Ocean & Coastal Management 138 (2017) 50e59

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Ocean & Coastal Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman

The role of breakwaters on the rehabilitation of coastal and mangrove

forests in West Kalimantan, Indonesia
Aji Ali Akbar a, *, Junun Sartohadi b, Tjut Sugandawaty Djohan c, Su Ritohardoyo b
a
Faculty of Engineering, Tanjungpura University, Pontianak, Indonesia
b
Faculty of Geography, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
c
Faculty of Biology, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The breakwaters, which were built by the government of West Kalimantan, Indonesia in late 1993 were
Received 26 May 2016 aimed to protect the coast and mangrove forest. However, the effectiveness of building the breakwaters
Received in revised form is not known because no measurement has been done. This study aimed to reveal the effectiveness of
25 December 2016
building breakwaters to protect the coast and its role in the rehabilitation of mangrove forest.
Accepted 5 January 2017
The role of breakwaters in protecting the coast and rehabilitating the mangrove forest were assessed
by comparing differences between the condition when there were no breakwaters versus condition after
the breakwaters built. Beside building breakwaters, the government plant Rhizopora to restore the
Keywords:
Breakwaters
mangrove forest. The success rate of mangrove rehabilitation effort was determined by measuring
Protection density and distribution of Rhizophora and colonization of Avicennia marina. The study conducted using
Rehabilitation survey method with a landscape approach conducted in three bays of the South China Sea, West Kali-
Colonization mantan, Indonesia, which are: Penibung, Sungai Duri, and Karimunting. The measurement of parameters
Rhizophora sp. was conducted with purposive sampling technique based on perpendicular toward the sea area. The
parameters measured were shoreline differences, the distribution of bottom and drift sediment, and the
prediction of longshore sediment transport alongside the shore.
The result showed that the breakwaters built in Karimunting and Penibung Bay were successful to
reduce the amount of coastal erosion up to 70% within 22 years. On the contrary, the breakwaters built in
the Bay of Sungai Duri could not reduce the coastal erosion. The effects of breakwaters on mangrove
rehabilitation were clear, which can be observed on the colonization rate of Avicennia marina and
reforestation of Rhizophora sp. in Karimunting Bay. The abrasion of shoreline still occurred although
there were breakwaters built. It might be caused by the construction of breakwaters were segmented.
The condition worsens by activities of beach sand excavation.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Kalimantan I, 2011). The destruction of mangrove forests in West

Coastal erosion and mangrove ecosystems damage are envi-
ronmental disasters that have altered the socioeeconomic life of
the coastal society in West Kalimantan (Akbar et al., 2008). The rate
of coastal erosion and mangrove ecosystems damage in West
Kalimantan is 20 m/year on average during the last four decades. In
West Kalimantan, the abrasion has caused damage to the economy,
such as damage to the people settlements, agricultural areas, and
the main road (Akbar et al., 2008; Institute of River Region
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: aji.ali.akbar.2011@gmail.com (A.A. Akbar).
Kalimantan was triggered by rapid reclamation, increasing coconut
plantations and settlements since the 1950s, followed by extensive
expansion of shrimp farms in the early 1980s (Akbar et al., 2008).
The degradation of mangrove forest has diminished the role of
mangroves as coastal protection (Blasco et al., 1996; Ewel et al.,
1998; Ro €nnback, 1999; Sathirathai and Barbier, 2001; Mazda
et al., 2006; Thampanya et al., 2006; Walters et al., 2008). There-
fore, the degradation of mangrove forest aggravates coastal erosion
in West Kalimantan.
The breakwaters were planned in 1992 and built a year after by
the Government of West Kalimantan to decrease coastal erosion.
The Government was targeted to build 60 km of breakwaters along
the shoreline. Unfortunately, the target could not be achieved, only

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2017.01.004
0964-5691/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 A.A. Akbar et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 138 (2017) 50e59
22 km of breakwaters were built. Basically, the purposes of con-
structing breakwaters are 1) protecting the road, settlements and
agricultural areas from coastal erosion; and 2) to let the mangroves
breed and sprout (Institute of River Region Kalimantan I, 2011).
This study is essential because there is lack of study about the
effectiveness of breakwaters built on the shorelines of Indonesia.
This study examined the effect of breakwaters built to 1) the
changing of coastal erosion and the trap of surrounding sediment;
2) the effect of breakwaters on the physical and chemical charac-
teristics of sediments and soil, which are: soil texture, nutrients
(NHþ 3 2  þ2
4 , PO4 , SO4 ,H2S, NO3 , Organic Compound and Fe , pH and
salinity; and 3) the growth and spread of Rhizophora sp., which has
been planted and the colonization of Avicennia marina.
The analysis conducted in this study are: the changes in
shorelines and bathymetry, bottom and drift sediment, wind di-
rection and speed as the wave generator, wave direction and speed,
Fig. 1. Location studies: Bay of Karimunting, Bay of Sungai Duri, and Bay of Penibung, West Kalimantan.
51
longshore sediment transport rate, the estimated cost of the
breakwaters construction, and mangrove vegetation growth con-
ditions at the research locations.
2. Materials and method
2.1. Location studies
The determination of research locations based on the conditions
of: biophysical condition of eroded coast, mangrove forests, land
transportation accessibility, settlements denseness, and the pres-
ence of breakwaters. This study used a survey method with land-
scape approach in three research locations at the bays of South
China Sea, West Kalimantan, Indonesia, from north to south (Fig. 1):
1) Bay of Karimunting 0 420 49.4200 0 470 24.4300 North Latitude
(N) and 108 510 7.6100 108 520 20.8500 East Longitude (E). 2) Bay of
52 A.A. Akbar et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 138 (2017) 50e59

Sungai Duri (0 290 17.2200 0 420 49.4200 N and 108 520 2.4. Condition of mangrove forest and soil quality
20.8500 108 540 37.6700 E). 3) Bay of Penibung (0 200 19.3500 0 290
17.2200 N and 108 520 20.8500 108 550 3.4000 E). The data of mangrove forest conditions and soil quality referred
Oceanographic sampling was conducted using purposive sam- to Akbar et al. (2016) which were modified. Mangrove forest
pling technique. It means to determine the point of sampling is not vegetation conditions were based on the number of individuals,
random. To determine the sampling point for parameters of ba- diameter at breast height, height, and the width of canopy. Physical
thymetry, bottom sediment and drift sediment were perpendicular soil data included texture, structure, permeability, and soil mois-
shoreline toward the sea. Besides that, mangrove vegetation sam- ture content. Chemical soil data consisted of organic soil com-

pling was conducted by Akbar et al. (2016). Oceanographic pa- pound, soil salinity, soil pH, sulfur (SO2 2þ
4 ), iron (Fe ), nitrate (NO3 ),
rameters measured were shoreline changes, bathymetry, bottom ammonium (NHþ 4 ), phosphate (PO 3
4 ), and the bulk density. Then,
sediment and drift sediment; mangrove vegetation conditions, the mangrove forests and soil quality were compared spatially in
both natural and planted; also the physical and chemical quality of three locations of the study to measure the effect of the breakwa-
the soil. Winds and currents direction and velocity data in ters (BW).
2008e2013 were obtained from the Meteorological and Geophysics
Maritime Agency of Pontianak (2014). 3. Result

2.2. The shoreline changes and erosion - sedimentation area 3.1. Shoreline changes

The determination of shoreline changes used the overlay
method. It was adapted from Duc et al. (2012); Kim et al. (2014);
and Edwards and Namikas (2011). The shoreline changes were
determined by overlaying the Landsat full band image in 1972, 1992
and 2014. The digital maps of Indonesia Forestry Department in
2000 was used as a reference map (benchmark). Google Earth
image was also used as contemporary information. The eroded
area, or desedimentation area, was analyzed using Registered
ArcGIS version 10.1.
Shoreline changes during the years 1972e2014 showed nearly
24 ha/year abrasion in average (Table 1). Nevertheless, conceding
that the shoreline changes were divided into pre-construction
during the period 1972e1992 and post-construction during the
period 1992e2014, in general breakwaters were able to reduce
coastal erosion. Nonetheless, there was still erosion in the bay of
Sungai Duri, which increased from 5.35 ha/year before breakwaters
being built become 12.06 ha/year after breakwaters were built
(Table 1 and Fig. 2B).

2.3. The rate of longshore sediment transport 3.2. Bathymetric analysis

The rate of longshore sediment transport (LST) is one of the
parameters that affect coastal geomorphology (CERC, 1984; Mil-
Homens et al., 2013; Shanas and Kumar 2014). The LST was pre-
dicted using CERC and Kamphuis formula (Mil-Homens et al.,
2013). The supporting data for LST prediction were the beach
slope, bottom and drift sediment; also variables of wind for waves
prediction and wind roses assisted by WRPLOT View 7.0 program.
Bottom sediments were measured at the same sampling point
with bathymetric measurement, to examine the texture of three
fractions correlated with the slope of the beach (CERC, 1984). Drift
sediment measurements were analyzed with filter paper 0.45 mm
to predict the sediment source. The measurements of drift sedi-
ment were conducted in seven sampling points: the waters of the
three bays and four points in major river estuaries of the Kapuas
River, the Mempawah River, the Sungai Duri and the Raya River.
Analysis of bathymetry displayed in Table 2 showed that the
beach was lightly sloping and the value of the slope (S) was 0.03 in
average. At a distance of 4e5 km from shoreline in the eastern part
of the small islands there were grooves with recesses of more than
20 m.
3.3. Bottom sediment
Distribution of bottom sediment as shown in Fig. 3 in coastal
areas indicated that in all locations, the texture of the sand was in
almost evenly ranges at 3e15%. There was a tendency that in a
northern direction toward the sea, the proportion of silt was greater
than the clay (50: 45). On the other hand, in the southern direction
towards the sea, the clay proportion was greater than the silt (52:
37).

Table 1
The coastline changes based on the rate of changes in the area (ha) per year in the Bay of: Penibung, Sungai Duri, and Karimunting, West Kalimantan in 1972e2014.

Bay Code Period 1972e1992 1992e2014 1972e2014

Process Area without breakwaters (ha) Area with breakwaters (ha) (ha)

Karimunting A Sedimentation 14.23 55.48 56.82

Erosion 15.74 4.95 7.80
Rate Process 1.51 50.53 49.02
Rate Process/year 0.08 2.30* 1.17*
Sungai Duri B Sedimentation 26.14 1.55 13.97
Erosion 133.16 266.84 533.52
Rate Process 107.02 265.30 519.55
Rate Process/year 5.35 12.06 12.37
Penibung C Sedimentation 155.23 331.76 242.23
Erosion 832.64 316,79 768.58
Rate Process 677.41 14.97 526.35
Rate Process/year 33.87 0.68* 12.53
Total (A þ B þ C) Rate Process/year 40.02 9.08 23.73

Note: (abrasion), *(accretion).

 A.A. Akbar et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 138 (2017) 50e59 53

Fig. 2. Change in the coastline on Bay of: Karimunting (A), Sungai Duri (B), and Penibung (C) 1972, 1992, 2014 Source: Landsat imagery in 1972, 1992, and 2014; Map based on
Decree of Forestry Minester No. 259 (2000).

Table 2
The bathymetry measurement of the Gundul Headland (the northern Bay of Karimunting) to Kuala Mempawah Headland (the southern Bay of Penibung).

Transect Depth (m) Distance from shoreline (m) Gradien Information

1 22.0 4500 0.0050 Gundul headland

2 5.5 5000 0.0010 bay
3 6.0 5000 0.0010 bay
4 21.0 4500 0.0050 headland
5 9.3 5000 0.0020 bay
6 6.4 5000 0.0010 bay
7 6.4 5000 0.0010 bay
8 19.0 4500 0.0040 headland
9 11.0 5000 0.0020 bay
10 13.0 5000 0.0030 bay
11 23.0 4000 0.0060 Kuala Mempawah headland

Average 12.9 0.0028

3.4. Drift sediment sediments were in various recesses at the estuary of the Raya River.
The amounts in the recesses of 0 m; 0.5 m; and 2 m were 0.08; 0.09;
Drift sediment sampling was done while the water was receding and 0.13 g L1 respectively. An exception was in the recesses of 2 m
(Fig. 4). Laboratory analysis showed that the highest levels of drift in Sungai Duri estuary which was 0.15 g L1.
54 A.A. Akbar et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 138 (2017) 50e59

Sea 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Transect

Silt Sand
0 40 80 Clay (%) (%) North
(%)

Fig. 3. The texture distribution of bottom sediment in coastal water of West Kalimantan. The vertical direction (the beach - sea) and the Penibung Bay - Karimunting Bay (south -
north).

0.15
Water Depth 0.13
0m
Average TSS
(gram liter-1)

0.10 0.5 m
0.07 0.07
2m
0.05 0.04
0.02 0.03

0.00
MSK MSM TP MSD TSD MSR TK

Fig. 4. Distribution of drift sediment in West Kalimantan coastal from South to North. MSK: Kapuas River estuary, MSM: Mempawah River estuary, TP: Bay of Penibung, MSD:
Sungai Duri estuary, TSD: Bay of Sungai Duri, MSR: Raya River estuary, and TK: Bay of Karimunting. TSS: Total Suspended Solids.

3.5. Wind speed and direction 3.7. Longshore sediment transport rate

The Distribution of wind in the tropical area of Southeast Asia
influenced by the seasonal winds of the north and south monsoon
(Wyrtki, 1961). This condition also applies in West Kalimantan. In
the shorelines of West Kalimantan, the wind blows rapidly as
shown on Table 3. During December until February the wind blows
dominant from North (38.7%) with average speed of 2.69 m/s.
Meanwhile, during June until August, the wind blows dominant
from South (47.7%) with average speed of 2.51 m/s. There were two
transition period in between, which are during March to May and
during September to November.
3.6. Current speed and direction
The average speed of water current ranged from 6.8 to 14.2 cm/s.
The current had an opposite direction from the wind direction
(Table 3). During December to February, the main current direction
is from the south (82.4%) with the average speed of 14.2 cm/s. On
the contrary, during June to August, the current direction is from
the north (76%) with the speed of 8.92 cm/s. Thereafter, the current
speed and quantity decline in September to November were
6.81 cm/s and 38%.
Longshore sediment transport rate is influenced by wind gen-
eration functions that produce the wave. Assuming that the west
coast of Kalimantan is affected by monsoons, the amount of
transported sediment can be predicted using the formula of Kam-
phuis and CERC (Table 4). The CERC formula predicts that the
maximum rate of transported sediment to the south (December to
February) is approximately 11.5 million m3/year. Conversely, nearly
16 million m3 of sediment is transported to the north every year;
the accumulation of sediment in the north is about 4.5 million m3/
year. If Kamphuis formula was used, the value of the sediment that
accumulates in the north would be less than the CERC formula,
which was about 28,000e46,000 m3/year.
3.8. Breakwaters
The construction of breakwaters (BW) in West Kalimantan had
been planned since 1992. In 1993, BW construction was conducted
along 137 m of shoreline at a cost of 1.78 million IDR.m1 shoreline.
Until 2014, 22 km of breakwaters had been built from the 60 km
that had been planned. In 2014, the construction cost of BW
increased to 17.4 million IDR.m1. The payment was almost entirely
from the national government budget (Fig. 5).

Table 3
The frequency distribution of wind speed and currents direction on the West Kalimantan coast.

Period (ITCZ, Verstappen, 1980; Gordon, 2005) Speed frequency distribution

Wind (m/s) Current (cm/s)

Dominant direction of 0.5e5.7 (%) >>5.7 (%) Avg. Dominant direction of 1-7 (%) >>7 (%) Avg.

DecembereFebruary North 38.7 0.77 2.69 South 14.5 67.9 14.21

MarcheMay South 15.9 0.00 1.78 South 26.4 16.7 5.18
North 23.0 5.2
JuneeAugust South 47.7 0.27 2.51 North 23.8 52.2 8.92
SeptembereNovember South 30.8 0.05 2.09 North 19.2 19.1 6.81

Source: analyzed based on Meteorological and Geophysics Maritime Agency of Pontianak (2014). Avg; Average
 A.A. Akbar et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 138 (2017) 50e59 55

Table 4
Longshore sediment transport rate based on The Kamphuis and The CERC Formula on the West Kalimantan coast.

Wind period Wind speed (m/s) Longshore sediment transport rate (m3/Year)

Minimal Maximal

Min Max Kamphuis CERC Kamphuis CERC

DecembereFebruary 1,3 9,8 14,169,0 1,017,036.3 600,663.9 11,467,810.8

MarcheMay 1,3 4,6 14,169,0 1,017,036.3 135,757.9 4,182,402.9
JuneeAugust 1,3 7,3 14,169,0 1,017,036.3 255,412.9 5,893,306.9
SeptembereNovember 1,3 7,3 14,169,0 1,017,036.3 255,412.9 5,893,306.9

Source: analyzed based on Meteorological and Geophysics Maritime Agency of Pontianak (2014).

20 5,000
Length
4,000
15
MILLIONS

Cost / m

LENGTH
COST
(IDR)

3,000

(M)
10
2,000
5
1,000

0 0
1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2010 2013
YEAR

Fig. 5. The breakwaters's cost e length each year in West Kalimantan Coast. Data 2011e2012 are not available. Source: Institute of River Region Kalimantan I (2011, 2014).

3.9. Mangrove forest condition
The abundance of mangrove vegetation was the response to
coast geomorphologic condition in some research locations on the
bays of: Penibung, Sungai Duri, and Karimunting. In each location,
the mangrove community shown different species composition,
distribution and density (Table 5). Mangrove is a characteristic
formation of coastal vegetation in the tropics and subtropics
(Hamilton and dan Snedaker, 1984; Arksornkoae, 1993; FAO, 1994)
which can grow on the shores that are sheltered from wave
(Nybakken and Bertness, 2005) and abundance fresh water and
mud (Watson, 1928). The others factor that influence the diversity
and productivity of mangrove are climate, geomorphology, tidal
range and soil characteristics (English et al., 1994). In Karimunting,
Avicennia marina was the main species composed the community
and it has most abundant distribution amongst other species.
Meanwhile, in Sungai Duri and Penibung, Rhizopora sp. and Nypa
fruticans were dominated the mangrove community. Rhizophora sp.
was the species planted by the government. The mangrove forests
in West Kalimantan coast, especially on the nothern side of the
equator, such as in Karimunting Bay, Sungai Duri Bay, and Penibung
Bay, can be classified into two types: fringe mangrove and riverine
mangrove.
The side of the fringe mangrove forest was mainly composed of
Api-api (Avicennia marina sp.) with the addition of perepat (Son-
neratia alba), kedabu (Sonneratia ovata), bakau (Rhizophora apicu-
lata), tumu (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza), and buta-buta (Excoecaria
agallocha). Mangrove palmae that exist was nipah (Nypa fruticans),
fern was piai lasa (Acrostichum speciosum) and some mangrove
shrubs were jeruju (Acanthus ilicifolius), kambingan (Derris heter-
ophylla) and dadap laut (Cleredendrum inerme) (Akbar et al., 2016).
The colonization of api-api (Avicennia marina) in every growth
form in Karimunting Bay was 970 trees, 1560 saplings and 50,889
seedlings per hectare (Table 5 and Fig. 6). The enormous density of

Table 5
Distribution of tree, sapling and seedling density of species composing mangrove forest in Karimunting Bay, Sungai Duri Bay and Penibung Bay in West Kalimantan (in each
hectare).

Spesies Local name Karimunting Sungai Duri Penibung

Tree Sap Seed Tree Sap Seed Tree Sap Seed

Natural
1 Avicennia marina Api-api 970 1576 50,899 35 7 6 8 18 234
2 Avicennia officinalis Api-api Hitam 0 0 0 16 3 0 0 0 0
3 Sonneratia alba Perepat 0 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0
4 Sonneratia ovata Kedabu 0 0 0 2 1 69 0 1 1
5 Rhizophora apiculata Bakau 10 3 0 5 0 30 2 5 0
6 Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Tumu 60 138 5790 0 0 0 2 4 10
7 Excoecaria agallocha Buta-buta 63 25 25 0 0 0 0 1 0
8 Xylocarpus granatum Nyirih 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0
9 Nypa fruticans Nipah 231 0 0 157 0 63 104 0 0
Number of Species 5 7 7
Planting
1 Rhizophora sp Bakau 20 4620 3180 25 630 2525 0 0 8778

Note: Sap: Sapling; Seed: Seedling.

Source: Akbar et al. (2016).
56 A.A. Akbar et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 138 (2017) 50e59

Fig. 6. The Avicennia marina colonization (A) before breakwaters construction in 2004, and (B) after breakwaters construction in 2012 in Karimunting Bay West Kalimantan Coast.

api-api (Avicennia marina) was forming the colonization. Avicennia 4. Discussion

marina colonization did not occur in Sungai Duri Bay and Penibung
Bay. Nonetheless, species diversity that composed mangrove
ecosystem in Karimunting Bay was less varied compared to Sungai
Duri Bay and Penibung Bay, which in both locations it was
composed by seven species (Table 5).
3.10. Rhizophora plant
Bakau (Rhizophora sp.) seed was planted mostly in Penibung Bay
(8778 ha1). Years before the planting in Penibung Bay, the Rhizo-
phora sp. was planted in Karimunting Bay (4620 ha1) in sapling
growth form. There were some points that indicated the failure in
Rhizophora sp. planting in Penibung Bay and Sungai Duri Bay. The
first point to be observed was the tremendous cost of mangrove
planting in 2002 (24.6 million IDR) and 2010 (321.2 million IDR)
(Institute of River Region Kalimantan I, 2011). It was not propor-
tional between the cost spent and the development of the trees
planting (Akbar et al., 2016).
3.11. Physical properties of soil and nutrient content
The texture composition of clay, silt, and sand in all locations
showed almost equivalent percentage, with the greatest composi-
tion being silt (37.52e45.23%). The pH value and volume weight
tended to be homogeneous, except in Penibung Bay whose
permeability and soil salinity had a different value to the other
sites. The highest nutrient content level e organic compound, ni-
trates, ammonium, and sulfur e were obtained in Sungai Duri Bay,
while the highest phosphate level was obtained in Penibung Bay
(Table 6).
4.1. Coastal erosion
The erosion rate on the shorelines of Penibung, Sungai Duri, and
Karimunting from 1972 to 2014 was 23.7 ha/year (Table 1 and
Fig. 2). During the years before the breakwaters were built
(1972e1992) the erotion rate was 40 ha/year in total. The erosion
that was equivalent to the setback of the shorelines is called
abrasion, which was 20 m/year in average (Akbar et al., 2008). The
abrasion in West Kalimantan was about 5 m/year worse than in
South Thailand (Saengsupavanich et al., 2009) and 3e4 m/year
worse than the North Sea coast of Denmark (Laustrup, 1988).
Meanwhile, per Table 1, after the breakwaters built within
1992e2014, the shorelines are rehabilitated. It is marked by the
accretion of about 0.7 ha/year in average in the Penibung Bay and
2.3 ha/year in average in the Karimunting Bay. It means that erosion
of the shorelines has declined by more than 75%. On the other hand,
the BW has actually aggravated the condition of eroded beach in
the Sungai Duri Bay, where there has been an increase in erosion of
more than 100% per year, from 5.35 ha before constructions to
12.06 ha after breakwaters. This erosion is exacerbated as a result of
human behavior in the coastal sediment imbalance is mainly due to
sand excavation (Bird, 2008) and the mangrove destruction (Akbar
et al., 2008; Sartohadi et al., 2009; Luo et al., 2015). The coastal
erosion in West Kalimantan began the main road manufacture in
1912, with the use of sand and rock beach along the western coast
of Kalimantan from Pontianak to Sambas (Veth, 2012). That is, a
disturbance in one location will result in disruptions elsewhere.
Erosion is a part of morphogenetics, although Kalimantan Island
had achieved stability without any volcanic and tectonic processes

Table 6
The physical property and the nutrients content of soils in The Bay of: Karimunting, Sungai Duri, and Penibung, West Kalimantan.

Physical property Texture (%) pH Permeability (cm/hour) Volume Salinity (%) EC (mmhos/cm)
H20 weight (g/cc)
Clay Silt Sand

Bay
Karimunting 34.54 37.52 27.94 7.69 318.58 1.09 5.57 0.62
Sungai Duri 33.75 45.23 24.22 7.11 314.35 1.08 4.69 0.52
Penibung 39.61 40.08 20,32 7.67 189.86 1.11 9.43 1.04

Nutrient B O (%) P available (ppm) NHþ

4 (ppm) NO
3 (ppm) SO2
4 (ppm) Fe2þ (ppm)

Bay
Karimunting 4.12 12.17 47.70 42.57 9446.90 5904.31
Sungai Duri 4.59 10.58 50.94 59.57 11,870.57 7419.11
Penibung 3.93 15.76 43.45 42.46 11,529.09 7205.68

Source: Akbar et al. (2016).

 A.A. Akbar et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 138 (2017) 50e59
(Hall et al., 2008). However, the speed of natural erosion in Kali-
mantan was similar to the erosion in the highlands of Alpin and
Himalayas (Hall and Nichols, 2002). The natural erosion in Kali-
mantan was caused by abundant rainfall and consistently hot
temperatures which accelerates the chemical weathering in trop-
ical areas (Verstappen, 1980; Liu et al., 2012).
4.2. Coastal gradient
The slope of West Kalimantan coast was around 0.001 to 0.006
(Table 2). It was lower than the research conducted by Danial
(2008) which was 0.008 in some identical sites. The bottom sedi-
ments (Fig. 3), whose texture was clay, was based on the classifi-
cation of USDA (Sartohadi et al., 2012). Meanwhile, distribution of
drift sediment (Fig. 4) showed the highest level in the estuary of the
Raya River - MSR. This high value might be caused by the activities
of palm plantations and traditional gold mining within 20e30 km
of the river estuary toward upstream.
4.3. Current speed and direction
The West Kalimantan coast is a tropical region influenced by
monsoons (Wyrtki, 1961) with an average wind speed of 5.7 m/s
(Table 3). However, the water current flows in the opposite direc-
tion versus the wind direction (Table 3). It might be caused by the
constant equatorial temperature of the sea surface which induces
upwelling currents (Nybakken and Bertness, 2005). The speed of
currents in the study locations ranged from 6.8 to 14.2 cm/s on
average. Main currents from the south has 14.2 cm/s speed during
the north monsoons. Meanwhile, in south monsoons (June to
August), the currents flow in a direction to the north (76%) at the
speed of 8.92 cm/s and the speed of 6.81 cm/s from September to
November. Bird (2008) describes that the sea currents are able to
move quartz sand when their speed is above 15 cm/s.
4.4. Longshore sediment rate
Longshore sediment rate was affected by wind as the generator
of current and wave (Bird, 2008). Based on the calculation formula
of CERC and Kamphuis (Table 4), the value of accumulated sedi-
ment in the northern location of the study was around 46 thousand
to 4.5 million m3/year. Bird (2008) describes that in the case where
the current flows in the opposite direction to the wind, it would
lead to the accumulation of sediment. Danial (2008) conducted a
study in five locations and four of them were identical: Sengkubang
beach (Penibung Bay), Sungai Duri beach (Sungai Duri Bay), Sungai
Raya beach (Sungai Duri Bay), Batu Payung beach (Karimunting
Bay), and Pasir Panjang Beach (Singkawang Bay). Danial described
that only Sungai Raya beach goes through the process towards
accretion, while the other beaches were experiencing erosion.
Moreover, the erosion rapidity from the largest to the smallest
based were Sungai Duri Beaches >> Sengkubang Beach >> Batu
Payung Beach >> Pasir Panjang Beach, respectively. Based on im-
agery analysis (Table 1), the prediction of longshore sediment
transport rate - LST (Table 4), and Danial's research (2008), it was
found that there were a lot of similarities in the conditions of
erosion e sedimentation - except in the Karimunting Bay. Image
analysis results displayed that the location on Penibung Bay and
Sungai Duri Bay had coastal erosion equal to the predictions of LST
and Danial (2008). Meanwhile, the Karimunting Bay (Table 1)
showed tendency that the sedimentation was equivalent with the
LST prediction, whose accumulation was 450,000e4.5 million m3/
year, but Danial (2008) predicted the erosion in Batu Payung Beach
(Karimunting Bay). The difference between the image analysis and
LST to Danial (2008) is because Danial did not predict the enormous
57
amount of suspended sediment input in the Raya River estuary
(Fig. 4) as the result of coconut palm plantations and traditional
gold mining. Moreover, Danial did not predict the effect of BW on
hydraulics pattern (Kim et al., 2014). Also, longshore sediment
transport (Luo et al., 2015) may also affect the coastal profile
(B
arbaro and Foti, 2013).
4.5. The similarity analysis
The similarity of image analysis, LST, and Danial (2008) was
coastal erosion at Penibung and Sungai Duri Bay. The level of
coastal erosion increased as mentioned above, from 5.35 ha/year to
12.06 ha/year after the construction of breakwaters in Sungai Duri
Bay (Table 1). That was aggravated by human activity (Marfai and
King, 2008; Marfai et al., 2008a,b; Parvin et al., 2008; Day et al.,
2008; Kulkarni et al., 2010; Marshall et al., 2011; Ward et al.,
2011) like sand excavation (Bird, 2008) and the destruction of
mangrove (Ghazali, 2006; Luo et al., 2015). Those human activities
disrupted the balance of coastal sediments (Bird, 2008). Therefore,
although the breakwaters were built at Sungai Duri Bay, the erosion
level of the shorelines increased due to high level of human ac-
tivities. This condition also occurred in Thailand (Saengsupavanich
et al., 2009), Taiwan (Yang et al., 2010), and China (Luo et al., 2015).
The erosion of West Kalimantan shorelines increased because of
the destruction of mangrove forests to expand the coconut plan-
tations, settlements, and shrimp farming (Akbar et al., 2008). The
destruction of mangroves means the loss of natural protection
function from coastal erosion (Blasco et al., 1996; Ewel et al., 1998;
Mazda et al., 2006; Thampanya et al., 2006). The expansion of
settlements, infrastructure, and farmland aggravated the mangrove
destruction (Sathirathai and Barbier, 2001; Walters et al., 2008).
Moreover, shrimp farming also devastated the mangroves by up to
50% (Ro € nnback, 1999; Primavera and Esteban, 2008).
The construction of breakwaters and mangrove planting were
the efforts by the government to overcome coastal erosion in West
Kalimantan (Akbar et al., 2016). The construction of breakwaters in
West Kalimantan was conducted by the Department of Public
Works and Institute of River Region Kalimantan I. The breakwaters
constructed using fund from national government budget since
1992. The government has accomplished the breakwaters con-
struction 21,835 m from total 59,530 m planned (Institute of River
Region Kalimantan I, 2011, 2014).
The total cost of breakwaters construction until 2014 was almost
132 billion IDR. The cost of breakwaters construction increased
from 1.2 million IDR in 1993 up to 17.4 million IDR in 2014 per each
meter of shoreline (Fig. 5). Considering the cost of breakwaters
construction in 2014 was approximately 17.4 million IDR per meter,
the government must provide fund more than 1 trillion IDR to
finish the breakwaters construction project until 59,530 m. Coastal
protection using breakwaters also requires maintenance costs, and
rehabilitation of building structure (Luo et al., 2015), but the costs of
constructing breakwaters in West Kalimantan rated less than 1) the
making of the road that connect the cities on the coast of West
Kalimantan; 2) relocation of people settlements, 3) loss of agri-
cultural land and plantations, and economic activity in the coastal
region of West Kalimantan (Ritohardoyo et al., 2016).
4.6. Avicennia marina colonization and soil properties
The abundance of mangrove vegetation was the response to
coast geomorphologic conditions in some research locations at the
bays of: Penibung, Sungai Duri, and Karimunting. The mangrove
community in each research location is defined by different
composition, distribution and density, and species diversity
(Table 5). The number of species composed the mangrove
58 A.A. Akbar et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 138 (2017) 50e59
ecosystem in Karimunting Bay was less varied compared to
mangrove ecosystem in Sungai Duri Bay and Penibung Bay, which
are in both locations it is consisted of seven species. The abundant
variety of mangrove species in Sungai Duri Bay might be caused by
the present of watershed of Raya River, which supplied the fresh-
water into the location. The abundant variety of mangrove in
Penibung Bay might be caused by freshwater supply from Mem-
pawah River and Temajuh Islands which protect it. The appropriate
habitat for optimal growth of mangrove are abundance of fresh
water especially in tropical rain forest (Watson, 1928) and sheltered
from wave (Nybakken and Bertness, 2005). Nevertheless, the
largest amount and the highest density (number of individuals per
hectare) on all growth form, especially the type of api-api (Avi-
cennia marina) was found in the Karimunting Bay (Table 5). There
are colonization of api-api (Avicennia marina) in Karimunting Bay
was proved that a high level of fresh water supply and a high input
of sediment from Raya River, sweeping away heading north (Fig. 4).
This mangrove condition in Karimunting as described by Watson
(1928) that mangroves can grow optimally on condition that
abundant of fresh water and sediment, especially as a pioneer at the
seaward area is Avicennia sp.
In Karimunting Bay, the sedimentation was stablized and
formed mud land in front and behind of breakwaters. This sedi-
mentation formed an ecosystem zone of mangrove forest into a
lower zone in front of the breakwaters, and a lower zone behind the
breakwaters. There were Avicennia marina colonization in both
zones. The amount of api-api (Avicennia marina) in every growth
form in Karimunting Bay was 970 trees, 1560 saplings and 50,889
seedlings per hectare (Table 5). The enormous density of api-api
(Avicennia marina) then formed colonization. Avicennia marina
colonization was caused by excessive sedimentation (Table 1) that
formed mud land.
Avicennia marina colonization in Karimunting Bay did not occur
in Sungai Duri Bay or Penibung Bay. Nonetheless, species diversity
that composes mangrove forest ecosystems in Karimunting Bay
was not as diverse as Sungai Duri Bay and Penibung Bay, which
contain seven species of mangrove. The abundance of individual
Avicennia marina in the Bay of Karimunting was because of the
large supply of fresh water and sediments in coastal input derived
from Sungai Raya River (Fig. 4). Avicennia marina is one of pioneer
species at the sea ward area (Watson, 1928; Nybakken and
Bertness, 2005). The seeds of Avicennia marina, being semi-
viviparous and they hairy radicles, are able to start growing at
once and withstand the scour of tide and current (Watson, 1928). In
addition to the amount of fresh water supply and the amount of
sedimentation, the existence of some islands and BW around the
Karimunting Bay helped protect the coast from the strong currents
and waves, so as to allow the deposition of sediments that form the
mud flats. The accumulation of sediment that formed mudflats has
silty clay texture which contain abundant nutrient content and was
sufficient for mangrove habitat (Arksornkoae, 1993).
4.7. Rhizophora sp. planting
Mangrove planting was a nonstructural-soft engineering
attempt to overcome coastal erosion (Luo et al., 2015). Bakau
(Rhizophora sp.) was planted mostly in Penibung Bay (8778 ha1).
On the other hand, in previous years, Rhizophora sp. was mostly
planted in Karimunting Bay (4620 ha1) in sapling form. There
were some indicators of the failure in Rhizophora sp. planting in
Penibung Bay and Sungai Duri Bay. The first point was observed in
the tremendous cost of planting in 2002 (24.6 million IDR) and
2010 (321.2 million IDR) (Institute of River Region Kalimantan I,
2011). The cost was not proportionate to the development of Rhi-
zophora sp. into trees (Akbar et al., 2016). Akbar et al. (2016)
analyzed that unsuccessful indication in Rhizophora sp planting
was based on the development of mangrove sapling (0.09e6.32%)
and mangrove tree (0.07e0.52%) in both of the bays. The analysis
was based on the assumption that 2500e10,000 seedling ha1
planting will develop into saplings and trees. The development of
Rhizophora, sp. into saplings was 13.6e54.5% and 0.15e0.6% into
trees in Karimunting Bay. Most of the mangrove forest planting in
West Kalimantan, except Karimunting Bay, showed a lower rate of
success compared to other tropical countries, about 20% (Primavera
and Esteban, 2008) to 30% (Hashim et al., 2010).
5. Conclusion
The coastal erosion in West Kalimantan has been damaging the
people settlements, agricultural areas, and the main road. The
government is trying to overcome the erosion by constructing
breakwaters and planting mangrove, but those efforts were with
different priorities and without synergism, which led to the
discordance between breakwaters construction and mangrove
planting. Therefore, the coastal protection effort was not effective.
The first factor that obstructing the effort to overcome coastal
erosion in West Kalimantan is lack of budget. It costs 17.4 million
IDR to build, without maintain and repair the breakwaters per
meter of shoreline. In fact, the government is only able to finance
the breakwaters construction at an average of 1 km/year. Therefore,
the time to finish breakwaters construction as planned will take
around 60 years. Therefore, although the breakwaters were built at
Sungai Duri Bay, the erosion level of the shorelines increased due to
high level of human activities as sand excavation. It means human
activities as sand excavation cannot unpredictable in planning
breakwaters.
Secondly, the exploration of beach sand aggravates the erosion
especially in the location which is not protected by breakwaters,
both on a small scale using sack size of 10e25 kg, up to large-scale
intensive retrieval of 400 m3/day. The exploration of sand also ac-
celerates erosion in the bottom structure of breakwaters, and as a
consequence, the lifespan of breakwaters will be reduced. On the
other hand, the sand is a material needed for construction. This
reality causes problems for the government and society. Therefore,
local rules that regulate sand exploration are required. Moreover, it
is a requirement that new locations be found for sand exploration
due to the development of coastal areas.
Third, there was inadequacy in the attempt of a combined
approach between building construction and mangrove planting,
which have the same priorities. This combined approach was suc-
cessful in Malaysia (Hashim et al., 2010) and China (Luo et al., 2015).
However, the planting of mangroves at the same time as con-
structing breakwaters was not a top priority in West Kalimantan as
indicated by the small percentage of existing trees and saplings of
Rhizophora sp. as a plantation.
Fourth, there was an absence of short-, medium- and long-term
strategies between agencies to obtain an effective, synergystic and
sustainable solution to both BW and mangrove plantations. These
strategies are necessary to determine the priority in coastal erosion
prevention. A combination of specific information about geological
characteristics, hydrodynamics, predictions of coastal erosion in
the short-term and long-term in each location in coastal areas, local
society knowledge and inter-agency coordination should be con-
cerned in coastal protection engineering.
Acknowledgement
The research was supported by a Doctoral Research Grant No:
7914/UN22.13/LK/2014 from the Ministry of Research and Tech-
nology of The Republic of Indonesia. We would like to thank Ir.
 A.A. Akbar et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 138 (2017) 50e59
Nancy Pranawengrum, MT at Institute of River Region Kalimantan I
for sharing the information about the construction of breakwaters
in West Kalimantan; to Prof.Dr.Ir.H.Gusti Zakaria Anshari, MES and
Ir.Rini Susana, MSc who permitted drift sediment analysis in Land
Quality Laboratory of Agriculture Faculty, Tanjungpura University
Pontianak, West Kalimantan.
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