Aircraft Structural Design

Introduction

Although the major focus of structural design in the early development of aircraft was on
strength, now structural designers also deal with fail-safety, fatigue, corrosion,
maintenance and inspectability, and producability.

Structural Concepts

Modern aircraft structures are designed using a semi-monocoque concept- a basic load-
carrying shell reinforced by frames and longerons in the bodies, and a skin-stringer
construction supported by spars and ribs in the surfaces.
Proper stress levels, a very complex problem in highly redundant structures, are
calculated using versatile computer matrix methods to solve for detailed internal loads.
Modern finite element models of aircraft components include tens-of-thousands of
degrees-of-freedom and are used to determine the required skin thicknesses to avoid
excessive stress levels, deflections, strains, or buckling. The goals of detailed design are
to reduce or eliminate stress concentrations, residual stresses, fretting corrosion, hidden
undetectable cracks, or single failure causing component failure. Open sections, such as Z
or J sections, are used to permit inspection of stringers and avoid moisture accumulation.

Fail-safe design is achieved through material selection, proper stress levels, and multiple
load path structural arrangements which maintain high strength in the presence of a crack
or damage. Examples of the latter are:
a)Use of tear-stoppers
b)Spanwise wing and stabilizer skin splices
Analyses introduce cyclic loads from ground-air-ground cycle and from power spectral
density descriptions of continuous turbulence. Component fatigue test results are fed into
the program and the cumulative fatigue damage is calculated. Stress levels are adjusted to
achieve required structural fatigue design life.

Design Life Criteria -- Philosophy

Fatigue failure life of a structural member is usually defined as the time to initiate a crack
which would tend to reduce the ultimate strength of the member.
Fatigue design life implies the average life to be expected under average aircraft
utilization and loads environment. To this design life, application of a fatigue life scatter
factor accounts for the typical variations from the average utilization, loading
environments, and basic fatigue strength allowables. This leads to a safe-life period
during which the probability of a structural crack occurring is very low. With fail-safe,
inspectable design, the actual structural life is much greater.

The overall fatigue life of the aircraft is the time at which the repair of the structure is no
longer economically feasible.

Scatter factors of 2 to 4 have been used to account for statistical variation in component
fatigue tests and unknowns in loads. Load unknowns involve both methods of calculation
and type of service actually experienced.

Primary structure for present transport aircraft is designed, based on average expected
operational conditions and average fatigue test results, for 120,000 hrs. For the best
current methods of design, a scatter factor of 2 is typically used, so that the expected
crack-free structural life is 60,000 hrs, and the probability of attaining a crack-free
structural life of 60,000 hrs is 94 percent as shown in the following figure and table.

Probability of Np (Flight Hours) Np (Years)

s.f. = N / Np
Survival (%) (N = 120,000 hrs) (3,000 flight hrs / year)
2.0 94.0 60,000 20
2.5 97.5 48,000 16
3.0 98.8 40,000 13.3
3.5 99.3 34,300 11.4
4.0 99.54 30,000 10.0

With fail-safe design concepts, the usable structural life would be much greater, but in
practice, each manufacturer has different goals regarding aircraft structural life.

Materials

Choice of materials emphasizes not only strength/weight ratio but also:

 Fracture toughness
 Crack propagation rate
 Notch sensitivity
 Stress corrosion resistance
 Exfoliation corrosion resistance

Acoustic fatigue testing is important in affected portions of structure.

Doublers are used to reduce stress concentrations around splices, cut-outs, doors,
windows, access panels, etc., and to serve as tear-stoppers at frames and longerons.

Generally DC-10 uses 2024-T3 aluminum for tension structure such as lower wing skins,
pressure critical fuselage skins and minimum gage applications. This material has
excellent fatigue strength, fracture toughness and notch sensitivity. 7075-T6 aluminum
has the highest strength with acceptable toughness. It is used for strength critical
structures such as fuselage floor beams, stabilizers and spar caps in control surfaces. It is
also used for upper wing skins.

For those parts in which residual stresses could possibly be present, 7075-T73 material is
used. 7075-T73 material has superior stress corrosion resistance and exfoliation corrosion
resistance, and good fracture toughness. Typical applications are fittings that can have
detrimental preloads induced during assembly or that are subjected to sustained
operational loads. Thick-section forgings are 7075-T73, due to the possible residual
stresses induced during heat treatment. The integral ends of 7075-T6 stringers and spar
caps are overaged to T73 locally. This unique use of the T73 temper virtually eliminates
possibility of stress corrosion cracking in critical joint areas.

Miscellaneous Numbers

Although the yield stress of 7075 or 2024 Aluminum is higher, a typical value for design
stress at limit load is 54,000 psi. The density of aluminum is .101 lb / in3
Minimum usable material thickness is about 0.06 inches for high speed transport wings.
This is set by lightning strike requirements. (Minimum skin gauge on other portions of
the aircraft, such as the fuselage, is about 0.05 inches to permit countersinking for flush
rivets.

On the Cessna Citation, a small high speed airplane, 0.04 inches is the minimum gauge
on the inner portion of the wing, but 0.05 inches is preferred. Ribs may be as thin as
0.025 inches. Spar webs are about 0.06 inches at the tip.

For low speed aircraft where flush rivets are not a requirement and loads are low,
minimum skin gauge is as low as 0.016 inches where little handling is likely, such as on
outer wings and tail cones. Around fuel tanks (inboard wings) 0.03 inches is minimum.
On light aircraft, the spar or spars carry almost all of the bending and shear loads. Wing
skins are generally stiffened. Skins contribute to compression load only near the spars
(which serve as stiffeners in a limited area). Lower skins do contribute to tension
capability but the main function of the skin in these cases is to carry torsion loads and
define the section shape.

In transport wings, skin thicknesses usually are large enough, when designed for bending,
to handle torsion loads.

Fuel density is 6.7 lb/gallon.

Structural Optimization and Design

Structures are often analyzed using complex finite element analysis methods. These tools
have evolved over the past decades to be the basis of most structural design tasks. A
candidate structure is analyzed subject to the predicted loads and the finite element
program predicts deflections, stresses, strains, and even buckling of the many elements.
The designed can then resize components to reduce weight or prevent failure. In recent
years, structural optimization has been combined with finite element analysis to
determine component gauges that may minimize weight subject to a number of
constraints. Such tools are becoming very useful and there are many examples of
substantial weight reduction using these methods. Surprisingly, however, it appears that
modern methods do not do a better job of predicting failure of the resulting designs, as
shown by the figure below, constructed from recent Air Force data.

Aircraft Structure - An introduction to major airplane

components
According to the current Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 1,
Definitions and Abbreviations, an aircraft is a device that is used, or intended to be
used, for flight. Categories of aircraft for certification of airmen include airplane,
rotorcraft, lighter-than-air, powered-lift, and glider. Part 1 also defines airplane as an
engine-driven, fixed-wing aircraft heavier than air that is supported in flight by the
dynamic reaction of air against its wings. This webpage provides a brief introduction
to the airplane and its major components.

Major components

Although airplanes are designed for a variety of purposes, most of them have the
same major components.

The overall characteristics are largely determined by the original design objectives.
Most airplane structures include a fuselage, wings, an empennage, landing gear, and
a powerplant.
Figure 1: Airplane components.

Fuselage

The fuselage includes the cabin and/or cockpit, which contains seats for the
occupants and the controls for the airplane. In addition, the fuselage may also
provide room for cargo and attachment points for the other major airplane
components. Some aircraft utilize an open truss structure. The truss-type fuselage is
constructed of steel or aluminum tubing. Strength and rigidity is achieved by welding
the tubing together into a series of triangular shapes, called trusses.
Figure 2: The Warren truss.

Construction of the Warren truss features longerons, as well as diagonal and vertical
web members. To reduce weight, small airplanes generally utilize aluminum alloy
tubing, which may be riveted or bolted into one piece with cross-bracing members.

As technology progressed, aircraft designers began to enclose the truss members to

streamline the airplane and improve performance. This was originally accomplished
with cloth fabric, which eventually gave way to lightweight metals such as aluminum.
In some cases, the outside skin can support all or a major portion of the flight loads.
Most modern aircraft use a form of this stressed skin structure known as monocoque
or semimonocoque construction.

The monocoque design uses stressed skin to support almost all imposed loads. This
structure can be very strong but cannot tolerate dents or deformation of the surface.
This characteristic is easily demonstrated by a thin aluminum beverage can. You can
exert considerable force to the ends of the can without causing any damage.

However, if the side of the can is dented only slightly, the can will collapse easily.
The true monocoque construction mainly consists of the skin, formers, and
bulkheads. The formers and bulkheads provide shape for the fuselage.
Figure 3: Monocoque fuselage design.

Since no bracing members are present, the skin must be strong enough to keep the
fuselage rigid. Thus, a significant problem involved in monocoque construction is
maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight within allowable limits. Due to
the limitations of the monocoque design, a semi-monocoque structure is used on
many of today’s aircraft.

The semi-monocoque system uses a substructure to which the airplane’s skin is

attached. The substructure, which consists of bulkheads and/or formers of various
sizes and stringers, reinforces the stressed skin by taking some of the bending stress
from the fuselage.
Figure 4: Semi-monocoque construction.

The main section of the fuselage also includes wing attachment points and a firewall.

On single-engine airplanes, the engine is usually attached to the front of the

fuselage. There is a fireproof partition between the rear of the engine and the cockpit
or cabin to protect the pilot and passengers from accidental engine fires. This
partition is called a firewall and is usually made of heat-resistant material such as
stainless steel.

Wings

The wings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage and are the main lifting
surfaces that support the airplane in flight. There are numerous wing designs, sizes,
and shapes used by the various manufacturers.

Each fulfills a certain need with respect to the expected performance for the
particular airplane.

How the wing produces lift is explained in aerodynamics pages.

Wings may be attached at the top, middle, or lower portion of the fuselage. These
designs are referred to as high-, mid-, and low-wing, respectively. The number of
wings can also vary. Airplanes with a single set of wings are referred to as
monoplanes, while those with two sets are called biplanes.
Figure 5: Monoplane and biplane.

Many high-wing airplanes have external braces, or wing struts, which transmit the
flight and landing loads through the struts to the main fuselage structure. Since the
wing struts are usually attached approximately halfway out on the wing, this type of
wing structure is called semi-cantilever. A few high-wing and most low-wing
airplanes have a full cantilever wing designed to carry the loads without external
struts.

The principal structural parts of the wing are spars, ribs, and stringers.
Figure 6: Wing components.

These are reinforced by trusses, I-beams, tubing, or other devices, including the
skin. The wing ribs determine the shape and thickness of the wing (airfoil). In most
modern airplanes, the fuel tanks either are an integral part of the wing’s structure,
or consist of flexible containers mounted inside of the wing.

Attached to the rear, or trailing, edges of the wings are two types of control surfaces
referred to as ailerons and flaps. Ailerons extend from about the midpoint of each
wing outward toward the tip and move in opposite directions to create aerodynamic
forces that cause the airplane to roll. Flaps extend outward from the fuselage to near
the midpoint of each wing. The flaps are normally flush with the wing’s surface
during cruising flight. When extended, the flaps move simultaneously downward to
increase the lifting force of the wing for takeoffs and landings.

Empennage

The correct name for the tail section of an airplane is empennage. The empennage
includes the entire tail group, consisting of fixed surfaces such as the vertical
stabilizer and the horizontal stabilizer. The movable surfaces include the rudder, the
elevator, and one or more trim tabs.
Figure 7: Empennage components.

A second type of empennage design does not require an elevator. Instead, it

incorporates a one-piece horizontal stabilizer that pivots from a central hinge point.

This type of design is called a stabilator, and is moved using the control wheel, just
as you would the elevator.

For example, when you pull back on the control wheel, the stabilator pivots so the
trailing edge moves up. This increases the aerodynamic tail load and causes the nose
of the airplane to move up. Stabilators have an antiservo tab extending across their
trailing edge.
Figure 8: Stabilator components.

The antiservo tab moves in the same direction as the trailing edge of the stabilator.
The antiservo tab also functions as a trim tab to relieve control pressures and helps
maintain the stabilator in the desired position.

The rudder is attached to the back of the vertical stabilizer.

During flight, it is used to move the airplane’s nose left and right. The rudder is used
in combination with the ailerons for turns during flight. The elevator, which is
attached to the back of the horizontal stabilizer, is used to move the nose of the
airplane up and down during flight.

Trim tabs are small, movable portions of the trailing edge of the control surface.
These movable trim tabs, which are controlled from the cockpit, reduce control
pressures. Trim tabs may be installed on the ailerons, the rudder, and/or the
elevator.

Landing gear

The landing gear is the principle support of the airplane when parked, taxiing, taking
off, or when landing. The most common type of landing gear consists of wheels, but
airplanes can also be equipped with floats for water operations, or skis for landing on
snow.

Figure 9: Landing gear.

The landing gear consists of three wheels—two main wheels and a third wheel
positioned either at the front or rear of the airplane. Landing gear employing a
rearmounted wheel is called conventional landing gear.

Airplanes with conventional landing gear are sometimes referred to as tailwheel

airplanes. When the third wheel is located on the nose, it is called a nosewheel, and
the design is referred to as a tricycle gear. A steerable nosewheel or tailwheel
permits the airplane to be controlled throughout all operations while on the ground.

The powerplant

The powerplant usually includes both the engine and the propeller. The primary
function of the engine is to provide the power to turn the propeller. It also generates
electrical power, provides a vacuum source for some flight instruments, and in most
single-engine airplanes, provides a source of heat for the pilot and passengers. The
engine is covered by a cowling, or in the case of some airplanes, surrounded by a
nacelle.

The purpose of the cowling or nacelle is to streamline the flow of air around the
engine and to help cool the engine by ducting air around the cylinders. The propeller,
mounted on the front of the engine, translates the rotating force of the engine into a
forwardacting force called thrust that helps move the airplane through the air.
Figure 10: Engine compartment.

Continuous Beams
When a Beam is carried on three or more supports it is said to be Continuous. It is possible
to use an extension of the Moment-Area method ( See "Bending of Beams Part 3") to obtain a
relationship between the Bending Moments at three points ( Usually Supports.)
On the drawing the areas are the Free Bending Moment areas obtained by
treating the Beam as over two separate spans . If the actual Bending Moments at
these points are . Then a Fixing Moment diagram consisting of two
trapezia can be introduced and the actual Bending Moment will be the Algebraic sum of the
two diagrams.
In the lower figure the Elastic Line of the deflected Beam is shown. The deflections

are measure relative to the left hand support and are positive upwards. is the
slope of the beam over the central support and are the intercepts for

(1)

Note. This assumes that the slopes everywhere are small.

(2)

(3)

Note that is a negative intercept.

The above equation can be written as:-
(4)

If
(5)

If the supports are at the same level:-

(6)

If the Ends are Simply Supported then

(7)
Clapeyron's Equation Or The Equation Of Three Moments
Equation (4) is the most general form of The Equation of Three Moments. Equations (5) (6)
and (7) are simplifications to meet particular needs. Of these Equation (6) is the form most
frequently required.

Example 1:
A Beam Ad 60 ft. long rests on supports at A, B, and C which are at the same level.
AB = 24 ft. and BC = 30 ft. The loading is 1 ton/ft. throughout and in addition a
concentrated load of 5 tons acts at the mid-point of AB and a load of 2 tons acts at
D Draw the Shear Force and Bending Moment diagrams.
(8)

(9)

Applying Equation (6) to the span A B C

(10)

(11)

(12)

The Bending Moment at mid-point of AB

(13)

The Bending Moment at the mid-point of BC

(14)

To find the reactions at the supports

(15)

(16)

(17)

(18)
By difference
(19)

From the Shear Force diagram it can be seen that the maximum Bending Moment
occurs either at a distance of 13.5 ft. from C where:-
(20)
 Or at a distance of 10.5 ft. from A where:-
(21)

The combined Bending Moment diagram is shown at the bottom of the sketch.

Example 2:
A Beam ABC of uniform cross section rests on elastic supports at A B C each support
sinking by 1/100 inches per ton of load carried. If AB is 20 ft and BC 16 ft. and the
loading is 1/2 tons/ft. find the reactions at the supports and the maximum Bending
Moment.

(22)

(23)

Applying the Theorem of Three Moments . See Equation (5)

(24)

(25)

(26)

(27)
(28)

But is th hoggging Bending Moment at B

(29)

(30)

(31)

(32)

(33)

Substituting in equation (28)

(34)

(35)

From Equation (30)

From Equation (32)
From Equation (33)

The Shear Force is Zero at from A and at

from C
The Maximum Bending Moment between A and B :-
(36)

The Maximum Bending Moment between B and C :-

(37)
 Thus the maximum Bending Moment is 18.05 tons-ft.

Beams With More Than Two Spans.

Where a Beam extends over more than three Supports the Equation of Three Moments is
applied to each group of three in turns. In general if there are n Supports there will be n - 2
unknown Bending Moments ( excluding the Ends) and n - 2 equations to solve simultaneously.

Moment distribution method

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Moment distribution)

Jump to: navigation, search

The moment distribution method (not to be confused with moment redistribution) is a

structural analysis method for statically indeterminate beams and frames developed by
Hardy Cross. It was published in 1930 in an ASCE journal.[1] The method only accounts
for flexural effects and ignores axial and shear effects. From the 1930s until when
computers began to be widely used in the design and analysis of structures, the moment
distribution method was the most widely used method in practice.
Contents
[hide]
 1 Introduction
 2 Implementation
o 2.1 Fixed end moments
o 2.2 Flexural stiffness
o 2.3 Distribution factors
o 2.4 Carryover factors
o 2.5 Sign convention
o 2.6 Framed structures
 3 Example
o 3.1 Fixed-end moments
o 3.2 Distribution factors
o 3.3 Carryover factors
o 3.4 Moment distribution
o 3.5 Result
 4 Notes
 5 References

 6 See also

[edit] Introduction

In the moment distribution method, every joint of the structure to be analysed is fixed so
as to develop the fixed-end moments. Then each fixed joint is sequentially released and
the fixed-end moments (which by the time of release are not in equilibrium) are
distributed to adjacent members until equilibrium is achieved. The moment distribution
method in mathematical terms can be demonstrated as the process of solving a set of
simultaneous equations by means of iteration.

The moment distribution method falls into the category of displacement method of
structural analysis.

[edit] Implementation

In order to apply the moment distribution method to analyse a structure, the following
things must be considered.

[edit] Fixed end moments

Fixed end moments are the moments produced at member ends by external loads when
the joints are fixed.

[edit] Flexural stiffness

The flexural stiffness (EI/L) of a member is represented as the product of the modulus of
elasticity (E) and the second moment of area (I) divided by the length (L) of the member.
What is needed in the moment distribution method is not the exact value but the ratio of
flexural stiffness of all members.

[edit] Distribution factors

Distribution factors can be defined as the proportions of the unbalanced moments carried
by each of the members.

[edit] Carryover factors

Unbalanced moments are carried over to the other end of the member when the joint is
released. The ratio of the carried-over moment at the other end to the fixed-end moment
of the initial end is the carryover factor.

Published by: Civil engineering dept. of Shiraz University

[edit] Sign convention

Any moment acting clockwise is considered to be positive. This differs from the usual
engineer's sign convention, which employs a Cartesian coordinate system with positive x-
axis to the right and positive y-axis up, resulting in positive moment about the z-axis
being counterclockwise.

[edit] Framed structures

Framed structures with or without sidesway can be analysed using the moment
distribution method.

[edit] Example

Example

The statically indeterminate beam shown in the figure is to be analysed.

  Members AB, BC, CD have the same length .
 Flexural rigidities are EI, 2EI, EI respectively.
 Concentrated load of magnitude acts at a distance from
the support A.
 Uniform load of intensity acts on BC.
 Member CD is loaded at its midspan with a concentrated load of magnitude
.

In the following calcuations, counterclockwise moments are positive.

[edit] Fixed-end moments

[edit] Distribution factors

The distribution factors of joints A and D are DAB = DDC = 1.

[edit] Carryover factors

The carryover factors are , except for the carryover factors from A (roller support) to B
and from D (fixed support) to C which are zero.

[edit] Moment distribution

Joint A Joint B Joint C Joint D

Distrib
. 01 0.2727 0.7273 0.6667 0.3333 10
factors

Fixed-
end
14.700 -6.300 8.333 -8.333 12.500 -12.500
mome
nts

Step 1 -14.700 → -7.350

Step 2 1.450 3.867 → 1.934

Step 3 -2.034 ← -4.067 -2.034 → -1.017

Step 4 0.555 1.479 → 0.739

Step 5 -0.246 ← -0.493 -0.246 → -0.123

Step 6 0.067 0.179 → 0.090

Step 7 -0.030 ← -0.060 -0.030 → -0.015

Step 8 0.008 0.022 → 0.011

Step 9 -0.004 ← -0.007 -0.004 → -0.002

Step
0.001 0.003
10

Sum
of
0 -11.569 11.569 -10.186 10.186 -13.657
mome
nts

Numbers in grey are balaced moments; arrows ( → / ← ) represent the carry-over of

moment from one end to the other end of a member.

[edit] Result

 Moments at joints determined by the moment distribution method

The conventional engineer's sign convention is used here.

For comparison purposes, the following are the results generated using a matrix method.
Note that in the analysis above, the iterative process was carried to >0.01 precision. The
fact that the matrix analysis results and the moment distribution analysis results match to
0.001 precision is mere coincidence.

 Moments at joints determined by the matrix method

The complete shear and bending moment diagrams are as shown. Note that the moment
distribution method only determines the moments at the joints. Developing complete
bending moment diagrams require additional calculations using the determined joint
moments and internal section equilibrium.

 SFD and BMD

Shear force diagram Bending moment diagram

[edit] Notes
1. ^ Cross, Hardy (1930), "Analysis of Continuous Frames by Distributing Fixed-End
Moments", Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE): 919-928

[edit] References
 Norris, Charles Head; John Benson Wilbur, Senol Utku (1976). Elementary
Structural Analysis (3rd ed.), McGraw-Hill. pp. 327-345. ISBN 0-07-047256-4.
 McCormac, Jack C.; James K. Nelson, Jr. (1997). Structural Analysis: A Classical
and Matrix Approach (2nd ed.), Addison-Wesley. pp. 488-538. ISBN 0-673-
99753-7.
 Yang, Chang-hyeon (2001-01-10). Structural Analysis (4th ed.). Seoul: Cheong
Moon Gak Publishers. pp. 391-422. ISBN 89-7088-709-1,
http://www.cmgbook.co.kr/category/sub_detail.html?no=1017.
 Volokh, K.Y. (2002). On foundations of the Hardy Cross method, International
Journal of Solids and Structures,Volume 39, Issue 16, August 2002, Pages 4197-
4200. doi:10.1016/S0020-7683(02)00345-1,
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VJS-
46DM66R-
2&_user=32321&_coverDate=08%2F31%2F2002&_alid=721215136&_rdoc=3&
_fmt=full&_orig=search&_cdi=6102&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=7&_
acct=C000004038&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=32321&md5=aabd85f9
f5bb1c02b9e2f906f7f9dd19.

[edit] See also

 Slope deflection method
  Hardy Cross

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Category: Structural analysis