Robert Martin

SAT Physics
1 Mechanics
• The dot product of two vectors: A · B = AB cos θ
• The cross product of vectors: A × B = AB sin θn̂. The magnitude of the cross product is equal to the
area of the parallelogram. We use the right hand rule to find the direction.

1.1 Newton’s laws

q
4π 2 R3
F =m·a F = G mr1 m
2
2
v= GM
R T2 = GM

• For Newton’s third law, the forces in the action/reaction pair always act on different objects
• An object is in translational equilibrium if Fnet = 0 (i.e a = 0 and v = constant).

• An object at rest is in static equilibrium

• Ff riction = µFN , where FN is the normal force. This is always in the opposite direction of intended
motion. FN gives the maximum frictional force, if the pushing force is less than this then the object won’t
move.

• On an inclined plane, the force parallel to the ramp is F = mg sin θ, and the normal force is FN = mg cos θ.

1.2 Energy
q
W = F d cos θ P = F v cos θ EP = − GMr m ≈ mg∆h Etotal = − GM
2r
m
vescape = 2GM
r

• Work is the scalar product of force and distance, i.e W = F d cos θ.

• Hence the work done by the normal force is always zero (since cos 90◦ = 0)
• The work done by friction is always negative (since it is antiparallel to the direction of motion).
R
• For a variable force, W = F ds
• The Work Energy Theorem states that: Wtotal = ∆EK , so for an accelerating body the work done is
1 2 2
2 mv − v0

• ∆GP E = −Wby gravity .

• For small heights, ∆EP = mg∆h.

• The path that the object takes is irrelevant, hence gravity is a conservative force
GM m
• EK = 2r , hence Etotal = − GM m
2r .

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1.3 Linear momentum

p2
F~ = ∆p
Impulse = J = F~ ∆t
R
p = mv ∆t J= F dt KE = 2m

• The law of conservation of linear momentum states that in an isolated system, the total linear
momentum will remain constant.
• Elastic collisions occur when momentum transfers completely, KE is conserved. Normally with hard
objects

• Inelastic collisions are when the KE is not the same before and after.
• Completely/perfectly/totally inelastic collisions are when objects stick together.
• For two dimensional collisions, split up the x and y components.

1.4 Curved and Rotational Motion

v2 √
|ac | = r τ = F r sin θ Angular momentum = L = rmv = τ ∆t = Iω vmax = gµr I = rm2
• Centripetal acceleration is the acceleration towards the centre of the circle, its direction is always changing.
• For a satellite, the centripetal force is equal to the gravitational force.

• The centrifugal ‘force’ is the outward feeling due to inertia. If the centripetal force were removed, the
object would move at a tangent.
mv 2
• When moving in a circle but taking into account gravity, to work out the normal force use FN +mg = r .

• To find the centre of mass of a system, select some point to be the origin. Finding the x coordinate of the
centre of mass:
xcm = m1 x1m+m 2 +x2 +···+mn xn
1 +m2 +···+mn
,
where xn is the x coordinate of the nth object.

• The system works as if its whole mass where at xcm

• The same process can be done with the y-axis, and the final centre of mass is (xcm , ycm )
• Centres of mass do not move, so if the coordinate has changed then the object has moved.

• All motion is a combination of translation and rotation.

• Torque (τ ) is a turning force that produces angular acceleration

• The vertical component of the force is F sin θ, and since τ = F r, (where r is the distance from the pivot),
τ = F r sin θ

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• Another method is to extend the line of action of the force, perpendicular to the pivot point.

• The distance l is called the lever arm or moment arm, and the torque of F is then τ = F l
• An object is in rotational equilibrium if τnet = 0, or τclockwise = τanticlockwise .
dL ∆(rmv)
• Angular momentum (L) is the analog of linear momentum. τ = dt = ∆t

• Objects not moving in circular paths can have angular momentums, which are defined relative to a
reference point.
• The analog of p = mv is L = Iω, where I is the moment of inertia (analogous to mass) and ω is the
angular speed.
• Angular momentum is conserved, so if I decreases, ω increases.
∆s
• Angular displacement = ∆θ. If s is the arc length, then ∆θ = r

• In a rigid body, all points along a radial line have the same angular displacement.
dω
• Angular acceleration (not centripetal acceleration): α = dt

• Kepler’s First law states that the orbit of each planet is an ellipse, with the Sun being a focus.
• Kepler’s Second Law states that a lines drawn from the sun to different planets will sweep equal areas in
equal times.
• Kepler’s Third law states that T 2 ∝ a3 where a is the semimajor axis.

1.5 Oscillations
q
Us = 12 kx2 1
pm L
F = −kx f= T T = 2π k ω = 2πf x = A cos(ωt + φ) = T = 2π g
q
2
KE = 21 (A2 − x2 ) Etotal = 12 kA2 vmax = kA m

• There is a minus sign for Hooke’s law F = −kx because the restoring force works against extension.
Springs that obey Hooke’s law are called ideal or linear.
2
• Since we know that F = ma and F = −kx, we get m ddt2x = −kx. Solving this differential equation gives
x = A cos(ωt + φ)
• If x = A at t = 0, φ = 0
• For a simple pendulum, the restoring force comes from gravity and is given by Frestoring = mg sin θ.
• If θmax (the angle at the maximum height) is small, then by the small angle approximation sin θ ≈ θ the
restoring force is mgθ which is proportional to θ, so the system can be treated as simple harmonic.

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2 Electricity and Magnetism

2.1 Electric Forces and Fields
|FE | = f |qr1 q22 | k = 9 × 109 N m2 C −1 E= F
q E = k rQ2 ∆V = E∆d

• Charge is quantized, the smallest size is the elementary charge e = 1.6 × 10−19 C

• Electric field and electric force are vectors, electric potential and potential electric energy are scalar values.
• To find the effects of multiple point charges (or multiple field lines), use superposition (vector addition).
• Equal but opposite charges form an electric dipole
• There can be no electric field inside the body of a conductor
ME v 2
• For electron orbits, set FE = r .

2.2 Electric Potential and Capacitance

kq1 q2
UE = qV = r W = −∆UE = −q∆V V = kQ
r Q = CV C= 0 A
d
2
1 1 2 1Q
EP = 2 Q∆V = 2 CV = 2 C

• The change in a charge’s potential energy is the negative work done: ∆UE = −WE .
• Equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to field lines, no work done.
1
• Most capacitors are parallel plate capacitors. Capacitance ∝ area of plates and ∝ distance between plates :
C = 0dA .

• One Farad is one coulomb per volt.

• When capacitors store up charge, they have more potential energy.
• For capacitors in parallel, capacitance adds up normally Cequivalent = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...
1 1 1
• For capacitors in series, capacitance adds up like: Cequivalent = C1 + C2 + C3 ...

• To maintain charge separation in a capacitor, we can add an insulating material (a dielectric) between
the plates.
– A dielectric always increases the capacitance of a capacitor. The dielectric material is polarised, so
negative charge builds up near the positive plate of the capacitor.
– This creates an induced electric field Ei in the opposite direction, so Etotal = E − Ei We can say
that the electric field has decreased by a factor of κ.
– Hence since V = Ed and C = Q/V , Cdielectric = κCwithout dielectric . κ is the dielectric constant, and
is always greater than 1.

2.3 Direct Current Circuits

∆Q ρL V2
I= ∆T V = IR R= A P = IV = R = I 2R

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2.4 Magnetic Forces and Fields

µ0 I
F = |q|vB sin θ F = BIL sin θ B= 2π r

• The SI unit for magnetic field strength is the tesla (T). One gauss is 10−4 T .
• FB is always perpendicular to v and B. Magnetic fields cannot change the speed of an object, they do no
work. Only direction can be changed.
• The force on a current carrying wire is F = BIL sin θ, where l is the length of the wire and θ is the angle
between l and B.
• Magnetic field is proportional to the current and inversely proportional to the radius. The constant of
µ0
proportionality is 2π where µ0 is the permeability of free space (4π × 10−7 T mA−1 ).
mv 2
• For a charge in a magnetic field, set r = qvB.

2.5 Electromagnetic Induction

 = vBl ΦB = BA cos θ avg = − dΦB
dt

• When a wire moves perpendicular to magnetic field lines, there is a magnetic force on the electrons. This
builds up a charge and induces a field.

• Hence the motion of a wire through a magnetic field creates an emf, called the motional emf.
• The magnetic flux, ΦB through an area A measures the density of the magnetic field lines through that
area. ΦB = BA cos θ
• The SI unit for magnetic flux, T · m2 , is a weber (Wb).

• Flux is scalar, but we often describe its direction.

• Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that the emf induced in a circuit is equal to the
rate of change of the magnetic flux: avg = − dΦB
dt

• The induced emf can produce a current and its own magnetic field.

• Lenz’s law states that the induced current will flow in the direction that opposes the change in magnetic
flux that produced it (conservation of energy).
dΦB d(Blx)
• || = dt = dt = Bl dx
dt = Blv
VS NS
• In a transformer, VP = NP

3 Waves and Light

3.1 Waves
q q
FT 2L nv B I
c = fλ v= µ λn = n fn = 2L fn = nf1 v= ρ β = 10 log I0
v±vd
fbeat = |f1 − f2 | fd = v∓vs · fs (higher sign for motion towards)
• All waves of the same type in the same medium have the same speed.

• For a transverse wave

q in a string of length L, its linear density µ = m/L. If the tension is FT , the speed
of the wave is v = FµT . We can then apply v = f λ.

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• When a wave passes into a new medium, its frequency is constant.

• Standing waves show interference, forming nodes (areas of no displacement) and antinodes.
• The distance between two successive nodes or antinodes is 12 λ.
• Standing waves can only form then the length of the string is a whole multiple of 21 λ, i.e L = n( 21 λ).
2L
• Solving for λ gives λn = n ), which are called the harmonic/resonant wavelengths (n is the harmonic
number).
• We can convert this to harmonic frequencies if needed.
• The first standing wave (n = 1) is called the fundamental standing wave.
• In a tube closed at one end, for a standing wave formed by a sound wave, there is an antinode at the open
end. The distance between the node and the antinode is 41 λ.
• Standing waves can be established in a tube closed at one end if the tube’s length is an odd multiple of
1 v
4 λ, so fn = n 4L for odd n.

• If the tube is open at both ends, the harmonics behave like those in strings.
• The speed of a sound wave is a function of the density and the bulk modulus (B), whichq measures a
medium’s responsiveness to compression. High B means hard to compress (e.g solid). v = Bρ .

1
• The loudness of a sound is measured by its intensity, and I ∝ r2 .
I
• Loudness can also be measured through the decibel level (β) (relative intensity): β = 10 log I0 . I0 is
the threshold of hearing, 10−12 W . The unit is dB, but it is dimensionless.
• 10dB louder = 10 times more intense.
• Two sound waves with similar frequencies who interfere often modulate in amplitude, the waves alternate
between constructive and destructive interference. We call each constructive interference a beat. fbeat =
|f1 − f2 |.
v±vd
• The Doppler effect results from relative motion between the source and detector. fd = v∓vs · fs . We use
the higher sign for motion towards and the lower for motion away.

3.2 Optics
yn = nλL
d n= c
v n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2 f= R
2
1
f = 1
do + 1
di m = − ssoi = hi
ho sin θ = mλ
d

• Visible light is from λ = 390nm − 770nm

• Key powers of 10 for the wavelength spectrum are: -1, -3, -6, -7, -8, -12.
• Coherent waves have constant phase difference.
• Waves interfere constructively if their path difference is a whole number.∆l = nλ
• Waves interfere destructively if their path difference is a half number. ∆l = (n + 21 )λ.
• Double slit interference causes fringes to appear. To locate the position of the bright fringes, we use:
ym = mλLd . d is the length of the bar between the slits. L is the distance from the slits that we observe
the pattern.
mλ
• Hence the angle at which interference occurs: sin θ = d .

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• The central maximum (m=0) has the greatest intensity, followed by m = ±1, then m = ±2 and so on.
• The more slits there are, the sharper the pattern. These are called diffraction gratings.

• For single-aperture diffraction, the central maximum is very pronounced.

c
• For a medium with refractive index n, n = v

• Different frequencies of light have different wave speeds when in a medium. This means that dispersion
occurs.

• Spherical mirrors have are curved such that their surface forms part of a sphere.

• C is the centre of curvature. R is the radius of curvature. F is halfway between the mirror and the
centre of curvature, the focus or focal point. The vertex V is the intersection between the optic axis
and the mirror.
• The focal length is half the radius.
• Incident light rays near the axis (paraxial rays) are reflected to the focus.

• The mirror equation is s1o + s1i = f1 , where so is the object’s distance from the mirror, si is the image
distance from the mirror and f is the focal length. so is positive, si is positive for real images.
• The magnification equation is m = − ssoi
• Real images are always inverted, virtual always upright.

• Concave mirrors produce real images, whereas concave lenses produce virtual images.
• Converging lenses (convex) form a real focus.
• A diverging lens (e.g bi-concave) causes light to diverge from a virtual focus.
• Rays passing through optical centre are unchanged

• When light passes through a polarising filter, the resulting light is polarised in a perpendicular direction.

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4 Thermal Physics
q
∆L = αL0 ∆T ∆V = βV0 ∆T EK = 32 kb T vrms = 3RT
M Q = ∆U + W W = P ∆V
QH −|QC | Q kA∆T
e= QH ∆t = L ∆U = 23 nR∆T
• Materials expand when heated. α is the coefficient of linear expansion. Hence the change in length of a
material is ∆L = αL0 ∆T .
• β is the coefficient of volume expansion. For most solids, β ≈ 3α.
• Water has a negative β value between 0 and 4◦ C.
• For a gas, the average translational KE of the molecules is proportional to the temperature. EK = 23 kb T ,
where kb = NRA
q
• From this, we can derive vrms = 3RT M .

• The first law of thermodynamics states that Q = ∆U + W

• The second law is about entropy
• For cyclic processes, ∆U must be zero.
• For an engine, Qnet = W . The difference between heat in and heat out is QH − |QC |.
W QH −|QC |
• The efficiency of an engine is the ratio of output to input, i.e QH . Hence e = QH . Unless QC is zero,
e < 1.
TC
• Carnot cycles are the most efficient heat engines. Their efficiency is given by: e = 1 − TH where T is the
temperature of the reservoir in Kelvin.
• The rate of heat transfer through a rod depends on the length, the amount of heat that must travel, the
Q
cross sectional area, the temperature difference, and the thermal conductivity k. ∆t = kA∆T
L

5 Modern Physics
5.1 Nuclear and Quantum Physics
E = hf Emax = E − φ = hf − φ λ = hp A = A0 e−λt
• When light is shone on a metal, electrons (called photoelectrons) are released if the frequency is above
the threshold frequency (f0 ). These electrons are ejected quickly, but they have a maximum kinetic
energy regardless of incident light intensity.
• Electrons need energy to be liberated - to exceed a metal’s work function (φ). Emax = E − φ = hf − φ.
φ is equal to the energy of the ground state.
• If the photon energy is less than φ (i.e f < φh ), no electrons will be emitted.
• The current is proportional to the intensity of the light.
Z2
• The energy levels for atoms with one electron are given by En = n2 · (−13.6eV ), where Z is the atomic
number.
• Due to wave-particle duality, particles with linear momentum p = mv have a de Broglie wavelength
λ = hp .

• The activity of a radioactive substance follows A = A0 e−λt .

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5.2 Relativity
v0 = u+v
1+uv/c2 ∆T2 = γ · ∆T1 γ=√ 1
KE = (γ − 1)mc2 Etotal = Erest + KE = γmc2
1−( vc )2

• The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames.

• The speed of light has the same value regardless of the motion of the source or observer.
• Relativistic addition of velocities: v 0 = u+v
1+uv/c2 .

• If object 2 has relative velocity v to object 1, the time dilation is given by ∆T2 = γ · ∆T1 , where
γ=√ 1v 2
1−( c )

L1
• If object 2 has relative velocity v to object 1 then the length of the object L2 = γ . Since γ > 1, faster
objects have contracted lengths.
• For relativistic kinetic energy, KE = (γ − 1)mc2 . The total energy: Etotal = Erest + KE = γmc2
• The Equivalence principle states that gravity causes spacetime to bend - light bends and time dilation
occurs.