3.

Transport of energy:
radiation

specific intensity, radiative flux

optical depth
absorption & emission
equation of transfer, source function
formal solution, limb darkening
temperature distribution
grey atmosphere, mean opacities 1
 Energy flux conservation

No sinks and sources of energy in the atmosphere

 all energy produced in stellar interior is transported through the atmosphere
 at any given radius r in the atmosphere:

4 r F (r )  const .  L
2

F is the energy flux per unit surface and per unit time. Dimensions: [erg/cm2/sec]
The energy transport is sustained by the temperature gradient.
The steepness of this gradient is dependent on the effectiveness of the energy
transport through the different atmospheric layers.
2
Transport of energy

Mechanisms of energy transport

a. radiation: Frad (most important)
b. convection: Fconv (important especially in cool stars)
c. heat production: e.g. in the transition between solar
cromosphere and corona
d. radial flow of matter: corona and stellar wind
e. sound waves: cromosphere and corona

We will be mostly concerned with the first 2

mechanisms: F(r)=Frad(r) + Fconv(r). In the outer
layers, we always have Frad >> Fconv

3
 The specific intensity

Measures of energy flow: Specific Intensity and Flux

The amount of energy dEν transported through a surface area dA is proportional to
dt (length of time), dν (frequency width), dω (solid angle) and the projected unit
surface area cos θ dA.
The proportionality factor is the specific Intensity Iν(cosθ)

dEν = Iν (cos θ) cos θ dA dω dν dt

([Iν ]: erg cm−2 sr−1 Hz−1 s−1 )

c
Iλ = I
λ2 ν
(from Iλ dλ = Iν dν and ν = c/λ)

Intensity depends on location in

space, direction and frequency
4
 Invariance of the specific intensity

The area element dA emits radiation towards dA’. In the absence of any matter
between emitter and receiver (no absorption and emission on the light paths
between the surface elements) the amount of energy emitted and received through
each surface elements is:

dEν = Iν (cos θ) cos θ dA dω dν dt

dEν0 = Iν0 (cos θ0 ) cos θ0 dA0 dω 0 dν dt

5
 Invariance of the specific intensity
projected area dA0 cos θ0
dω = =
energy is conserved: dEν = dEν0 and distance2 r2

dA cos θ
dω 0 = r2
dEν = Iν (cos θ) cos θ dA dω dν dt
and
dEν0 = Iν0 (cos θ 0 ) cos θ0 dA0 dω 0 dν dt
Specific intensity is constant
along rays - as long as there
Iν = Iν0 is no absorption and emission
of matter between emitter and
receiver

In TE: I = B

6
Spherical coordinate system and solid angle dω
dA
solid angle : dω =
r2
4πr 2
Total solid angle = 2 = 4π
r

dA = (r dθ)(r sin θ dφ)

→ dω = sin θ dθ dφ

define μ = cos θ

dμ = − sin θ dθ
dω = sin θ dθ dφ = −dμ dφ
7
 Radiative flux

How much energy flows through surface element dA?

dE ~ I cosθ dω
 integrate over the whole solid angle (4):

Z Z 2π Z π
πFν = Iν (cos θ) cos θ dω = Iν (cos θ) cos θ sin θdθdφ
0 0
“astrophysical flux”
4π

Fν is the monochromatic radiative flux.

The factor π in the definition is historical.
Fν can also be interpreted as the net rate of energy flow through a surface element.
8
 Radiative flux

The monochromatic radiative flux at frequency  gives the net rate of energy
flow through a surface element.
dE ~ I cosθ dω  integrate over the whole solid angle (4):
Z Z 2π Z π
πFν = Iν (cos θ) cos θ dω = Iν (cos θ) cos θ sin θdθdφ
“astrophysical flux” 0 0
4π

We distinguish between the outward direction (0 <  < /2)

and the inward direction (/2 < so that the net flux is

πFν = πFν+ − πFν− =

Z 2π Z π/2 Z 2π Z π
= Iν (cos θ) cos θ sin θdθdφ + Iν (cos θ) cos θ sin θdθdφ
0 0 0 π/2

Note: for /2 < cosθ < 0  second term negative !!

9
 Total radiative flux

Integral over frequencies 

Z ∞
πFν dν = Frad
0

Frad is the total radiative flux.

It is the total net amount of energy going through the

surface element per unit time and unit surface.

10
 Stellar luminosity

At the outer boundary of atmosphere (r = Ro) there is no incident radiation

 Integral interval over θ reduces from [0,π] to [0,π/2].

Z 2π Z π/2
πFν (Ro ) = πFν+ (Ro ) = Iν (cos θ) cos θ sin θdθdφ
0 0

This is the monochromatic energy that each surface element of the star
radiates in all directions
If we multiply by the total stellar surface 4πR02
4πRo2 · πFν (Ro ) = Lν
 monochromatic stellar luminosity at frequency 
and integrating over  Z ∞
 total stellar luminosity 4πRo2 · πFν+ (Ro )dν = L (Luminosity)
0 11
 Observed flux

What radiative flux is measured by an observer at distance d?

 integrate specific intensity Iν towards observer over all surface elements
note that only half sphere contributes Z Z
Eν = dE = ∆ω ∆ν ∆t Iν (cos θ) cos θ dA
1/2 sphere 1/2 sphere

in spherical symmetry: dA = Ro2 sin θ dθ dφ

Z 2π Z π/2
→ Eν = ∆ω ∆ν ∆t Ro2 Iν (cos θ) cos θ sin θ dθ dφ
o 0

πFν+

 because of spherical symmetry the integral of intensity towards

the observer over the stellar surface is proportional to F+, the
flux emitted into all directions by one surface element !! 12
 Observed flux

Solid angle of telescope at distance d:

∆ω = ∆A/d2

Eν = ∆ω ∆ν ∆t Ro2 πFν+ (Ro )

flux received = flux emitted x (R/r)2

radiative energy Ro2 unlike I, F decreases with
Fνobs = = 2 πFν+ (Ro )
area · frequency · time d increasing distance

This, and not I, is the quantity generally measured for stars.
For the Sun, whose disk is resolved, we can also measure I R∞ obs
F ν,¯ dν = 1.36 K W/m 2
(the variation of I over the solar disk is called the limb
0

darkening) 13
Mean intensity, energy density & radiation pressure

Integrating over the solid angle and dividing by 4:

Z
1
Jν = Iν dω mean intensity
4π
4π

Z
uν =
radiation energy
=
1
Iν dω =
4π
Jν energy density
volume c c
4π

Z
1
pν = Iν cos2 θ dω radiation pressure
c (important in hot stars)
4π

force d momentum(= E/c) 1

pressure = =
area dt area
14
 Moments of the specific intensity

Z Z 2π Z 1 Z 1
1 1 1 0th moment
Jν = Iν dω = dφ Iν dμ = Iν dμ
4π 4π 0 −1 2 −1
for azimuthal symmetry
Z Z 1
1 1 Fν 1st moment
Hν = Iν cos θ dω = Iν μ dμ =
4π 2 4
−1 (Eddington flux)

Z Z 1
1 1 c
Kν = Iν cos2 θ dω = Iν μ2 dμ = pν 2nd moment
4π 2 −1 4π

15
 Interactions between photons and matter

absorption of radiation

ds
dIν = −κν Iν ds

κν : absorption coefficient
I
[κν ] = cm−1

microscopical view: n 

loss of intensity in the beam (true absorption/scattering)

Over a distance s: Rs
− κ ν ds
s Iν (s) = Iνo e 0
I
o I(s)
Zs optical depth
Convention:  = 0 at the outer edge τν := κν ds (dimensionless)
of the atmosphere, increasing 0 16
inwards or: d =  ds
optical depth

The optical thickness of a layer

Iν (s) = Iνo e −τν determines the fraction of the
intensity passing through the layer

Iνo We can see through

if τν = 1 → Iν = ' 0.37 Iνo
e atmosphere until  ~ 1

optically thick (thin) medium:  > (<) 1

The quantity  has a geometrical interpretation in terms of mean

free path of photons s̄:

Zs̄
τν = 1 = κν ds
o

photons travel on average

for a length s̄
before absorption 17
 photon mean free path

What is the average distance over which photons travel?

Z∞
expectation value < τν >= τν p(τν ) dτν
0

probability of absorption in interval [+d]

= probability of non-absorption between 0 and  and absorption in d

∆I(τ ) Io − I(τν ) I(τν )

- probability that photon is absorbed: p(0, τν ) = = = 1−
Io Io Io
I(τν )
- probability that photon is not absorbed: 1 − p(0, τν ) = = e−τν
Io
dIν
- probability that photon is absorbed in [τν , τν + dτν ] : p(τν , τν + dτν ) = I(τν ) = dτν

total probability: e−τν dτν 18

photon mean free path

Z∞ Z∞ Z
−τν xe−x dx = −(1 + x) e−x
< τν >= τν p(τν ) dτν = τν e dτν = 1
0 0

mean free path corresponds to <>=1

1
if κν (s) = const : ∆τν = κν ∆s → ∆s = s̄ =
κν
(homogeneous
material)

19
Principle of line formation

observer sees through the

atmospheric layers up to   1

In the continuum  is smaller

than in the line  see deeper
into the atmosphere

T(cont) > T(line)

20
 radiative acceleration

In the absorption process photons release

momentum E/c to the atoms, and the
corresponding force is:
momentum(=E/c)
force =dfphot = dt

The infinitesimal energy absorbed is:

dEνabs = dIν cos θ dA dω dt dν = κν Iν cosθ dA dω dt dν ds

The total energy absorbed is (assuming that κν does not depend on ω):
Z∞ Z Z∞
E abs = κν Iν cos θ dω dν dA dt ds = π κν Fν dν dA dt ds
0 4π 0

 F 21
radiative acceleration

R∞
κν Fν dν
π 0
dfphot = dA dt ds = grad dm (dm = ρ dA ds)
c dt
Z∞
π
grad = κν Fν dν
cρ
0

22
 emission of radiation

ds

d
dA

dV=dA ds
energy added by emission processes within dV

dEνem = ²ν dV dω dν dt

²ν : emission coefficient
[²ν ] = erg cm−3 sr−1 Hz−1 s−1

23
The equation of radiative tranfer

If we combine absorption and emission together:

dEνabs = dIνabs dA cos θ dω dν dt = −κν Iν dA cos θ dω dt dν ds

dEνem = dIνem dA cos θ dω dν dt = ²ν dA cos θ dω dν dt ds

dEνabs +dEνem = (dIνabs +dIνem ) dA cos θ dω dν dt = (−κν Iν +²ν ) dA cos θ dω dν dt ds

dIν = dIνabs + dIνem = (−κν Iν + ²ν ) ds

differential equation
dIν describing the flow of
ds = −κν Iν + ²ν radiation through
matter
24
The equation of radiative tranfer

Plane-parallel symmetry

dx = cos θ ds = μ ds

d d
=μ
ds dx

μ dIνdx
(μ,x)
= −κν Iν (μ, x) + ²ν

25
 The equation of radiative tranfer

Spherical symmetry
d dr ∂ dθ ∂
= +
ds ds ∂r ds ∂θ

dr
dr = ds cos θ → = cos θ (as in plane−parallel)
ds
dθ sin θ
−r dθ = sin θ ds (dθ < 0) → =−
ds r

∂ ∂μ ∂ ∂
= = − sin θ
∂θ ∂θ ∂μ ∂μ

d ∂ sin2 θ ∂ ∂ 1 − μ2 ∂
=⇒ =μ + =μ +
ds ∂r r ∂μ ∂r r ∂μ

∂ 1−μ2 ∂
μ ∂r Iν (μ, r) + r ∂μ Iν (μ, r) = −κν Iν (μ, r) + ²ν
angle  between ray and radial direction
is not constant
26
 The equation of radiative tranfer

Optical depth and source function

optical depth increasing
In plane-parallel symmetry:
towards interior:
−κν dx = dτν
dIν (μ,x)
μ dx = −κν (x) Iν (μ, x) + ²ν (x) Zx
τν = − κν dx
Ro

dIν (μ,τν )
μ dτν = Iν (μ, τν ) − Sν (τν )

²ν
Sν = κν source function
Observed emerging intensity I(cos ,= 0)
dim [S] = [I] depends on = cos  , (Ri) and S

dτν ∆τν 1 = 1 corresponds to free mean path of

κν = ds ≈ ∆s ≈ s̄ photons The physics of S is crucial for radiative transfer
²ν
Sν = κν ≈ ²ν · s̄ source function S corresponds to intensity
emitted over the free mean path of photons
27
 The equation of radiative tranfer

Source function: simple cases

a. LTE (thermal absorption/emission)

²ν Kirchhoff’s law
Sν = κν = Bν (T )
photons are absorbed and
re-emitted at the local
independent of radiation field temperature T

Knowledge of T stratification T=T(x) or T()

 solution of transfer equation I(,)

28
 The equation of radiative tranfer

Source function: simple cases

b. coherent isotropic scattering (e.g. Thomson scattering)

the absorption process is characterized by the

scattering coefficient , analogous to   = ’
incident = scattered
Z dIν = −σν Iν ds
dEνem = ²sc
ν dω
4π
Z
and at each frequency  dEνem = dEνabs
dEνabs = σν Iν dω Z Z
4π
²sc
ν dω = σν Iν dω
4π 4π
Z Z Z
²sc
ν 1
²sc
ν dω = σν Iν dω = Iν dω
σν 4π
4π 4π 4π

completely dependent on radiation field

Sν = Jν 29
not dependent on temperature T
 The equation of radiative tranfer

Source function: simple cases

c. mixed case

²ν + ²sc
ν κν ²ν σν ²scν
Sν = = +
κν + σν κν + σν κν κν + σν σν

²ν + ²sc
ν κν σν
Sν = = Bν + Jν
κν + σν κν + σν κν + σν

30
 Formal solution of the equation of radiative tranfer
linear 1st order differential equation

we want to solve the equation of RT dIν

with a known source function and in μ = Iν − Sν
plane-parallel geometry dτν

multiply by e- and integrate between 1 (outside)

and 2 (> 1, inside)

d −τν /μ Sν e−τν /μ check, whether this really yields transfer

(Iν e )=− equation above
dτν μ

h iτ 2 Zτ2
− τμν τν dtν
Iν e =− S ν e− μ
τ1 μ
τ1
31
 h iτ 2 Zτ2
− τμν τν dtν
Iν e =− S ν e− μ
τ1 μ
τ1

Formal solution of the equation of radiative tranfer

integral form of equation
of radiation transfer
Zτ2
τ −τ
− 2μ 1 −
t−τ1 dt
Iν (τ1 , μ) = Iν (τ2 , μ) e + Sν (t) e μ
μ
τ1

intensity originating at 2 decreased

by exponential factor to 1
contribution to the intensity by
emission along the path from 2 to 1
(at each point decreased by the
exponential factor)

Formal solution! actual solution

can be complex, since S can
depend on I
32
 Zτ2
τ −τ
− 2μ 1 −
t−τ1 dt
Iν (τ1 , μ) = Iν (τ2 , μ) e + Sν (t) e μ
μ
τ1

Boundary conditions

solution of RT equation requires

boundary conditions, which are
different for incoming and outgoing
radiation
a. incoming radiation:  < 0 at   0

usually we can neglect irradiation from outside: I(  0,  < 0) = 0

Z0
− t−τ ν dt
Iνin (τν , μ) = Sν (t) e μ
μ
τν

33
 Zτ2
τ −τ
− 2μ 1
t−τ1 dt
Iν (τ1 , μ) = Iν (τ2 , μ) e + Sν (t) e− μ
μ
τ1

Boundary conditions

b. outgoing radiation:  > 0 at  = max  ∞

finite slab or
We have either Iν (τmax , μ) = Iν+ (μ) shell

or lim Iν (τ, μ) e−τ /μ = 0 semi-infinite

τ →∞ case (planar
I increases less rapidly than the exponential
or spherical)

Z∞
t−τν dt
Iνout (τν , μ) = Sν (t) e− μ
and at a given position  in
μ the atmosphere:
τν
Iν (τν ) = Iνout (τν ) + Iνin (τν )
34
 Emergent intensity

from the latter  emergent intensity

 = 0,  > 0

Z∞
t dt
Iν (0, μ) = Sν (t) e− μ
μ
0

intensity observed is a weighted average of the source function

along the line of sight. The contribution to the emerging intensity
comes mostly from each depths with  < 1.

35
 Emergent intensity

suppose that S is linear in  (Taylor expansion around  = 0):

Sν (τν ) = S0ν + S1ν τν

Z
xe−x dx = −(1 + x) e−x
emergent intensity Z∞
t dt
Iν (0, μ) = (S0ν + S1ν t)e− μ = S0ν + S1ν μ
μ
0

Iν (0, μ) = Sν (τν = μ) Eddington-Barbier relation

we see the source function

the emergent intensity corresponds to
at location  
the source function at  = 1 along the
line of sight 36
Emergent intensity

 = 1 (normal direction):

Iν (0, 1) = Sν (τν = 1)

 = 0.5 (slanted direction):

Iν (0, 0.5) = Sν (τν = 0.5)

in both cases:   1

spectral lines: compared to

continuum  = 1 is reached at
higher layer in the atmosphere
Sline < Scont
37
 a dip is created in the spectrum
Line formation

simplify:  = 1, 1=0 (emergent intensity), 2 = 

S independent of location

Zτν
Iν (0) = Iν (τν ) e−τν + Sν e−t dt = Iν (τν ) e−τν + Sν (1 − e−τν )
0

38
Line formation

Optically thick object: Iν (0) = Iν (τν ) e−τν + Sν (1 − e−τν ) = Sν

∞

Optically thin object: Iν (0) = Iν (τν ) + [Sν − Iν (τν )] τν

exp(-)  1 - 

39
 I =  S =  ds S
e.g. HII region, solar corona

enhanced 
independent of , no line
(e.g. black body B)

Iν (0) = Iν (τν ) + [Sν − Iν (τν )] τν

e.g. stellar absorption spectrum

(temperature decreasing outwards)

e.g. stellar spectrum with temperature increasing outwards (e.g.

Sun in the UV)

40
From Rutten’s web notes
Line formation example: solar corona

I =  S

41
 The diffusion approximation

At large optical depth in stellar atmosphere photons are local: S  B

Expand S B as a power-series:

X∞
dn B ν
Sν (t) = n
(t − τν )n /n!
n=0
dτν

In the diffusion approximation ( >>1) we retain only

first order terms:

dBν
Bν (t) = Bν (τν ) + (t − τν )
dτν
Z∞
dBν dt
Iνout (τν , μ) = [Bν (τν ) + (t − τν )]e−(t−τν )/μ
dτν μ 42
τν
 Z∞
dBν dt
Iνout (τν , μ) = [Bν (τν ) + (t − τν )]e−(t−τν )/μ
dτν μ
τν

The diffusion approximation

t − τν
Substituting: t→u= → dt = μ du
μ Z∞
uk e−u du = k!
0

Z∞
dBν dBν
Iνout (τν , μ) = [Bν (τν ) + μu]e−u du = Bν (τν ) + μ
dτν dτν
0
τZν /μ
dBν
Iνin (τν , μ) = − [Bν (τν ) + μu]e−u du
dτν
0

At  = 0 we obtain the Eddington-Barbier relation for the observed emergent intensity.

It is given by the Planck-function and its gradient at  = 0.
It depends linearly on μ = cos θ.

43
 diffusion approximation:

Solar limb darkening

center-to-limb variation of

Iν (0,μ) Bν (0)+ dB
dτν
ν μ intensity

Iν (0,1) = Bν (0)+ dB ν
dτν

from the intensity measurements

 B, dB/d

dBν 2hν 3 1
Bν (t) = Bν (0) + dτν t = a+b·t = c 2 e hν/kT (t) −1

T(t): empirical temperature stratification of solar

photosphere
44
Solar limb darkening

...and also giant planets 45

 Solar limb darkening: temperature stratification

Z∞
t dt
Iν (0, μ) = Sν (t) e− μ
μ
0
exponential extinction varies as - /cos
From S = a + b
Iν (0, cos θ) = aν + bν cos θ

Iν (0, μ) = Sν (τν = μ) S

R. Rutten,
web notes

Unsoeld, 68 46
 we want to obtain an approximation for the
radiation field – both inward and outward
radiation - at large optical depth
 stellar interior, inner boundary of
Eddington approximation atmosphere

In the diffusion approximation we had:

dBν
Bν (t) = Bν (τν ) + (t − τν )
dτν
dBν
Iνout (τν , μ) = Bν (τν ) + μ 0<<1
dτν
τZν /μ
dB ν
Iνin (τν , μ) = − [Bν (τν ) + μu]e−u du -1 <  < 0
dτν
0

 >> 1 dBν
Iν− (τν , μ) = Bν (τν ) + μ
dτν

47

Eddington approximation
With this approximation for Iν we can calculate
the angle averaged momenta of the intensity
simple approximation for photon flux and a
relationship between mean intensity Jν and Kν
 very important for analytical estimates

Z 1
1
Jν = Iν dμ = Bν (τν )
2 −1

Z 1
Fν 1 1 dBν 1 1 dBν 1 dBν dT
Hν = = μ Iν dμ = =−
3 κν dx
=−
3κν dT dx
4 2 −1 3 dτν
flux F ~ dT/dx
Z diffusion: flux ~ gradient (e.g.
1 heat conduction)
1 2 1
Kν = μ Iν dμ = Bν (τν )
2 −1 3

1
Kν = 3 Jν Eddington approximation

48
 After the previous approximations, we now
want to calculate exact solutions for tha
radiative momenta Jν, Hν, Kν. Those are
important to calculate spectra and
Schwarzschild-Milne equations atmospheric structure

Z∞
t−τν dt
Iνout (τν , μ) = Sν (t) e− μ
μ
Z1 Z1 Z0 τν
1 1 1
Jν = Iν dμ = Iνout dμ + Iνin dμ Z0
2 2 2 t−τν dt
−1 0 −1 Iνin (τν , μ) = Sν (t) e− μ
μ
τν
>0 <0
⎡ ⎤
Z1 Z∞ Z0 Zτν
1⎣ dt dt ⎦
Jν = Sν (t)e−(t−τν )/μ dμ − Sν (t)e−(t−τν )/μ dμ
2 μ μ
0 τν −1 0

substitute w = 1
μ ⇒ dw
w = − μ1 dμ w = − μ1 ⇒ dw
w = − μ1 dμ

⎡ ⎤
Z∞ Z∞ Z∞ Zτν
1⎣ dw dw ⎦
Jν = Sν (t)e−(t−τν )w dt + Sν (t)e−(τν −t)w dt
2 w w
1 τν 1 0
49
Schwarzschild-Milne equations

⎡ ⎤
Z∞ Z∞ Zτν Z∞
1⎣ dw dw ⎦
Jν = Sν (t) e−(t−τν )w dt + Sν (t) e−(τν −t)w dt
2 w w
τν 1 0 1

>0 >0

Z∞ Z∞ Z∞
1 dw 1
Jν = Sν (t) e−w|t−τν| dt = Sν (t)E1 (|t − τν |)dt
2 w 2
0 1 0

Schwarzschild’s equation

50
 Schwarzschild-Milne equations

where
Z∞ Z∞
−tx dx e−x
E1 (t) = e = dx
x x
1 t

is the first exponential integral (singularity at t=0)

Exponential integrals
Z∞
En (t) = tn−1 x−n e−x dx
t

En (0) = 1/(n − 1), En (t → ∞) = e−t /t → 0

Z
dEn
= −En−1 , En (t) = −En+1 (t)
dt
E1 (0) = ∞ E2 (0) = 1 E3 (0) = 1/2 En (∞) = 0

Gray, 92 51
 Schwarzschild-Milne equations

Z∞
Introducing the  operator:
1
Λτν [f (t)] = f (t)E1 (|t − τν |) dt
2
0

Jν (τν ) = Λτν [Sν (t)]

Similarly for the other 2 moments of Intensity:

Milne’s equations

J, H and K are all depth-weighted means of S 52

 Gray, 92

Schwarzschild-Milne equations

the 3 moments of Intensity:

J, H and K are all depth-weighted means of S

 the strongest contribution comes from the depth, where
the argument of the exponential integrals is zero, i.e. t=
53
 The temperature-optical depth relation

Radiative equilibrium

The condition of radiative equilibrium (expressing conservation of

energy) requires that the flux at any given depth remains constant:
Z∞Z Z∞ Z∞
F(r) = πF = Iν cos θ dω dν = π Fν dν = 4π Hν dν
0 4π 0 0
Z∞
4πr2 F(r) = 4πr2 · 4π Hν dν = const = L
0
Z∞
In plane-parallel geometry r  R = const 4π Hν dν = const
0

Z∞
and in analogy to the black body 4
radiation, from the Stefan-Boltzmann law
4π Hν dν = σTeff
we define the effective temperature: 0
54
The effective temperature

Z∞
4
The effective temperature is defined by: 4π Hν dν = σTeff
0
It characterizes the total radiative flux
transported through the atmosphere.
It can be regarded as an average of the
temperature over depth in the
atmosphere.
A blackbody radiating the same amount
of total energy would have a
temperature T = Teff.

55
Radiative equilibrium

Let us now combine the condition of radiative equilibrium with the

equation of radiative transfer in plane-parallel geometry:
dIν
μ = −(κν + σν ) (Iν − Sν )
dx

Z1 Z1
1 dIν 1
μ dμ = − (κν + σν ) (Iν − Sν ) dμ
2 dx 2
−1 −1

⎡ ⎤
Z1
d ⎣1
μ Iν dμ⎦ = −(κν + σν ) (Jν − Sν )
dx 2
−1

H

56
 Radiative equilibrium

Integrate over frequency:

Z∞ Z∞
d
Hν dν = − (κν + σν ) (Jν − Sν ) dν
dx
0 0

const

Z∞ κν σν
s u b s t it u t e S ν = Bν + Jν
(κν + σν ) (Jν − Sν ) dν = 0 κν + σν κν + σν
⎛ ⎞
0 Z∞
⎝ ⎠
κ ν J ν dν = absorbed energy
Z∞ ⎛
0
⎞
Z∞
at each depth: κν [Jν − Bν (T )] dν = 0 ⎝ ⎠
κ ν B ν dν = emitted energy
0
0
Z∞
in addition: 4π 4
Hν dν = σTeff T(x) or T()
0 57
 Radiative equilibrium

Z∞ Z∞
4
κν [Jν − Bν (T )] dν = 0 4π Hν dν = σTeff
0 0

T(x) or T()

The temperature T(r) at every depth has to assume the value for which the left
integral over all frequencies becomes zero.

 This determines the local temperature.

58
 Iterative method for calculation of a stellar atmosphere:

the major parameters are Teff and g

a. hydrostatic equilibrium
dP
dx = −gρ(x)
equation of
transfer b. equation of radiation
T(x), (x), B[T(x)],P(x), ρ(x) J(x), H(x) transfer
dIν
μ = −(κν + σν ) (Iν − Sν )
dx
c. radiative equilibrium
R∞ Z∞
0
κν (Jν − Bν ) dν = 0 ? κν [Jν − Bν (T )] dν = 0
R∞ 4
0

4π 0 Hν dν = σ Teff ? d. flux conservation

Z∞
4
4π Hν dν = σTeff
0

T(x), (x), B[T(x)], ρ(x) e. equation of state

ρkT
P = μ mH
59
 Grey atmosphere - an approximation for the
temperature structure

We derive a simple analytical approximation for the temperature structure.

We assume that we can approximate the radiative equilibrium integral by
using a frequency-averaged absorption coefficient, which we can put in
front of the integral.
Z∞ Z∞
κν [Jν − Bν (T )] dν = 0 κ̄ [Jν − Bν (T )] dν = 0
0 0

Z∞ Z∞ Z∞ Z∞
σT 4
With: J = Jν dν H= Hν dν K= Kν dν B= Bν dν =
π
0 0 0 0

J =B
4
4πH = σTeff

60
 Grey atmosphere

We then assume LTE: S = B.

From
Z∞
1
Jν (τν ) = Λτν [Sν (t)] = Sν (t)E1 (|t − τν |)dt
2
0

and a similar expression for frequency-integrated

quantities
J(τ¯) = Λτ̄ [S(t)], dτ̄ = κ̄dx

and with the approximations S = B, B = J:

Z∞ Milne’s equation
1
J (τ̄) = Λτ¯[J(t)] = J (t)E 1(|t − τ¯|) dt
2 !!! this is an integral
0 equation for J) 
61
 The exact solution of the Hopf integral equation

Milne’s equation J() = [J(t)]  exact solution (see Mihalas, “Stellar Atmospheres”)

J() = const. [  + q()], with q monotonic

1
√ = 0.577 = q(0) ≤ q(τ̄ ) ≤ q(∞) = 0.710
3

Radiative equilibrium - grey approximation

J() = B() =  T4() = const. [  + q()]

with boundary conditions 

T4() = ¾ T4eff [ + q()]

62
 A simple approximation for T

0th moment of equation of transfer (integrate both

sides in d from -1 to 1)
4
dI dH σTeff
μ = −κ̄(I − B) =J −B =0 (J = B) H = const =
dx dτ̄ 4π

1st moment of equation of transfer (integrate both

sides in d from -1 to 1)
dI 4
dK σTeff K(τ̄ ) = H τ̄ + constant
μ = −κ̄(I − B) =H =
dx dτ̄ 4π

From Eddington’s approximation at large depth: K = 1/3 J

63
 Grey atmosphere – temperature distribution

3πH σ 4
T 4 (τ̄ ) = (τ̄ + c) H= T
σ 4π eff

3 4
T 4 (τ̄ ) = T (τ̄ + c) T4 is linear in 
4 eff

Estimation of c

⎡ ⎤
Z∞ Z∞
1
Hν (τ̄ = 0) = 3H ⎣ tE2 (t) dt + c E2 (t) dt⎦ Z∞
s!
2 ts E n (t) d t =
0 0 s + n
0

1/3 1/2 64
 Grey atmosphere – Hopf function

1 3 2
H(0) = H = H(1 + c) → c =
2 2 3

3 4 2 based on approximation K/J = 1/3

T 4 (τ̄ ) = Teff (τ̄ + ) T = Teff at  = 2/3, T(0) = 0.84 Teff
4 3

Remember: More in general J is obtained from J(τ¯) = Λτ̄ [S(t)]

3 4
T 4 (τ̄ ) = T [τ̄ + q(τ̄ )] q(τ̄ ) : Hopf function
4 eff

Once Hopf function is specified  solution of the grey atmosphere

(temperature distribution)
1
√ = 0.577 = q(0) ≤ q(τ̄ ) ≤ q(∞) = 0.710
3 65
 Selection of the appropriate κν ⇒ κ̄

In the grey case we define a ‘suitable’ mean opacity (absorption coefficient).

Z∞ Z∞
κν ⇒ κ̄ I = Iν dν J = Jν dν ...
0 0
non-grey grey

dIν dI
Equation of transfer μ dx = −κν (Iν − Sν ) μ dx = −κ̃ (I − S)

dHν = −κ (J − S ) dH = −κ̂ (J − S)
ν ν ν dx
1st moment dx

dKν = −κ H dK = −κ̄ H
2nd moment dx ν ν dx
66
 Selection of the appropriate κν ⇒ κ̄

non-grey grey

μ dIν = −κ (I − S ) μ dI = −κ̃ (I − S)
ν ν ν
Equation of transfer dx dx

dHν = −κ (J − S )dH = −κ̂ (J − S)

ν ν ν dx
1st moment dx

dKν = −κ H dK = −κ̄ H
dx ν ν dx
2nd moment

For each equation there is one opacity average that fits “grey equations”, however,
all averages are different. Which one to select?

 For flux constant models with H() = const. 2nd moment equation is relevant 
67
 Mean opacities: flux-weighted

1st possibility: Flux-weighted mean

R∞
κν Hν dν
0
κ̄ =
H

allows the preservation of the K-integral

(radiation pressure)

Problem: H not known a priory (requires

iteration of model atmospheres)

68
 ∞
R 1 dKν ∞
R
dKν = −κ H
dx ν ν κν dx dν = − Hν dν
0 0

Mean opacities: Rosseland

2nd possibility: Rosseland mean

to obtain correct integrated energy flux and use local T

Z∞
1 dKν 1 dK
dν = −H ⇒ (grey) ⇒ = −H
κν dx κ̄ dx
0
1
R∞ 1 dKν Kν → Jν , Jν → Bν as τ → ∞
κν dx dν 3
1 0
= dK dKν 1 dBν 1 dBν dT
κ̄ dx → =
dx 3 dx 3 dT dx

R∞ 1 dBν (T )
κν dT dν
1 0
= large weight for low-opacity (more
κ̄Ross R∞ dBν (T ) transparent to radiation) regions
dT dν
0
69
 Mean opacities: Rosseland

at large  the T structure is accurately given

by
3 4
T 4 = Teff [τRoss + q(τRoss )] Rosseland opacities used
4 in stellar interiors

For stellar atmospheres Rosseland opacities allow us to obtain initial

approximate values for the Temperature stratification (used for further
iterations).

70
T4 vs. 

non-grey
numerical

grey: q() = exact

grey: q= 2/3

71
 T vs. log()

non-grey
numerical

grey: q() = exact

grey: q= 2/3

72
 Iterative method for calculation of a stellar atmosphere:

the major parameters are Teff and g

a. hydrostatic equilibrium
dP
dx = −gρ(x)
equation of
transfer b. equation of radiation
T(x), (x), B[T(x)],P(x), ρ(x) J(x), H(x) transfer
dIν
μ = −(κν + σν ) (Iν − Sν )
dx
c. radiative equilibrium
R∞ Z∞
0
κν (Jν − Bν ) dν = 0 ? κν [Jν − Bν (T )] dν = 0
R∞ 4
0

4π 0 Hν dν = σ Teff ? d. flux conservation

Z∞
4
4π Hν dν = σTeff
0

T(x), (x), B[T(x)], ρ(x) e. equation of state

ρkT
P = μ mH
73