
c and c1,c2,…,cn and on the entire boundary B of D.
By Cauchy’s integral theorem,


B
 
c  c1  c2 ... cn
  f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz  ...   f ( z )dz  0
c c1 cn

Where the integral along c taken in the counterclockwise direction and

along c1,c2,…,cn in the clockwise direction. Thus

 f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz  ...   f ( z )dz

c c1 cn

Here c1,c2,…,cn are also taken along counterclockwise direction.

By definition of residues,  f ( z ).dz  2i. Re s[ f ( z )]

c1
z  z1

Hence for all contours, we get,  f ( z ).dz  2i. Re s[ f ( z )]

z  zi
c i 1

PROBLEMS
ez
1. Evaluate 
c z2 1
dz over the circular path |Z| = 2.

ez
Sol. Here f(z) = .
z2 1
Poles are z = i, -i
Both these poles lie inside the given circle.

s[ f ( z )] = Re s[ z  i ]. f ( z ) = Re s  e  = e
z i
Case 1. r1 = Re
z i z i z i zi   2i

s[ f ( z )] = Re s[ z  i ]. f ( z ) = Re s  e  =  e
z i
Case 2. r2 = Re
z i z i z i
z i 2i

ez ei e i
Hence by cauchy’s residue theorem, we have 
c z2 1
dz =2i {
2i

2i
}

Cothz 4  3z
2. Find  c
z i
dz where C :|Z| = 2. 3. Find  z ( z  1)( z  2) dz where c:|Z|= 3/2
c

dz ez
4. Find  z  where c:|z-i| = 2. 5. Find  dz where c:| z – 1 | = 3.
c  z  1  i
2 3
c
2
4
 2z 2  3 ( 2 z  1) 2 dz
6. Evaluate 
c
z ( z  1)( z  2)
dz where c : |Z| = 1.6 9. Evaluate 
4z 3  z
over the unit circle c.
c

dz dz
7. Evaluate z
c
2
( z  2)
where c : | Z – 1 | = 2. 10. Evaluate  Sinhz where c is the circle |Z| = 4.
c

TYPE-III
IMPROPER INTEGRAL HAVING TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
 

TYPE – I The integration is of the form I=   f ( x ) Cosmx dx OR I=   f ( x ) Sinmx dx

DEFINITE INTEGRALS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS OF Cos  & Sin . around the semi-circular contour.
2 The formula to find the integration is as follows:
The integration is of the form I = 0
F (cos  , Sin ) d around a unit circle.

Procedure : Take z = ei so that we have to substitute dz = i. eid




f ( x ).e imx dx  2i. Re s f ( z ).e imz 
1 1
i  i z i  i z
Cos  = e  e  z & Sin  = e  e  z Equating real & imaginary parts of the above we get,
2 2 2i 2i 

f ( x ).Cosmx.dx  2i. Im f ( z ).e imz  &


The unit circle is |z| = |ei| = 1.




f ( x ).Sinmx.dx  2i. Re f ( z ).e imz 
TYPE – II TYPE IV
IMPROPER INTEGRALS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
 Let f(z) be an analytic function and z a-1 is a many-valued function where a is not an integer. Then
The integration is of the form I =   f ( x ) dx around a semi-circle. Where f(x) = 
the integral of the form 0 z a 1 . f ( z ).dz can be evaluated by integral round a large circle |z|
=R , small circle |z| = r by enclosing the branch point z=0.
p( x)
q( x)
form. And q(x)  0. CR

-R O R X

 f ( z )dz  2i.
R
R
f ( x)dx 
CR
Re s[ f ( z )] Definition (Cauchy Principal Value - P.V.). Let f(x) be a continuous real valued function for

all x. The Cauchy principal value (P.V.) of the integral is defined by

Hence As R   , we have 


f ( x ) dx  2i. Re s[ f ( z ).]

z 3
8. Evaluate z 2
 2z  5
dz where c is the circle a) |Z| = 1 b] |Z+1-i|=2
c
,
 Hence by Cauchy’s residue theorem,
provided the limit exists. 2 4
 f ( z ).dz  2i.r
c
1  2i.
3i
 
3
For Type III & Type IV, WE USE, 1 4 2
Hence I = .  =
2 3 3
JORDAN’S LEMMA,  d 2
2. Show that 0 a  b.Sin 
a  b2
2

 e f ( z )dz  0
imz
lim
If f(z)0 uniformly as R   then R 
CR
3. Prove that
2 sin 2  2

0 a  b..Cos d  b 2 a  (a  b ) where a > b > 0.
2 2

Where CR is a circular arc (with radius R and center at origin) in the first or second quadrants. 2 d 2
4. Show that 0 
2  Cos 3
Supporting Lemma  dx
1. Evaluate   4
x 1
If (z-a).f(z)0 uniformly as r0 then lim
r 0  f ( z )dz  0 Sol. Let f(z) = 4
1
CR
z 1
Integrate f(z) along the contour C which consists of real line from –R to R and the semi circle
Where Cr is a circular arc with radius r and with center at z = a. CR of radius R..
Clearly,
PROBLEMS  f ( z ) dz  
R
f ( x) dx   f ( z )dz
C R
CR
 d
1. Use cauchy’s residue theorem find   5  4Sin
 I II
i i
Sol. Let z = e , then dz = i. e d and
1
i  i z 1
Sin  = e  e  R R R

2i 2i
z I: R
f ( z ) dz  R
f ( x)dx  
R x 1
4
dx

dz R  1
Hence I= 
iz 
dz
 2
dz

dz As R   , 
R
f ( z ) dz  
 x 14
dx
1  1 5 zi  2 z  2 c 2 z  5iz  2i
2 2
(2 z  i )( z  2i )
c
5  4.  z   c c
2i  z
1 dz II. Along CR, Take z = Rei,  dz  i Re i d
2 
I = c  z   z  2i 
i  1
 2  Hence, 
CR
f ( z )dz  0 R e 4 4 i
1
.i Re i .d
Poles are z = - i/2 & z = -2i of those z= -i/2 lies inside the unit circle
 i 2
 r1  Re s f ( z )  lim  z  . f ( z ) 
z 
i
z   
i 2 3i
2 2
  ie i  1  
1 
 d  dx   dx 
 x  1
4
x 1
4
= 4 1 4 i  2 2 2
0 0
R  4 e 
R   dx
2. Evaluate 0 (x2  a2 )
 0 as R  .
 dx
R 3. Evaluate  x  a4
4
 f ( z ) dz   f ( x ) dx   f ( z )dz
0
Hence C R
CR

 1 Sin mx
  Cos mx
= 
 x 1
4
dx  0 1. Evaluate 0 x
dx, m  0 and hence show that 
0 x
dx  0

1
 1 e imz
 dx   4 dz Sol. Consider f(z)= we have to find C f ( z ) dz .
 x  1 4C z 1 z
So we have to find the integrand along C by finding residues .
1 Where C consists of
f(z) = 4 i. Real axis from r to R,
z 1
z4 + 1 = 0. z4 = -1 finding the solutions by using ii. Upper half of the circle C1 with |z|=R
elementary functions. iii. Real axis from –R to –r.
iv. Upper half of the circle Cr with |z|=r.
 2k     2k   
Z = Cos    i.Sin   for k=0,1,2,3.
4 4
The only singularity of f(z) is z=0. and this has been deleted by drawing Cr
    Hence f(z) is analytic within the region bounded between C1 and C.
i i 3
Let k = 0, z = e 4 k = 1, z = e 4 From, cauchy’s theorem,
R r

For k = 2, z = e
i 5
4 k=3, z = e
i 7
4
 r
f ( x) dx   f ( z ) dz  
C1 R
f ( x )dx  
Cr
f ( z ) dz  0

i i 3
These are all poles. Out of all these 4 poles, only z = e 4 &z= e 4 lie in 0 as R  - i as r  0
upper half of th z-plane. (BY JORDAN’S LEMMA)
Hence
 0
 f ( x ) dx  
3 i
 f ( x ) dx   i  0
  i
Hence r1 = Re s f ( z )  lim  z  e . 1  lim 1  e
4 0 
4
Hence
 z  1 z  e 4 4 z
4 3
i i
z  e 4 
i
4 
z e 4   f ( x )dx   .i
9 i
 i 3

  e imx  Cosmx  i Sinmx
& r2 = Re s f ( z )  lim  z  e 4 . 1  lim 1  e
4
 dx   .i   dx   i.
 x  x
 z  1 z  e 4 4 z
4 3
i 3
z e 4
i 3
z  e 4 
i 3
4 Comparing imaginary parts
Sinmx
  Sinmx

3i.

9i. 
 x
dx   i. Hence 2.0
x
dx  
Hence e 4
e 4
  Sinmx 

C
f ( z )dz  2 i.{r1  r2 }  2i..
4

2

0 x
dx 
2
  Cosmx  x a 1 
Equating real part we get  x dx  0. 
0 1 x
dx 
Sina
Cosmx 
x a 1 


dx
2. Evaluate 0 x2 1 2. Show that 0 1 x2
dx 
 a 
2.Sin 
 2 
 x.Sinx
3. Evaluate 0 2 dx
x  a2  x2
 xa 1
 3. Evaluate  ( x 2  1)( x 2  4) dx
1. Evaluate I = 
0 1 x
dx 
Sin a
, where 0  a  1

z a 1 z a 1
Sol. Let f(z) =
1 z
Consider
C
 f ( z )dz   1  z dz
C

Where C is the contour consisting of a large circle C1, a small concentric circle Cr, and the
two straight lines joining these two circles along the real axis from r to R. Argument Principle
a
The singular points of f(z) are given by z1- (1+z) = 0
i.e., z=0 and z=-1. It is useful to determine the number of zeros or poles of a function in a given region.
Out of these, the only pole z= -1 is of order one lies within the contour.
(1  z ).z a 1 Theorem [ 2 Times ]
Re s f ( z )  limi  e ( a 1).i
z  1 z  e 1 z Let f(z) be analytic on and within a simple closed curve c except for a pole z=a of order p
By cauchy’s residue theorem, we have inside c. further suppose that f(z) has only one zero z=b of order n and no other zero on c.
 f ( z )dz  2i. Re s f ( z ) z  1
1 f 1 ( z)
2i C f ( z )
C
Then dz  n  p
R r  x.e 
2i a 1
 
r
f ( x) dx   f ( z )dz  
C1 1  x.e
R 2i
d ( x.e 2i )   f ( z )dz  2i. e ( a 1)i
Cr Proof : Enclose z =a and z=b by non-overlapping circles c1 and c2 respectively.
1 f 1 ( z) 1 f 1 ( z) 1 f 1 ( z)
C 1  z dz  2i.e 
x a 1 z a 1 x a1 z a 1
2i C f ( z ) 2i C f ( z ) 2i C f ( z )
R R
dz  dz  dz
 dx   dz   2 ( a 1)i ai
e dx  Then
r 1 x C1 1 z r 1  x.e 2i r
1 2

Since f(z) has a pole of order p at z= a, we have Since f(z) has a zero of order n at
0 as R  0 as r0 F ( z) z=b,
(BY JORDAN’S LEMMA) f(z) = -------(1) have f(z) = (z-a)n.G(z)----(2)
( z  a) p
a 1
 x  x a 1 Where F(z) is analytic and non-vanishing on
Hence  dx   e 2 ai dx  2i.e ai
Taking log of (2) and
0 1 x 0 1  x.e 2i
and within c1.
Taking Log of (1) and differentiating w.r.t. z, differentiating
x a 1 w.r.t. z, we get
1  e 2 ai

0


1 x
dx  2i.e ai
we get
f 1 ( z) F 1 ( z) p
  f 1 ( z) G1 ( z) n
 x a 1 2i f ( z) F ( z) z  a  
0 1 x
dx  ai
e  e  ai Hence
f ( z) G( z ) z  b
 1 f 1 ( z) 1 F 1 ( z) p dz Thus Let a be a point on the boundary c with f(z)=0. Then, Since |f(z)|<|g(z)|, we can conclude

2i C1 f ( z )
dz  
2i C1 F ( z )
dz  
2i C1 z  a that g(z)=0. Hence f(a)=g(a), contradicting to the fact that |g(z)|<|f(z)| on c. Similarly if f(a)
+g(a)=0, then |f(a)|=|g(a)|, which is a contradiction.
f 1 ( z) Hence f(z) & f(z) +g(z) have no zeros on c.
Since f(z) is analytic, we have is 1 f 1 ( z) 1 G1 ( z )
2i C2 f ( z ) 2i C2 G ( z )
f ( z) dz  dz
Step 2 :
analytic within and on a closed contour c. g ( z)
n dz Let F(z) = f ( z ) , which gives g(z) = F(z).f(z).
Hence
F 1 ( z)
is analytic within and on a + 2i  z  b
F ( z) C2
g ( z)
n Observe that |F(z)|<1 on c as  1 on c. There fore , it allows that g(z) & f(z) are not
closed contour c. = 0 .2i  n f ( z)
F 1 ( z) 2i zero on c.
Hence  dz  0
c
F ( z ) Now g(z) = F(z) .f(z) or g = F. f
 g1 = F.f1 + f.F1
1

1 f 1 ( z) p dz
 
2i C1 f ( z )
dz  0  
2i C1 z  a
  p. Let N1 and N2 be the number of zeros of f+g and f respectively inside c. Observe that both f+g
and f do not have any poles inside c, by the hypothesis.

Hence By Argument Principle, we have

1 f (z)1
1 f 1  g1
 2i C f  g
Hence dz  n  p N1  0  dz
2i C f ( z )
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 f1
and N2  0 
2i  C f
dz
Generalized Argument Principle :
Let f(z) be analytic on and within a simple closed curve c except at a finite Consider
umber of poles a1,a2,…,aj with respective multiplicities p1,p2,…,pj inside c. 1 f 1  g1 1 f1
N1 – N2 =
2i  C f g
dz -
2i 
C f
dz
Further f(z) has a finite number of zeros inside c at b 1,b2,…,bk with
respective multiplicities n1,n2,…,nk. Also f(z)  0 on c. Then f  F . f  f .F
1 1 1
1 1 f1
1 f 1 ( z)
=
2i C f  F. f
dz -
2i 
C f
dz

2i C f ( z )
dz  N  P
1 f 1 (1  F )  f .F 1 1 f1
n
=
2i C f (1  F )
dz -
2i 
C f
dz

where N = n r  total number of zeros of f(z) inside c, counting their multiplicities. 1 F 1

j
r 1 = 
2i 1  F
C
dz

and P   p r  total number of poles of f(z) inside c, counting multiplicites. Since |F(z)| < 1 , we have 1 + F  0 on C. Also, since the derivative of an analytic function is
1
r 1 F
analytic clearly, is analytic.
1 F
ROUCHE’S THEOREM : [ 2 TIMES ] 1 F1
2i C 1  F
Suppose f(z) & g(z) are analytic within and on a closed curve c and if |g(z)|<|f(z)| on c, then Hence N1 – N2 = dz =0
f(z) and f(z)+g(z) both have the same number of zeros inside c. Hence N1 = N2.
Proof : Step 1: f(z) and f(z)+g(z) have no zeros on the boundary LIOUVILLE’S THEOREM [ 2 TIMES ]
Theorem : If f(z) is entire and | f(z) | is bounded for all z, then f(z) is constant .
 Proof : Consider the generalized cauchy’s integral formula
n! f (z)
f (n) ( z 0 )  
2i C ( z  z 0 ) n 1
dz ----(1)
With C chosen as a circle with center at z0 and of radius r . Since |f(z)| is bounded, |f(z)|
 M.
Applying M-L inequality to (1),
n! f ( z) n! M
( z 0 ) |  (z  z dz  .2 r
(n)
| f
2i C 0 ) n 1
2 r n 1
Since C: |z-z0| = r and L=Length of C = 2r
n! M
Or | f ( n ) ( z 0 ) | n ----(2)
r
Which is known as cauchy’s inequality.

M
From (2), for n=1, we have | f (1)
( z 0 ) | ------------(3)
r
Since f is entire [ analytic everywhere ] and |v| is bounded for all z, (3) is true for any r.
As r | f1(z0) |  0
Thus f1(z0)=0, for all z and hence f(z) is a constant.

FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA [2 TIMES ]

Every Polynomial of degree n in the complex plane has n zeros . [ Each zero being
counted as many times as its order ]
Or
Every polynomial of degree n in the complex plane has at least one zero.

Proof: Let P(z) be a polynomial in z of degree n > 1 given by

P(z) = a0 + a1z + a2.z2+…+an.zn
Where an  0.
Suppose that p(z0 has no zeros, then p(z)  0 for any value of z.
1
Now f(z) = is analytic everywhere. Also |f(z)|0 as |z|  so that |f(z)| is bounded for
P( z )
all z.
LIOUVILLE’S Theorem states that a function f(z) which is anaytic everywhere and bounded
is constant. This is a contradiction since p(z) is not constant. Hence p(z) is zero for at least one
value of z.