64

Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research J SCI IND RES VOL 70 JANUARY 2011
Vol. 70, January 2011, pp. 64-70

Enhancement of energy efficiency and loading of steam turbines through

retrofitting 2-d designs with 3-d designs
M Siddhartha Bhatt
Energy Conservation & Development Division, Central Power Research Institute (CPRI), PO Box 8066, Sir CV Raman
Road, Bangalore 560 080, India

Received 26 April 2010; revised 27 October 2010; accepted 28 October 2010

This paper presents improvement in energy efficiency and power loading of steam turbines through module retrofits
accomplished by migration from 2-d designs to 3-d designs. Isentropic efficiencies (IE) (average and operating, respectively) of
high pressure turbine (HPT), intermediate pressure turbine (IPT), low pressure turbine( LPT) and composite turbine (CT) of
original 2-d design of machines (100% MCR) (reference level) are: 82.91, 79.40%; 89.93, 86.60%; 82.48, 79.24%; and 86.15,
81.86%. Design IE of turbine can be increased to 90.04% for HPT, 92.04% for IPT, 94.01% for LPT and 92% for CT by
retrofitting with standard 3-d stage specific blading, 3-d modelled exhaust diffuser, tip to tip sealing of improved design, etc.
Power output of overall turbine is expected to increase by ~14 MW (for original steam flow) or heat rate is expected to decrease
by 6.6% (through reduced steam consumption). Operating turbine efficiency is expected to increase from 39.90% to 42.72%. The
3-d stack optimized design is expected to give an improvement of 6-7% over 2-d design. Loading of unit can be enhanced without
any major hardware changes with a few improvements in boiler and generator and these will not limit unit loading.

Keywords: 3-d blading, Energy efficiency, Isentropic efficiency, Stage efficiency, Steam turbines, Variable reaction blading

Introduction from original T2 to T4 , Tx, 3DS, 3DV (variable reaction)

Turbines above 200 MW are designed in 3 or 4
tandem compounding modules composed of single flow
high pressure turbine (HPT), double flow intermediate
pressure turbine (IPT) (1 or 2 modules) and double low
pressure turbine (LPT). Staging of turbine power has
been optimized and constantly refined by both
thermodynamic and thermo-economic criteria 1-3. Each
turbine module (cylinder) is composed of a number of
stages (adjacent, stationary and moving blades). Several
turbine manufacturers4 - 9 have designed blades with
higher stage isentropic efficiencies (ηis ). Blades are
designed with twist, taper and bowing (leaning) using
3-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) for
optimization of losses due to friction, leakage and
secondary eddies. Turbine blade designs have steadily
graduated from 2-d to 3-d design. The 3-d optimization
of individual stage of blades has given way to 3-d
optimization of entire turbine cylinder with each row of
blades being of stage specific design (group or stack
optimization). Siemens successively re-designing blades
*E-mail: msb@cpri.in
blading10 . Optimized 50% reaction stages have been
developed for entire HPT and IPT cylinders and initial
sections of LPT11 . ABB has replaced Series 1000 blades
with Series 8000 blades and with HPB (high performance
blading) series blades12 . These are cylindrical prismatic
blades with integral blade root and shroud, which are
insensitive to inlet angle variations with an optimized
controlled diffusion zone and thin trailing edge 13 . Parsons
have come out with R series blading as a replacement
for 600 series blading9 .
One dimensional models are well described14,15 .
Stage efficiencies for fixed and rotating blades in terms
of stage loading, stage reaction, flow coefficients, etc.,
are also described16 . A number of correlations and
relations for blade losses, stage loss, tip leakage and seal
leakage have been reported17 . Other development is 3-d
directionally solidified blading for HPT stages. Double
T-root blade designs are proposed for 1st and 2nd stages
of HPT. A tilted first stationary blade arrangement with
a low reaction blade profile is used for IPT stage. A low
IPT inlet pressure yields a higher efficiency in IPT and
LPT because of the effect of aspect ratio and lower
 BHATT : ENHANCEMENT OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND LOADING OF STEAM TURBINES
LPT temperatures. Larger the number of blades, lower
the efficiency. Number of blades can be reduced by
maintaining a higher aspect ratio. To overcome this
drawback, concept of ‘dense pack’ blading is introduced.
This involves a newer design analogous to gas turbine
blading with increase in no of stages of HP/IP cylinders
without increase in overall length of machine.
This study presents improvement through retrofitting
2-d systems by 3-d stage optimized blading for turbines
of 200/210 MW rating.
Experimental Section
Performance analysis at full plant load (100% MCR)
was undertaken for turbines (200/250 MW). Operating
regimes of blade passages were as follows: Reynolds
number, 0.5 x 106 to 15x106 ; Mach number, 0.25 and
0.60 (HPT, 0.20-0.25; IPT, 0.35-0.50; LPT, 0.50-0.80);
index of compression, 1.25-1.325 (av1.30); Discharge
coefficient (actual flow to theoretical flow through a
passage), 0.40-0.60; Stage loading (reciprocal of kinetic
energy in blades to drop across stage), 0.80-4.0; flow
inlet angle, 20-25°; and blade inlet angle, 40-45°. Blade
geometric design parameters (Table 1) cover size,
number and configuration of blades in HPT, IPT and
LPT.
Blading and Stage related Losses
Blading losses include flow friction over blades,
secondary re-circulation flow losses and tip leakage.
Among stage related losses, moisture loss is given by
the product of mass flow rate of moisture in steam (bulk
of fluid) and enthalpy change across the stage. Loss
from Baumann stage due to bypass of last stage is given
by the product of mass flow rate bypassing last stage
and enthalpy gain across the last stage. Exhaust outflow
and extraction losses are given by the product of mass
flow rate of exhaust steam and the square of exit velocity
Table 1— Typical geometric factors of steam turbine blades of 210 MW units
Sl No. Particular HPT
1 Bare rotor diam, mm 962
2 Length of cylinder, m 3.5-4.0
3 No. of stages of blades 10-14
4 Blade height, mm 34-100
5 Blade diam (max), mm 1200
6 Aspect ratio of blades 1-2
7 No. of fixed blades 64-72
8 No. of moving blades 168-256
9 Blade pitch, mm 10-30
65
component of bulk of fluid. Losses from clearance seals
of blading and shafts are calculated on the basis of
engineering practice. Cross over pipes is calculated based
on frictional pressure drop across flow length of piping.
Improvements are computed on the basis of 3-d
analysis using commercial general purpose software
CFXTM in present case. Isentropic drops of a stage are
fixed and losses are computed by 1-d models, then 2-d
and then 3-d models for acceleration of results. Blade
profiles are specified for 2-d design at 3 to 4 locations
and entire blade profile is developed by smoothly
extrapolating these profiles. In the case of 3-d designs,
entire blade profile drawing is developed and used for
calculations. While turbine manufacturers use powerful
parallel computers with mesh fineness of almost 0.25
million grid points for a blade passage, in present case,
grid points are restricted to 100 per blade passage to enable
computation in a personal computer. Typical components
of analysis are blading (stationary and moving), piping
and sealing.
Retrofitted Turbines
Features of retrofitted turbines include 3-d designed
stage specific blading (variable reaction along every
successive stage) with twist, taper and bowing and also
variable reaction radially across a blade through biasing
of mass flow rate from tip (40 %) to root (60 %) and
elimination of Baumann exhaust (where LPT exit flow is
divided amidst 2nd and last stages to overcome limitation
of blade height) as present blade designs are capable of
handling full flow in last stage (Fig. 1). Also, 3-d
dimensionally solidified blading ensures good creep rupture
strength and stiffness, insensitivity to resonant frequency,
deviation in incident angle and thin trailing edge. 3-d
designed blading needs to be manufactured by milling out
of solid stocks. Other features include heating system
for surface of last stationary stage of hollow blades by
IPT LPT
962 962
5.5-6.0 6.5-7.5
11-15 Double flow: 4-8
200-350 370-770
1700 2600
2-4 3-5
54-64 48-54
124-164 92-124
30-40 40-70
66 J SCI IND RES VOL 70 JANUARY 2011

injection of steam from an earlier extraction. Cooling of

initial sets of blades has emerged18-20. Optimized wake-
blade interaction takes place in the last stage 21 .

Results and Discussion

Fig. 1— Steam turbine improved blade for validation of
performance
Performance of In-Service Turbines for Base Bench Marking
To quantify improvement in turbines, performance
mapping of 2-d designed turbines is first undertaken.
Design values of typical turbine efficiencies are as
follows: generator efficiency (hg ) [electrical losses=3089.8
kW], 98.55; mechanical efficiency (hm) [mechanical
losses=1006.2 kw], 99.53; adiabatic efficiency (ha )
[thermal losses=278.7 kw], 99.87; isentropic efficiency
(ηis ), 88.52; turbine thermodynamic efficiency (ηth ),
47.45; turbine efficiency (ηt ), 41.75; and turbogenerator
efficiency (ηtg ), 41.14. Table 2 provides design variables
of original design of machines. Based on experimental
studies, operating performance indices (Table 3) of
turbines are different to that of design values, attributed

Table 2— Curve fits for typical flow rates along steam turbine cylinders
Sl No. Particulars of variables A0 A1
X: Instantaneous load factor of turbine [0.5-1.0]
1 Y: Steam flow in HPT [86-184 kg/s] -4.2374 186.13
R2 = 0.99
2 Y: Steam flow in IPT [73-160 kg/s] -5.0095 163.69
R2 = 0.99
3 Y: Steam flow in LPT [65-133 kg/s] 3.5951 128.03
R2 = 0.99
4 Y: Steam flow in LPT exhaust hood [33-64 kg/s] 4.0464 60.132
R2 = 0.99

Table 3— Performance of original design of turbines (design) [100% MCR]

Sl No. Particular Max Min Mean

Design
1 Turbine efficiency, % 42.69 41.49 41.86
2 Specific steam consumption, 3.19 3.07 3.11
kg/kWh
3 No load steam consumption, 6.94 4.75 5.42
kg/s
4 Isentropic efficiency (HPT), % 83.40 82.80 82.90
5 Isentropic efficiency (IPT), % 90.20 89.89 89.90
6 Isentropic efficiency (LPT), % 88.05 78.71 82.40
7 Isentropic efficiency (TUR), % 87.68 85.30 86.15
Operating
8 Turbine efficiency, % 41.59 38.92 39.97
9 Specific steam consumption, 3.39 3.21 3.28
kg/kWh
10 No load steam consumption, 24.64 8.80 14.98
kg/s
11 Isentropic efficiency (HPT), % 80.10 79.20 79.40
12 Isentropic efficiency (IPT), % 86.70 82.40 86.60
13 Isentropic efficiency (LPT), % 82.81 75.13 79.24
14 Isentropic efficiency (TUR), % 83.86 79.84 81.86
 BHATT : ENHANCEMENT OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND LOADING OF STEAM TURBINES 67

Table 4—Isentropic enthalpy losses (design) in original machines

Sl No. Particulars of losses HPT IPT LPT
(% of isentropic enthalpy loss of particular turbine unit)
1 Valves and admission 1.3 1.3 0.5
2 Blading losses
Stage number HPT IPT LPT
(single flow) (single flow) (double flow)
1 13 24 1.090 0.900 1.124
2 14 25 1.090 0.800 1.124
3 15 26 1.090 0.720 1.124
4 16 27 1.090 0.720 1.124
5 17 28 1.090 0.680 1.124
6 18 29 1.090 0.680 1.124
7 19 30 1.090 0.600 1.124
8 20 31 1.090 0.600 1.124
9 21 1.090 0.600
10 22 1.090 0.580
11 23 1.090 0.580
12 1.090
3 Losses from clearance seals of blading and shaft 2.10 1.50 2.20
4 Exhaust outflow and extraction losses 0.60 0.80 2.30
5 Mechanical losses 0.30
6 Cross over pipe losses 0.22
7 Moisture losses 1.10
8 Loss from Baumann stage due to bypass of 50% steam from last 1.90
turbine stage
9 Total losses [mass flows are different], % 17.080 11.060 17.512
10 Isentropic efficiency [mass flow rate of each loss considered], % 82.91 89.93 82.48
11 Isentropic efficiency of whole turbine, % 86.15

to performance deterioration due to off-design input
variables, ageing and time period elapsed since last capital
overhaul. Mean exit pressure (9.5 kPa) corresponds to
a saturation temperature of 45°C. This is ideal and
realistic exit pressure for Indian conditions where there
is wide variation in ambient temperature.
Major work loss in turbine is due to deterioration in
turbine steam paths. Some of the losses can be reversed
on-line (removal of soluble deposits by steam washing),
during capital overhauls by removal of insoluble deposits
(sand/Al2 O3 /fly ash blasting), mechanical readjustments,
renewal of damaged portions steam path, etc. But
deterioration of steam path is a progressive, continuing
and irreversible process, and can be solved by renovation
of steam path with state-of-the-art technology. There is
general agreement among turbine designers that
approach is more cost effective than total replacement
of turbine because deterioration is restricted to only about
50% of hardware, while balance still has a lasting
remaining life. Thermodynamic characterization (exergic)
is also used for determining power loss in a steam turbine.
Besides traditional performance test of turbine (where
performance is determined on the basis of flows,
temperatures and pressures), power loss estimation is
also done through a ‘steam path audit’, which involves
geometric measurement of clearances, gaps and surface
finish in steam paths when turbine is opened. Geometric
deviation (due to erosion, deposits, roughness,
enlargements, deformation, etc.) are used to compute
loss of power as compared to ideal design conditions
using established formulae. Table 4 gives isentropic
enthalpy losses for the existing turbines. Deterioration
of steam turbines is mainly due to erosion of turbine
surfaces (which enlarge flow passages and reduces
energy conversion), deposits (which constrict flow
passages and increases frictional loss) and increased
clearances leading to loss of steam. Increased auxiliary
steam results in overloading of vent steam, gland steam
and stack steam condensers.
Performance of 3-d Designed Systems
In new design of turbines, reduction in losses is
achieved primarily by reducing profile losses in blades
and to a lesser extent by reducing diffuser and seal losses
(Table 5). Free standing last stage blades capable of
handling full flow also minimizes losses. For standard
high performance blading offered by major
manufacturers, profile section is optimally designed to
68 J SCI IND RES VOL 70 JANUARY 2011

Table 5—Isentropic enthalpy losses (design) in retrofitted machines

Sl No. Particulars of losses HPT IPT LPT

(% of isentropic enthalpy loss of that particular turbine unit)
1 Valves and admission 0.9 0.9 0.3
2 Blading losses
Stage number HPT IPT LPT
(single flow) (single flow) (double flow)
1 13 24 0.6442 0.5260 0.2106
2 14 25 0.6442 0.5260 0.2106
3 15 26 0.6442 0.5150 0.1976
4 16 27 0.6388 0.5150 0.1976
5 17 28 0.6392 0.4980 0.1978
6 18 29 0.6361 0.5080 0.1978
7 19 30 0.6141 0.4960 0.1878
8 20 31 0.6315 0.5160 0.1878
9 21 0.6213 0.4930
10 22 0.6189 0.4840
11 23 0.6174 0.4840
12 0.6174
3 Losses from clearance seals of blading and shaft 1.10 0.90 1.10
4 Exhaust outflow and extraction losses 0.40 0.60 1.80
5 Mechanical losses 0.20
6 Cross over pipe losses 0.10
7 Moisture losses 0.90
8 Loss from Baumann stage [A] 0.0
9 Total losses [mass flows are different], % 9.967 7.961 5.988
10 Isentropic efficiency [mass flow rate of each loss considered], % 90.04 92.04 94.01
11 Isentropic efficiency of whole turbine, % 91.84
[A] 100% flow through last stage

achieve to flow conditions in that particular stage.
Increase of pitch to chord ratio decreases profile losses.
Blade airfoils of stator and rotor rows comprise of a
family of profiles with different cambers and thickness.
Twists of airfoils implies a corresponding variation in
stacking angle of different profile sections, chord length
of which are governed by the conditions of a constant
axial width. High efficiency blade is ensured to provide
insensitivity to incident angle and thin trailing edge.
Second most important loss in blading is secondary
losses. Secondary flow is unavoidable because of flow
deflection in blade channel. This can be nullified by bowing
blade circumferentially. Uniformity in axial flow velocity
and minimization of cross flow velocity decreases
secondary flow losses. Incorporation of local leaning at
blade outlet and through change in blade outlet angle to
account for disturbance caused by immediately next blade
row secondary flows can be controlled. Increase in aspect
ratio (blade height to chord ratio) can minimize secondary
losses in such a way that flow is more towards root and
less towards tip of the blade.
Last and least of losses is the clearance or leakage
loss. In reaction blading, traditional radial variation of
flow is 40% at hub section to 60% at tip section.
Clearance loss is minimized by reversing radial flow
profile to 60% at hub section and 40% at tip section.
This will bring down tip leakage by 0.1% points in second
last stage but it is not very significant in other stages. Tip
leakage is further minimized by inserting of spring backed
seals in tip block of both fixed and rotating blades.
Isentropic enthalpy losses in penultimate (Baumann)
stage are reduced by 1.9%. Original design of machines
are provided with a vintage Baumann exhaust and
replacement of this stage by reaction blading will give
an advantage of ∼1.0 % points. Purely diverting flow
through last stage blades by changing last two stages by
conventional blading will give an improvement of ∼ 0.9%
points. Loss on account of bypass of 50% of flow through
Baumann exhaust is 1.9% point of loss in LPT. If
Baumann exhaust is eliminated by increasing blade height
from 770 mm to 858 mm, increase in power output is:
design, 1.13 MW; and operating condition, 1.02 MW.
Exhaust outflow and extraction losses are reduced
through improved diffuser geometry. Presently, steam
from free standing blades is passing into diffuser axially
so that it has to turn almost 90°. Minimized diffuser
 BHATT : ENHANCEMENT OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND LOADING OF STEAM TURBINES
Table 6—Comparison of efficiencies and power outputs between original and retrofitted machines under
design and operating conditions
Sl Particulars
No. [Design & operating (simulated)]
1 Turbine efficiency, %
2 Increase in turbine efficiency, % points
3 Turbine heat rate, kJ/kWh
accommodates high velocity flow, retards steam and
recovers considerable kinetic energy, thereby minimizes
energy losses. Also, minimized radial exit angles of last
stage helps to minimize exit losses Thus, incorporation
of 3-d designed diffusers reduces losses by almost 0.9%
points. Velocity of 2 phase stream earlier is almost 217.8
m/s, which now reduces to 182.5 m/s after incorporation
of standard last stage blading (increasing blade height
from 770.0 mm to 850.0 mm).
Next step is to convert stage wise losses in blading
into module wise losses. Comparing original and new
machines under design conditions (Table 6), isentropic
efficiency is increased for HPT (90%), IPT (92%) and
LPT (94%), by change over from 2-d to 3-d stack
optimized design. Performance is not expected to
significantly deteriorate in load range of 50% to 100%
MCR.
In absence of experimental data on performance of
3-d stack optimized designs of machines, drop in power
output are calculated using deviation method considering
following factors: i) Exhaust pressure/vacuum drop [since
exit pressure is chosen as 9.5 kPa, maximum deviation
can occur up to 13.5 kPa (-3%)]; ii) Main steam pressure
[-0.7%]; iii) MS temperature [-0.5%]; iv) RH temperature
[-1.0%]; v) RH pressure [-0.5%]; vi) Percentage make-
up to hot well [-0.8%]; vii) RH spray [-1.0%]; viii)
Deterioration in turbine with ageing [-1.5%]; and ix)
Deterioration between capital overhauls [-0.20% per year
since overhaul]. Above deviations add up to ∼–10.0% of
extra power generated. Besides, in some cases,
overrating of design values by manufacturers results in
deviation between design and operating performance to
the tune of -1.0%. Increase in power output of retrofitted
machine (Table 6) under operating conditions is lower
by 10.0% of increase expected under design conditions
(14 MW). This gives a power output increase (under
operating conditions) of 12.7 MW for overall turbine.
Operating isentropic efficiency works out to 91.10%.
Drop in isentropic efficiency (under operating conditions
69
Original New Original New
Turbine Turbine Turbine Turbine
Design Operating
41.86 44.62 39.97 42.82
0.0 2.76 0.0 2.85
8600 8066 9007 8405
as compared to design conditions) is around 0.8% points.
Turbine efficiency (under operating conditions) for
retrofitted turbine is 42.72%.
Improvement in energy efficiency of turbine
improves loadability of unit because unbalanced forces
(thrust and axial shift) are kept to a bare minimum and
specific steam consumption will be reduced. Steaming
capacity of boiler can be enhanced by 8-10% by increase
of GCV of coal fired and through decrease auxiliary
steam load. Similarly, on generator side by improvement
in power factor from 0.85 lag to near 0.995, active power
capacity can be enhanced while still operating within
capability curve. Thus, with relatively inexpensive turbine
module changes, unit loadability can be enhanced by 6-
8% while operating within safe parameter limits of
equipment.
Maximum load handled by turbine, which is indicated
by valve wide open (VWO) condition, includes design
margin over and above 100% MCR condition. In 2-d
design, units have negligible margin in VWO condition
over 100% MCR condition. In case of retrofitted
turbines, there is a margin of 12% under VWO conditions
over 100% MCR condition. Besides, energy efficiency
and time constant between rolling of machine to 100%
MCR loading are another advantageous features of 3-d
designed retrofits. While time between rolling to
synchronization is nearly constant for both 2-d and 3-d
designs, there is significant reduction in time for loading
from 0 MW to full load.
Application of Results to Turbines of Other Sizes
Improvement in change from 2-d designed machines
to 3-d designed stack optimized design of machines with
variable reaction is as follows: i) Up to 250 MW, 6.6%;
ii) 300-660 MW, ∼5%6; and iii) 800-1100 MW, ∼3%.
Reduction in improvement margin in larger machines is
because there is already a good degree of optimization
in 2-d machines. In small range of turbines (1 - 25 MW)
in process industries and cogeneration plants,
70 J SCI IND RES VOL 70 JANUARY 2011
improvement is 11-12% because designs are antiquated
and frozen rather than matched to user’s requirements.
Ultimate Steam Turbines
Component efficiencies indicate that maximum scope
lies improving thermodynamic efficiency and isentropic
efficiency. Adiabatic efficiency, mechanical efficiency
and generator efficiency are near saturation and can be
improved only marginally. With incorporation of ultra super
critical steam cycles, thermodynamic efficiency can be
boosted to 64%. Maximum isentropic efficiency is ~96%.
Overall turbine efficiency of composite turbine is
∼56.7%. Maximum additional power output from a 210
MW turbine (for same steam conditions) in comparison
with 2-d designs is 30 MW or 14.4%. Presently available
flow solvers do not consider effects of compressibility,
unsteadiness, realistic turbulent flow representation,
realistic two phase flow models. These effects if
quantified and incorporated could further refine
optimization process.
Conclusions
Migration from 2-d design to 3-d stack optimized
design has a potential for improvement for a 210 MW
unit of as high as 14 MW in terms of power output (for a
given mass flow rate) or 6.6% improvement in heat rate
(for a given power output). In general range of steam
turbines up to 660 MW, an economy of 5-6.6% can be
expected from migration to 3-d stack optimized designed
systems. Retrofitting is preferred route for upgradation
of energy efficiency and power output. Same boiler and
generator can be used with some modifications in
operating regime to enhance their capability by 6-8%,
thereby enabling unit loadability to be increased under
VWO conditions without any major change in hardware
on boiler and generator sides.
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