A

Minor Project Report

On

High Voltage Direct Current

submitted

in partial fulfillment

for the award of the Degree of

Bachelor of Technology

in Department of ELECTRICAL Engineering

Submitted To Submitted By
Mr. Vikram Singh Manish Upadhyay
(Head Of Department) Roll No.14EAOEE024

Department of Electrical Engineering

Arya Institute of Engineering Technology &Management

Rajasthan Technical University

2014- 2018

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 CERTIFICATE

This to certify that is Manish Upadhaya of VIII Semester, B.Tech (Electrical Engineering) 2014-18, has
presented a project titled “High Voltage Direct Current” in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree
of bachelor of technology under Rajasthan Technical University, Kota.

Date:…………..

Mr. Subhash Swami Mr.

Vikram Singh

(Project Co-ordinater) (H.O.D)

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 Acknowledgement

I would like to first of all express my thanks to Dr. Arvind Agarwal, president of Arya Group of Colleges,
for providing us such a great infrastructure and environment for overall development.

I express sincere thanks to Dr. I.C. Sharma, the principal of AIETM, for his kind cooperation and
extensible support towards the completion of our project.

Words are inadequate in offering my thanks to Mr. Vikram Singh, Head of ME Department, for
consistent encouragement and support for shaping our project in presentable form.

I also express my deepest thanks to Mr. Shubhash Swami (Project coordinator), for their support.

Name:-

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 PROJECT APPROVAL

The Project entitled “High Voltage Direct Current” Ajeet Singh student of 4th year (8th Semester)
B.Tech in Electrical Engineering is approved as a partial fulfilment for the award of degree of bachelor
of technology of Arya Institute of Engineering Technology And Management, Jaipur.

External Examiner

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 Candidate’s Declaration

I hereby declare that the work, which is being presented in the Project entitled “High Voltage Direct
Current” in partial fulfilment for the award of degree of “Bachelor of Technology” in Electrical
Engineering, Arya Institute of Engineering Technology and Management, Affiliated to Rajasthan
Technical University is a record of my own work carried out under the guidance of Mr. Shubhash
Swami Project coordinator, Department of Electrical Engineering.

(Signature of Candidate)

Manish Upadhaya

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 Abstract
In this Hi-Tech era, there is a great demand to identify and authenticate the individuals. Till now we are
totally dependent upon Passwords and Pin Numbers for identification. How secure are passwords? With
the numerous passwords that an individual has to remember, they are often forgotten, misplaced, or stolen.
Think of how many different passwords you have to remember: computer passwords, internet site logons
and passwords, PIN numbers for the ATM and for credit cards, the list goes on. We are arriving at a
conclusion that these technologies are not sufficient for the security of an individual as these are hard to
remember, easily transferable, easily stolen and there are many weaknesses. Due to these weaknesses
biometrics came into existence. Biometrics is that study of science that deals with personal human
behavioral and physiological characteristics and such as fingerprints, handprints, iris scanning, voice
scanning, face recognition and signature recognition. These technologies are far more promising than that
which are used currently to identify an individual. This paper highlights some of the benefits and the few
limitations of using biometrics for authentication .With biometrics it doesn’t matter if we forget your
password or lose your smart card.

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 Contents
1. Chapter 1 : Introduction and History 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 History 2

2. Chapter 2 : Block Diagram of Biometric System 4

3. Chapter 3 : Classification of Biometrics 6

3.1 Fingerprint 6

3.2 Face Recognisation 8

3.3 Hand Geometry 12

3.4 Iris Recognisation 13

3.5 Speaker Recognisation 14

3.6 Signature Recognisation 16

3.7 Gesture Recognisation 17

3.8 Multimodal Biometrics 18

4. Chapter 4 : System Accuracy and Comparison 19

4.1 System Accuracy 19

4.2 Comparison of Biometrics Technology 20

5. Chapter 5 : Applications 21

5.1 Eye-gazed System 21

5.2 Televisions Controlled by Hand Gestures 22

5.3 Mimi Switch 22

5.4 Controller Free Gaming 22

6. Conclusion and Future Works 24

7. References 25

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 Chapter 1
Introduction and History
1.1 Introduction:-

The term "biometrics" is derived from the Greek words bio means “life” and metric means “to
measure”.

BIOMETRICS refers to the automatic identification of a person based on his physiological /

behavioral characteristics. This method of identification is preferred for various reasons; the person to be
identified is required to be physically present at the point of identification; identification based on
biometric techniques obviates the need to remember a password or carry a token.

A biometric is a unique, measurable characteristic or trait for automatically recognizing or verifying

the identity of a human being. Biometrics is a powerful combination of science and technology that can be
used to protect and secure our most valuable information and property.

With the increased use of computers or vehicles of information technology, it is necessary to restrict
access to sensitive or personal data. By replacing PINs, biometric techniques can potentially
prevent unauthorized access to fraudulent use of ATMs, cellular phones, smart cards, desktop PCs,
workstations, and computer networks. PINs and passwords may be forgotten, and token based methods of
identification like passports and driver’s licenses may be forged, stolen, or lost .Thus biometric systems
of identification are enjoying a renewed interest.

Recognisation requires the system to look through many stored sets of characteristics and pick the one
that matches the unknown individual being presented. Various types of biometric systems are being used
for real–time identification; the most popular are based on face recognition and fingerprint
matching. However there are other biometric systems that utilize iris and retinal scan, speech, gesture
recognisation, and hand geometry.

Biometric technologies are becoming the foundation of an extensive array of highly secure
identification and personal verification solutions. The basic idea behind biometrics is that our bodies
contain unique properties that can be used to distinguish us from others. A biometric system is essentially a
pattern recognition system, which makes a personal identification by determining the authenticity of a
specific physiological or behavioral characteristics possessed by the user.

An important issue in designing a practical system is to determine how an individual is identified.

Depending on the context, a biometric system can be either a verification (authentication) system an
identification system. Verification involves confirming or denying a person’s claimed identity. In
identification one has to establish a person’s identity. Identification systems based on biometrics are

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important building blocks in simplifying our interaction with the myriad digital systems and devices that
we

are all using in increasing numbers.

There are levels of security from the most basic to the most robust with biometrics being the most secure:

 Something that you have - such as an ID badge with a photograph on it.

 Something that you know - such as a password or PIN number.

 Something which you are - such as biometric data – fingerprints, iris, voice or face scans.

Figure 1: Explains the meaning of definition

Biometrics is rapidly evolving technology, which is being used in forensics such as criminal
identification and prison security, and has the potential to be used in a large range of civilian application
areas. Biometrics can be used transactions conducted via telephone and Internet (electronic commerce and
electronic banking). In automobiles, biometrics can replace keys with key -less entry devices.

1.2 History:-
When we talk about biometric history, we would realize that since time immemorial people always
tried their best to use some way or the other so that they could identify one person from another, whether it
was through footprints or tattoos or photos. Biometric history indicates that the science did not originate at
a single place. People all over the world were using the basics for mainly identifying individuals from each
other.

The ancient Egyptians and the Chinese played a large role in biometrics' history. Although biometric
technology seems to belong in the twenty-first century, the history of biometrics goes back thousands of
years. Possibly the most primary known instance of biometrics in practice was a form of finger printing
being used in China in the 14th century, as reported by explorer Joao de Barros. Barros wrote that the
Chinese merchants were stamping children's palm prints and footprints on paper with ink so as to
differentiate the young children from one another. This is one of the most primitive known cases of
biometrics in use and is still being used today.
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 Bertillon developed a technique of multiple body measurements which later got named after him
“Bertillonage”. His method was then used by police authorities throughout the world, until it quickly faded
when it was discovered that some people shared the same measurements and based on the measurements
alone, two people could get treated as one. After the failure of Bertillonage, the police started using finger

printing, which was developed by Richard Edward Henry of Scotland Yard, essentially reverting to the
same methods used by the Chinese for years.

Commercial advancements for biometric devices began in the 1970s when a system called Identimat
which measured the shape of the hand and length of the fingers was used as part of a time clock at
Shearson Hamill, a Wall Street investment firm. Subsequently, hundreds of Identimat devices were used to
establish identity for physical access at secure facilities run by Western Electric, U.S. Naval Intelligence,
the Department of Energy, and U.S. Naval Intelligence and like organizations.

Chapter 2
Block Diagram of Biometric System
Biometric devices consist of a reader or scanning device, software that converts the gathered information
into digital form, and a database that stores the biometric data for comparison with previous records. When
converting the biometric input, the software identifies specific points of data as match points. The match
points are processed using an algorithm into a value that can be compared with biometric data in the
database.

The biometric feature must have the following characteristics:-

(a) Universality, which means that every person should have the characteristic,

(b) Uniqueness, two persons should not have the same term or measurement of Characteristic.

(c) Permanence, the characteristic should be invariant with time.

(d) Measurability, the characteristic can be quantified that is the origin of the Cameras used in biometric
systems are generally either CCD (charge couple device) or CMOS (combined metal oxide semiconductor)
image sensors. CCD is comparatively more costly than CMOS.

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 Figure 2: Basic block diagram of biometrics system

The main operations a system can perform are enrollment and test. During the enrollment, biometric
information from an individual is stored. During the test, biometric information is detected and compared
with the stored information. Note that it is crucial that storage and retrieval of such systems themselves be
secure if the biometric system is, robust.

The first block (sensor) is the interface between the real world and the system; it has to acquire all the
necessary data. Most of the times it is an image acquisition system, but it can change according to the
characteristics desired. A sample of the biometric trait is captured, processed by a computer, and stored for
later comparison.

The second block performs all the necessary pre-processing: it has to remove artifacts from the sensor, to
enhance the input (e.g. removing background noise), to use some kind of normalization, etc.

In the third block features needed are extracted. This step is an important step as the correct features
need to be extracted and the optimal way. A vector of numbers or an image with particular properties is used
to create a template. A template is a synthesis of all the characteristics extracted from the source, in the
optimal size to allow for adequate identifiability. All Biometric authentications require comparing a
registered or enrolled biometric sample (biometric template or identifier) against a newly captured biometric
sample.

If enrollment is being performed where the biometric system identifies a person from the entire enrolled
population by searching a database for a match based solely on the biometric. For example, an entire
database can be searched to verify a person has not applied for entitlement benefits under two different
names. This is sometimes called “one-to-many” matching.

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 If a verification phase is being performed, the biometric system authenticates a person’s claimed identity
from their previously enrolled pattern. This is also called “one-to-one” matching. The obtained template is
passed to a matcher that compares it with other existing templates. The matching program will analyze the
template with the input. This will then be output for any specified use or purpose.

Chapter 3
Classification of Biometrics
Biometrics encompasses both physiological and behavioral characteristics. A physiological
characteristic are related to the shape of a body. A relatively stable physical feature such as finger
print, hand geometry, iris pattern or facial features. These factors are basically unalterable
without trauma to the individual.

Behavioral tracts, on the other hand, are related to the behavior of a person. The most common trait
used in identification is a person’s signature. Other behaviors used include a person’s keyboard typing,
gait and speech patterns. Most of the behavioral characteristics change over time.

Some of physical biometrics is

 Fingerprint - analyzing fingertip patterns.

 Facial Recognition - measuring facial characteristics.

 Hand Geometry - measuring the shape of the hand.

 Iris recognition - analyzing features of colored ring of the eye.

Some of behavioral biometrics is

 Speaker Recognition - analyzing vocal behavior.

 Signature Recognisation - analyze the physical activity of signing.

 Gesture Recognisation - analyzing the motions of body.

3.1 Fingerprint:-
Humans have used fingerprints for personal identification for many centuries and the matching
accuracy using fingerprints has been shown to be very high. Fingerprinting is probably the best-known
biometric- method of identification used for 100 years. There are a few variants of image capture
technology available for such commercially oriented fingerprint sensor, including optical, silicon,
ultrasound, thermal and hybrid.

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 Among all the biometric techniques, fingerprint-based Identification is the oldest method that has been
successfully used in numerous applications. Everyone is known to have unique, immutable fingerprints. A
fingerprint is made of a series of ridges and furrows on the surface of the finger as shown in the fig 3.1.1.
The uniqueness of a

fingerprint can be determined by the pattern of ridges and furrows as well as minutiae points. Minutiae
points are the local ridge characteristics that occur either at a ridge ending or a ridge bifurcation. A ridge
ending is defined as the point where the ridge ends abruptly and the ridge bifurcation is the point where the
ridge splits into two or more branches.

When a user places their finger on the terminals scanner the image is electronically read, analyzed, and
compared with a previously recorded image of the same finger which has been stored in the database. The
imaging process is based on digital holography, using an electro-optical scanner about the size of a
thumbprint. The scanner reads three-dimensional data from the finger such as skin undulations, and ridges
and valleys, to create a unique pattern that is composed into a template file.

Figure 3: Fingerprint classification of 6 categories (a) arch, (b) tented arch, (c) right loop, (d) left loop, (e)
whorl, and (f) twin loop

An algorithm is developed to classify fingerprints into five classes, namely, whorl, right loop, arch and tented
arch as shown in figure 3. Critical points in a finger print, called core and delta are marked on one of the fingers as
shown in figure 3 (c). The core is the inner point, normally in the middle of the print, around which swirls, loops, or
arches center. It is frequently characterized by a ridge ending and several acutely curved ridges. Deltas are the
points, normally at the lower left and right hand of the fingerprint, around which a triangular series of ridges
center. The algorithm separates the number of ridges present in four directions (o degree, 45 degree, 90 degree
and 135 degree) by filtering the central part of a fingerprint with a bank of Gabor filters. This information is
quantized to generate a finger code which is used for classification. To avoid fake-finger attacks, some systems
employ so-called liveness detection technology, which takes

advantage of the sweat activity of human bodies. High-magnification lenses and special illumination
technologies capture the finger’s perspiration and pronounce the finger dead or alive.
3.1.1 Advantages:-

 Fingerprint recognition equipment is relatively low-priced compared to other biometric system.

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  Fingerprints are unique to each finger of each individual and the ridge arrangement remains
permanent during one's lifetime.

3.1.2 Disadvantages:-

 Some people have damaged or eliminated fingerprints.

 Vulnerable to noise and distortion brought on by dirt and twists.

3.2 Face Recognisation:-

Face recognition technology analyze the unique shape, pattern and positioning of the facial features.
Face recognition is very complex technology and is largely software based. Face recognition starts with a
picture, attempting to find a person in the image. This can be accomplished using several methods
including movement, skin tones, or blurred human shapes. The face recognition system locates the head
and finally the eyes of the individual. A matrix is then developed based on the characteristics of the
individual’s face. The method of defining the matrix varies according to the algorithm (the mathematical
process used by the computer to perform the comparison). This matrix is then compared to matrices that
are in a database and a similarity score is generated for each comparison.

Despite the fact that there are more reliable biometric recognition techniques such as fingerprint and
iris recognition, these techniques are intrusive and their success depends highly on user cooperation, since
the user must position her eye in front of the iris scanner or put her finger in the fingerprint device. On the
other hand, face recognition is non-intrusive since it is based on images recorded by a distant camera, and
can be very effective even if the user is not aware of the existence of the face recognition system. The
human face is undoubtedly the most common characteristic used by humans to recognize other people and
this is why personal identification based on facial images is considered the friendliest among all
biometrics.

Face has certain distinguishable landmarks that are the peaks and valleys that sum up the different facial
features. There are about 80 peaks and valleys on a human face. The following are a few of the peaks and
valleys that are measured by the software:

 Distance between eyes

 Width of nose

 Depth of eye sockets

 Cheekbones

 Jaw line

 Chin
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 These peaks and valleys are measured to give a numerical code, a string of numbers, which represents
the face in a database. This code is called a face print. Face recognition involves the comparison of a given
face with other faces in a database with the objective of deciding if the face matches any of the faces in that
database.

Figure 4: Face nodal points

Image matching usually involves three steps:

1. Detection of the face in a complex background and localization of its exact position,

2. Extraction of facial features such as eyes, nose, etc, followed by normalization to align the face with
the stored face images, and

3. Face classification or matching.

In addition, a face recognition system usually consists of the following four modules:

1. Sensor module, which captures face images of an individual. Depending on the sensor modality, the
acquisition device maybe a black and white or color camera, a 3D sensor capturing range (depth)
data, or an infrared camera capturing infrared images.

2. Face detection and feature extraction module. The acquired face images are first scanned to detect
the presence of faces and find their exact location and size. The output of face detection is an image
window containing only the face area. Irrelevant information, such as background, hair, neck and
shoulders, ears, etc are discarded.

3. Classification module, in which the template extracted during step 2, is compared against the stored
templates in the database to generate matching scores, which reveal how identical the faces in the
probe and gallery images are. Then, a decision-making module either confirms (verification) or
establishes (identification) the user’s identity based on the matching score. In case of face

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 verification, the matching score is compared to a predefined threshold and based on the result of
this comparison; the user is either accepted or rejected. In case of face identification, a set of
matching scores between the extracted template and the templates of enrolled users is calculated. If
the template of user X produces the best score, then the unknown face is more similar to X, than
any other person in the database. To ensure that the unknown face is actually X and not an
impostor, the matching score is compared to a predefined threshold.

4. Sometimes, more than one template per enrolled user is stored in the gallery database to account for
different variations. Templates may also be updated over time, mainly to cope with variations due
to aging.

Face detection algorithms can be divided into three categories according to

1. Knowledge-based methods are based on human knowledge of the typical human face geometry and
facial features arrangement. Taking advantage of natural face symmetry and the natural
top-to-bottom and left-to-right order in which features appear in the human face, these methods find
rules to describe the shape, size, texture and other characteristics of facial features (such as eyes,
nose, chin, eyebrows) and relationships between them (relative positions and distances). A
hierarchical approach may be used, which examines the face at different resolution levels. At higher
levels, possible face candidates are found using a rough description of face geometry. At lower
levels, facial features are extracted and an image region is identified as face or non-face based on
predefined rules about facial characteristics and their arrangement.

2. Feature invariant approaches aim to find structural features that exist even when the viewpoint or
lighting conditions vary and then use these to locate faces. Different structural features are being
used: facial local features, texture, and shape and skin color. Local features such as eyes, eyebrows,
nose, and mouth are extracted using multi-resolution or derivative filters, edge detectors,
morphological operations or thresholding. Statistical models are then built to describe their
relationships and verify the existence of a face. Neural networks, graph matching, and decision
trees were also proposed to verify face candidates.

3. Template-based methods. To detect a face in a new image, first the head outline, which is fairly
consistently roughly elliptical, is detected using filters or edge detectors. Then the contours of local
facial features are extracted in the same way, exploiting knowledge of face and feature geometry.

More recently, techniques that rely on 3D shape data have been proposed. 3D face recognition is a
modality of facial recognition methods in which the three-dimensional geometry of the human face is used.
3D face recognition has the potential to achieve better accuracy than its 2D counterpart by measuring

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geometry of rigid features on the face. This avoids such pitfalls of 2D face recognition algorithms as change
in lighting, different facial expressions, make-up and head orientation.

4.2.1 Advantages:-

 No contact required.

 Commonly available sensors (cameras).

4.2.2 Disadvantages:-

 Face can be obstructed by hair, glasses, hats, scarves etc.

 Difficult to distinguish between twins.

 Sensitive to changes in lighting, expression, and poses faces changeover time.

3.3 Hand Geometry:-

Hand geometry recognition systems are based on a number of measurements taken from the human
hand, including its shape, size of palm, and lengths and widths of the fingers. The technique is very simple,
relatively easy to use, and inexpensive. Environmental factors such as dry weather or individual anomalies
such as dry skin do not appear to have any negative effects on the verification accuracy of hand
geometry-based systems. The geometry of the hand is not known to be very distinctive and hand geometry
based recognition systems cannot be scaled up for systems requiring identification of an individual from a
large population. Further, hand geometry information may not be invariant during the growth period of
children. In addition, an individual's jewelry (e.g., rings) or limitations in dexterity (e.g., from arthritis),
may pose further challenges in extracting the correct hand geometry information. The physical size of a
hand geometry-based system is large, and it cannot be embedded in certain devices like laptops.

Figure 5: Hand geometry system

3.3.1 Advantages:-

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  Easy to capture.

 The major advantage is that most people can use it and as such, the acceptance rate is good.

 Believed to be a highly stable pattern over the adult lifespan.

3.3.2 Disadvantages:-

 Use requires some training.

 System requires a large amount of physical space.

3.4 Iris Recognisation:-

The iris of each eye of each person is absolutely unique. In the entire human population, no two irises are
alike in their mathematical detail. This even applies to identical twins. The iris of each eye is protected from
the external environment. It is clearly visible from a distance, making it ideal for a biometric solution. Image
acquisition for enrolment and recognition is easily accomplished and most importantly is non-intrusive.

The Iris Code creation process starts with video-based image acquisition. This is a purely passive
process achieved using CCD (Charge Coupled Device) Video Cameras. This image is then processed and
encoded into an Iris Code record, which is stored in an Iris Code database. This stored record is then used for
identification in any live transaction when an iris is presented for comparison.

Figure 6 : Iris scan process

The iris-scan process begins with a photograph. A specialized camera, typically very close to the subject,
no more than three feet, uses an infrared imager to illuminate the eye and capture a very high-resolution
photograph. This process takes only one to two seconds and provides the details of the iris that are mapped,
recorded and stored for future matching/verification.

Eyeglasses and contact lenses present no problems to the quality of the image and the iris-scan systems
test for a live eye by checking for the normal continuous fluctuation in pupil size.

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 The inner edge of the iris is located by an iris-scan algorithm which maps the iris distinct patterns and
characteristics. An algorithm is a series of directives that tell a biometric system how to interpret a specific
problem. Algorithms have a number of steps and are used by the biometric system to determine if a biometric
sample and record is a match.

Iris is composed before birth and, except in the event of an injury to the eyeball, remains unchanged
throughout an individual’s lifetime. Iris patterns are extremely complex, carry an astonishing amount of
information and have over 200 unique spots. The fact that an individual’s right and left eyes are different and
that patterns are easy to capture, establishes iris-scan technology as one of the biometrics that is very resistant
to false matching and fraud.

The false acceptance rate for iris recognition systems is 1 in 1.2 million, statistically better than the
average fingerprint recognition system. The real benefit is in the false-rejection rate, a measure of
authenticated users who are rejected. Fingerprint scanners have a 3 percent false-rejection rate, whereas iris
scanning systems boast rates at the 0 percent level.

3.4.1 Advantages:-

 Iris recognition is very accurate with very low false acceptance rate

3.4.2 Disadvantages:-

 Complex procedure.

 High cost.

3.5 Speaker Recognition:-

Speaker, or voice, recognition is a biometric modality that uses an individual’s voice for recognition
purposes. The speaker recognition process relies on features influenced by both the physical structure of an
individual’s vocal tract and the behavioral characteristics of the individual. A popular choice for remote
authentication due to the availability of devices for collecting speech samples and its ease of integration,
speaker recognition is different from some other biometric methods in that speech samples are captured
dynamically or over a period of time, such as a few seconds. Analysis occurs on a model in which changes
over time are monitored.

Voice recognition technology utilizes the distinctive aspects of the voice to verify the identity of individuals.
Voice recognition is occasionally confused with speech recognition, a technology which translates what a
user is saying (a process unrelated to authentication). Voice recognition technology, by contrast, verifies the
identity of the individual who is speaking. The two technologies are often bundled – speech recognition is
used to translate the spoken word into an account number, and voice recognition verifies the vocal
characteristics against those associated with this account.
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 Voice recognition can utilize any audio capture device, including mobile and land telephones and PC
microphones. The performance of voice recognition systems can vary according to the quality of the audio
signal as well as variation between enrollment and verification devices, so acquisition normally takes place
on a device likely to be used for future verification. During enrollment an individual is prompted to select a
passphrase or to repeat a sequence of numbers. Voice recognition can function as a reliable authentication
mechanism for automated telephone systems, adding security to automated telephone-based transactions in
areas such as financial services and health care. Certain voice recognition technologies are highly resistant

to imposter attacks, means that voice recognition can be used to protect reasonably high-value
transactions.

Figure 7: Voice Sample

Speech samples are waveforms with time on the horizontal axis and loudness on the vertical access. The
speaker recognition system analyzes the frequency content of the speech and compares characteristics such
as the quality, duration, intensity dynamics, and pitch of the signal.

Voice recognition techniques can be divided into categories depending on the type of authentication
domain.

• Fixed text method is a technique where the speaker is required to say a predetermined word that is
recorded during registration on the system.

• In the text dependent method the system prompts the user to say a specific word or phrase, which is then
computed on the basis of the user’s fundamental voice pattern.

• The text independent method is an advanced technique where the user need not articulate any specific
word or phrase. The matching is done by the system on the basis of the fundamental voice patterns
irrespective of the language and the text used.

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3.5.1 Advantages:-

 Simple and cost-effective technological application.

 Can be used for remote authentication.

3.5.2 Disadvantages:-

 Voice and language usage change over time (e.g. as a result of age or illness).

3.6 Signature Recognisation:-

Biometric signature recognition systems measure and analyze the physical activity of signing.
Important characteristics include stroke order, the pressure applied, the pen-up movements, the angle the
pen is held, the time taken to sign, the velocity and acceleration of the signature. Some systems
additionally compare the visual image of signatures, though the focus in signature biometrics lies on
writer-specific information rather than visual handwritten content. While it may appear trivial to copy the
appearance of a signature, it is difficult to mimic the process and behavior of signing.

Figure 8: Signature trait

Signature data can be captured via pens that incorporate sensors or through touch-sensitive surfaces which
sense the unique signature characteristics. Touch-sensitive surfaces are increasingly being used on ICT
devices such as screens, pads, mobile phones, laptops and tablet PCs.

3.6.1 Advantages:-
 Main uses of signature biometrics include limiting access to restricted documents and contracts,
delivery acknowledgement and banking/finance related applications.

3.6.2 Disadvantages:-
 A person’s signature changes over time as well as under physical and emotional influences.

3.7 Gesture Recognisation System:-

Gesture is the use of motions of the limbs or body as a means of expression, communicate an intention
or feeling. Gesture recognition enables humans to interface with the machine (HMI) and interact naturally
without any mechanical devices. Using the concept of gesture recognition, it is possible to point a finger at

21
the computer screen so that the cursor will move accordingly. This could potentially make
conventional input devices such as mouse, keyboards and even touch-screens redundant. The ability to track
a person's movements and determine what gestures they may be performing can be achieved through various
tools. Although there is a large amount of research done in image/video based gesture recognition, there is
some variation within the tools and environments used between implementations. In order to capture human
gestures by visual sensors, robust computer vision methods are also required, for example for hand tracking
and hand posture recognition or for capturing movements of the head, facial expressions or gaze direction.
The input devices of gesture recognisation system are

 Depth-aware cameras: Using specialized cameras such as time-of-flight cameras, one can generate
a depth map of what is being seen through the camera at a short range, and use this data to
approximate a 3d representation of what is being seen. These can be effective for detection of hand
gestures due to their short range capabilities.

 Stereo cameras: Using two cameras whose relations to one another are known, a 3d representation
can be approximated by the output of the cameras. To get the cameras' relations, one can use a
positioning reference such as an infrared emitters.

 Controller-based gestures: These controllers act as an extension of the body so that when gestures
are performed, some of their motion can be conveniently captured by software. Mouse gestures are
one such example

 Single camera: A normal camera can be used for gesture recognition where the
resources/environment would not be convenient for other forms of image-based recognition.
Although not necessarily as effective as stereo or depth aware cameras, using a single camera allows
a greater possibility of accessibility to a wider audience.

4.8.1 Advantages:-
 A new interactive Technology.

 Eliminates the use of mechanical devices.

4.8.2 Disadvantages:-
 Complex

 High costs

3.8 Multimodal Biometrics System:-

Multimodal biometric systems are those that utilize more than one physiological or behavioral
characteristic for enrollment, verification, or identification. A biometric system which relies only on a
single biometric identifier in making a personal identifications often not able to meet the desired
performance requirements. Identification based on multiple biometrics represents on emerging
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trend. A multimodal biometric system is introduced which integrates face recognition, fingerprint
verification, and speaker verification in making a personal identification. This system takes
advantage of the capabilities of each individual biometric. It can be used to overcome some of the
limitations of a single biometrics.

Chapter 4
System Accuracy and Comparison
4.1 System Accuracy:-

Accuracy or performance of biometric systems is measured with three factors:

1. False acceptance rate (FAR)

2. False rejection rate (FRR)

3. Equal Error Rate (EER)

1. False Acceptance Rate:-

False acceptance rate is also known as Type I error. It measures the percentage of impostors being
incorrectly accepted as genuine user. Since almost all biometric systems aim to achieve correct identity
authentication, this number should be as low as possible.

2. False Rejection Rate:-

False rejection rate is also known as Type II error, this measures the percentage of genuine users being
incorrectly rejected. In order to minimize inconveniences (or embarrassment) to the genuine user, this
number should also be low.

3. Equal Error Rate:- FAR and FRR are inversely related and a consolidation of the FAR and FFR is the
point at which accept and reject errors are equal. This is described as the equal error rate (EER), sometimes
also known as the cross-over error rate (CER). Low EER scores generally indicate high levels of accuracy.
This is illustrated in Figure 9. FAR and FFR can often be adjusted by changing system parameters
(rejection thresholds) or better control of conditions under which systems are used (dust free, good lighting
and so on).
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 Figure 9: System Accuracy Curve

4.2 Comparison of Biometric Technologies:-

Biometrics Univers Unique Permane Collectabil Performan Acceptabil Circumve

ality ness nce ity ce ity ntion

Fingerprint M H H M H M H

Face H L M H L H L

Hand M M M H M M M
geometry

Iris H H H M H L H

Voice M L L M L H L

H-High, M-Medium-Low

Table 1: Comparison of Biometrics Technology

In the above table, universality indicates how common the biometric is found in each person; uniqueness
indicates how well the biometric separates one person from the other; permanence indicates how well the
biometric resist the effect of aging; while collectability measures how easy it is to acquire the biometric for
processing. Performance indicates the achievable accuracy, speed and robustness of the biometrics while
acceptability indicates the degree of acceptance of the technology by the public in their daily life and
circumvention indicates the level of difficulty to circumvent or fool the system into accepting an impostor.

Chapter 5
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 APPLICATIONS

5.1 Eye Gaze System:-

The Eye gaze Edge uses the pupil-center/corneal-reflection method to determine where the user is looking
on the screen. An infrared-sensitive video camera, mounted beneath the System's screen, takes 60 pictures
per second of the user's eye. A low power, infrared light emitting diode (LED), mounted in the center of the
camera's lens illuminates the eye. The LED reflects a small bit of light off the surface of the eye's cornea. The
light also shines through the pupil and reflects off of the retina, the back surface of the eye, and causes the
pupil to appear white. The bright-pupil effect enhances the camera's image of the pupil so the system's image
processing functions can locate the center of the pupil. The Edge calculates the person's gaze point, i.e., the
coordinates of where he is looking on the screen, based on the relative positions of the pupil center and
corneal reflection within the video image of the eye. Typically the Eye gaze Edge predicts the gaze point
with an average accuracy of a quarter inch or better. Prior to operating the eye tracking applications, the Eye
gaze Edge must learn several physiological properties of a user's eye in order to be able to project his gaze
point accurately. The system learns these properties by performing a

Figure 10: Display Panel of Eye-gazed System

calibration procedure. The user calibrates the system by fixing his gaze on a small circle displayed on the
screen, and following it as it moves around the screen. The calibration procedure usually takes about 15
seconds, and the user does not need to recalibrate if he moves away from the Eye gaze Edge and returns
later. A user operates the Eye gaze System by looking at rectangular keys that are displayed on the control
screen. To "press" an Eye gaze key, the user looks at the key for a specifiedto visually activate a key,
typically a fraction of a second, is adjustable. An array of menu keys and exit keys allow the user to navigate
around the Eye gaze programs independently.

5.2 Television Controlled by Hand Gestures:-

Hitachi launched a high-end TV panel working with the Canesta 3D sensor, which allows viewers
interact with the TV controls via hand gestures. While the TV displays 3D images we can wave our hand to
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power up the TV or move our hand circularly to change the channel. Canesta’s 3D sensor is immune to
lighting extremes and works in any environment, whether it is indoors or outdoors, with the condition that we
have to be within the 3-meter working range. It also distinguished between one hand and two hands and
offers multiple commands depending on your hand’s motion. As we move our hands, the 3D sensor
developed with CMOS chip technology sends a stream of 3D data at 30 frames per second to the TVs
micro-controller, where the gesture-recognition software translates the depth maps into gestures and then
into commands.

5.3 Mimi Switch:-

Mimi switch uses infrared sensors to measure movements inside the ear, which are triggered by various
facial expressions, and then transmits signals to a micro-computer that controls electronic devices. It’s pretty
much a hands-free remote control for anything electronic. It stores and can even interpret data, allowing it to
customize itself to individual users, if it judges that we aren’t smiling enough, it may play a cheerful song.”
In addition to its usefulness in controlling music devices or cell phones, it can also be used as a safety
measure, providing hearing aids for the elderly, or health monitors: It could measure, say, how often
someone sneezes, and if it senses a serious health problem, it could send a warning message to relatives.

5.4 Controller Free Gaming:-

Project Natal is the code name for a "controller-free gaming and entertainment experience"
by Microsoft for the Xbox 360 video game platform. Project Natal enables users to control and interact
with the Xbox 360 without the need to touch a game controller through a natural user interface using
gestures, spoken commands or presented objects and images. The depth sensor consists of
an infrared projector combined with a monochrome CMOS sensor, and allows the Project Natal sensor to
see in 3D under any ambient light conditions. The sensing range of the depth sensor is adjustable, with the
period of time. The gaze duration required

Project Natal software capable of automatically calibrating the sensor based on game play and the player's
physical environment, such as the presence of chairs. Project Natal is likely based on software technology
developed internally by Microsoft and 3D camera technology by Israeli developer Prime Sense, which
interprets 3D scene information from a continuous infrared pattern. It was initially reported that the hardware
was acquired from time-of-flight camera developer 3DV Systems. Project Natal enables advanced gesture
recognition, facial recognition, and voice recognition. The skeletal mapping technology was capable of
simultaneously tracking up to four users for motion analysis with a feature extraction of 48 skeletal points on
a human body at a frame rate of 30hertz. Depending on the person's distance from the sensor, Project Natal is
capable of tracking models that can identify individual fingers.

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 Figure 11: Project Natal by Microsoft

Biometrics is basically used in door lock systems and can be used to prevent unauthorized access to ATMs,
cellular phones, desktop PCs. It has largely used in access control and identity verifications, including time
and attendance

Conclusion and Future Works

Conclusion:-

Biometric is an emerging area with many opportunities for growth. Biometrics is widely being used
because of its user friendliness, flexibility in specifying required security level and long term stability. The
technology will continue to improve and challenges such as interoperability solved through
standardization. This will lead to increase in the market adoption rate and the technology will proliferate.
Possibly in the near future, you will not have to remember PINs and passwords and keys in your bags or
pockets will be things of the past.

Future works:-

The future of biometrics holds great promise for law enforcement applications, as well for private industry
uses. Biometrics’ future will include e-commerce applications for extra security on the checkout page, and
biometrics will guard against unauthorized access to cars and cell phones. In the future, biometric technology
will further develop 3-D infrared facial recognition access control, real-time facial recognition passive
surveillance, and visitor management authentication systems. Already A4Vision, a provider of 3-D facial
scanning and identification software uses specialized algorithms to interpret the traditional 2-D camera
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image and transfer it into a 3-D representation of a registered face. This makes it almost impossible to
deceive the biometric system with still photos or other images. Strengthening existing biometric innovations
for future growth all of these security innovations will make biometric technology more accurate and make
its usage more widespread.

References

1. S. Prabhakar, S. Pankanti, and A. K. Jain, “Biometric Recognition: Security and Privacy Concerns”,
IEEE Security and Privacy Magazine, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 33-42, 2003.

2. Jain, A. K.; Ross, Arun; Prabhakar, Salil (January 2004), "An introduction to biometric
recognition", IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology 14th (1): 4–
20, doi:10.1109/TCSVT.2003.818349

3. N. K. Ratha, J. H. Connell, and R. M. Bolle, "Enhancing security and privacy in biometrics-based

authentication systems," IBM systems Journal, vol. 40, pp. 614-634, 2001.

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4. A. Jain et al: BIOMETRICS: Personal Identification in NetworkedSociety, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1999, ISBN0-7923-8345-1.
5. M.Pantic and L.J.M. Rothkrantz, 'Towards an Affect-Sensitive Multimodal Human-Computer
Interaction '. In: Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 91, no. 9, pp. 1370-1390, September 2003
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