Civil Vi Environmental Engineering I (10cv61) Solution

Environmental Engineering – I 10CV61
Question Paper Solution

Unit 1:
1. VARIOUS TYPES OF WATER DEMAND (Dec 2010)
Which planning a water supply scheme, it is necessary to find out not only the
total yearly water demand but also to assess the required average rates of flow (or
draft) and the variations in these rates. The following quantities are therefore,
generally assessed and recorded.
i) Total annual volume (V) in liters or million liters.

ii) Annual average rate of draft in liters per day, i.e V/365
iii) Annual average rate of draft in liters per day per person i.e liters per
capita per day or lpcd called PER CAPITA DEMAND (q) or RATE OF
DEMAND.
V 1
iv) Average rate of draft in liters per day per service i.e ×
365 No of services
v) Fluctuations in flows expressed in terms of percentage ratios of
maximum or minimum yearly, monthly, daily or hourly rates to their
corresponding average values.
It is difficult to precisely assess the quantity of water demanded by the public,

since there are many variable factors affecting water consumption certain thumb
rules and empirical formulas are therefore generally used to assess this quantity,
which may give fairly accurate results. The use of a particular method or a formula
for a particular case has therefore, to be decided by the intelligence and fore
sightedness of the designer. The various types of water demands, which a city may
have, may be divided into the following classes.
i) Domestic water demand

ii) Industrial and commercial water demand
iii) Demand for public uses
iv) Fire demand
v) Water required compensating losses in wastes and thefts.
As correctly as possible the total water demand of a particular section of the

community, all these demands must be considered and suitable provision made
depending upon the needs of those people for whom the water supply scheme is to
be designed.
Department of Civil Engineering, S J B Institute of Technology Page 1

FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND

1. Size and type of city
2. Climatic conditions
3. Class of consumers
4. Quality of water
5. Pressure in the distribution system
6. Sewerage Facilities
7. System of supply
8. Policy of metering system
9. Cost of water
2. Need for protected water supply (Dec 2010 & June 2011)
The provision of such a scheme shall ensure a constant and a reliable water supply
to that section of the people for which it has been designed such a scheme shall not
only help in supplying safe whole some water to the people for drinking cooking,
bathing, washing, etc.., so as to keep the diseases away and there by promoting
better health, but would also help and thus helping in maintaining better sanitation
and beautification of surroundings. Besides promoting overall hygiene and public
health it shall ensure a safety against fire by supplying sufficient quantity of water
to extinguish it. The existence of such a water supply scheme shall further help in
attracting industries and thereby helping in industrialization and modernization of
the society and consequently reducing unemployment and ensuring better living
standards such schemes shall therefore help in promoting health wealth and
welfare of entire community as a whole.
Various important and pathogenic organisms (disease causing organisms) due to
these diseases like typhoid Asiatic cholera Amoebiasis giavdisis etc.. may spread.
These diseases are called WATER borne DISEASES and therefore it will be
harmful to health.
The pathogenic organisms (pathogens) do not multiply in water like that in
milk but they do survive i.e water may be considered as a carrier for bacteria and
not multiplier thus the control of pathogens is possible by simple disinfection
principles (process). (If we control the purity of H2O completely, the chances of
outbreak water borne communicable diseases will be much less). Besides

communicable diseases certain other diseases like goiter, dental flourosis and
skeletal flourosis are attributable to chemical impurities present in water.
3. DRINKING WATER STANDARDS (BIS)
Type of characteristics Type of Impurities Max. Permissible

who limit
PHYSICAL a. Turbidity 5-10mg/lit
(Silica scale)
b. Colour 10-20units
(colour no count scale)
c. Taste and odour Threshold Number
b/n 1-3
d. Temperature 10=160
CHEMICAL a.Total solids 500-1000mg/lit
H
b. P value 6.6-8.0
c. Hardness 7-115mg/litre as Caco3
d. Chlorides 250mg/lit
e. Nitrate 45mg/lit
f. Fe(Iron) 0.3mg/lit
g. Manganese 0.05mg/lit
h. Lead (PB) 0.05-0.1mg/lit
i. Arsenic selenium 0.05mg/lit

chromium silver
k. Barium 1mg/lit
l. Cadmium 0.01mg/lit
m. Copper(Cu) 1-3mg/lit
n. Zinc(Zn) 15mg/lit
o. Magnesuim 125mg/lit
4. The provision of such a scheme shall ensure a constant and a reliable water
supply to that section of the people for which it has been designed such a

scheme shall not only help in supplying safe whole some water to the people
for drinking cooking, bathing, washing, etc.., so as to keep the diseases away
and there by promoting better health, but would also help and thus helping in
maintaining better sanitation and beautification of surroundings. Besides
promoting overall hygiene and public health it shall ensure a safety against
fire by supplying sufficient quantity of water to extinguish it. The existence
of such a water supply scheme shall further help in attracting industries and
thereby helping in industrialization and modernization of the society and
consequently reducing unemployment and ensuring better living standards
such schemes shall therefore help in promoting health wealth and welfare of
entire community as a whole.
5.
year population Increase in ppn Rate of growth

1980 70,000 - -
1990 1,00000 30,000 0.42
2000 1,50000 50,000 0.50
2010 2,00000 50,000 0.30
2020 2,50000 50,000 0.25
R= 1.511
Avg growth pre decade in arthematic method = 180000/4 =45000
Pon at the end of 2030= 250000+45000 = 295000
Pn = P0 (1+r)n = P2030 = 250000(1+1.5/4) = 344375
6& 8) FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND
1. Size and type of city

2. Climatic conditions
3. Class of consumers
4. Quality of water
5. Pressure in the distribution system
6. Sewerage Facilities
7. System of supply

8. Policy of metering system

9. Cost of water
7) It is difficult to precisely assess the quantity of water demanded by the public,
since there are many variable factors affecting water consumption certain thumb
rules and empirical formulas are therefore generally used to assess this quantity,
which may give fairly accurate results. The use of a particular method or a formula
for a particular case has therefore, to be decided by the intelligence and fore
sightedness of the designer. The various types of water demands, which a city may
have, may be divided into the following classes.
i) Domestic water demand

ii) Industrial and commercial water demand
iii) Demand for public uses
iv) Fire demand
v) Water required compensating losses in wastes and thefts.
As correctly as possible the total water demand of a particular section of the

community, all these demands must be considered and suitable provision made
depending upon the needs of those people for whom the water supply scheme is to
be designed.
9 & 14) When the design period is fixed, the next step is to determine population
in various periods because the population of the towns generally goes on
increasing. The population is increased by births, decreased by deaths, increased or
decreased migration. The correct present and past population can be obtained from
census office. The WSS are not designed for the present population the future
population expected by the end of the design period may be estimated by various
methods. The method to be adopted to a particular town or city depends on the
factors discussed in these methods.
The various methods of forecasting the population are

1. Arithmetical increase method
2. Biometrical increase method
3. Incremental increase method
4. Decreasing rate of increase method or decreasing rate method
5. Simple graphical method

6. Comparative graphical method

7. Master plan method or Zoning method
8. Ration method or Apportionment method
9. Logistics curve method.
10& 13) Increasing human population numbers are putting great pressure on many
of these limited resources and deplete those resources which cannot be renewed.
Many different natural processes occur within those ecosystems influencing
humans. Some of these processes include atmospheric quality. soil generation and
conservation, energy flow, the water cycle, waste removal and recycling. Human
activities are altering the equilibrium involved in these natural processes and
cycles. If these changes due to human activities are not addressed, the stability of
the world's ecosystems may irreversibly affected. Humans damage ecosystems by
harvesting trees that are homes to hundreds of different organisms. We damage the
atmosphere by releasing greenhouse gases when we drive cars or use electricity.
We pollute water with chemicals and waste products from factories. We can't
reverse the damage, but we can help prevent new damage by changing our
lifestyles to be less wasteful and more conservative with our resources. I'd love to
tell you all about it(I live very green) but it would take a long time. Basically, just
remember Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. Any little change you can make does help
the problem, even if it's just a minor change like switching to energy saving
lightbulbs.
11) A Water supply scheme includes huge and costly structures like dams,
reservoirs, treatment works, penstocks etc…., which cannot be replaced or
increased in their capacities, easily and conveniently for example. The water mains
including distribution pipes are laid underground and cannot be replaces or added
easily without digging the road or disrupting the traffic. In order to avoid these
future complications of expansions, various components of w.s.s are purposely
made larger, so as to satisfy the community meets for a reasonable years to come.
The future period or the number of years for which a provision is made in
designing the capacities of the various component of the w.s.s. is known as
DESIGN PERIOD. It should be neither too long nor should it be too short.
Normally 20-30 years is considered for distribution system.

PER CAPITA DEMAND (RATE OF DEMAND) (Q)

It is the annual average amount of daily water required by one person and
includes the domestic use, industrial and commercial use, public use, wastes,
thefts, etc…
Total yearly water requirement of the citty in Litres

= Per capita Demand in litres/day/head =
365 Design population
V
q
365 P
12)
Year population Increase per % increase per Incremental
decade decade inrease
1971 23798624
1981 46978325 23179701 0.974
1991 54786437 7808112 16.62 -15371589
2001 63437823 57951386 105.77 +50143274
2011 69077421 5639598 8.88 -52311788
Ia= 42378797 Ii=-175401103
By incremental increase method P2021 = Ia + Ii + P2011
= 42378797-175401103+69077421
= 93916115
15) Year- 1930 population - 25000 increase per decade % increase per decade
Year -1970 population – 47000 Ia = 22000 Ig =0.17095
P2000 = P1970 (1+Ig/100) n = 47,000 (1+ IG /100) 3 = 75459
P2006= 47000(1+0.17095)3.6 = 82954

Unit 2:
1. (Dec 2010)
ARITHMETICAL INCREASE METHOD
This method is based upon the assumption that the population is increasing at a
constant rate, ie. The rate of change of population with time is constant.
If the present population of a particular town is ‘P’ and the average increase in
population for past decade ‘Ia’ the future population ‘Pn’ at the end of ‘n’ decades
will be
Pn = P+ nIa
This method gives low results for developing areas, which develop faster than the
post this method of limited value may be useful for smaller design periods or for
old and very large cities with no industries and which have practically reached
their maximum development or approaching saturation
GEOMETRICAL INCREASE METHOD

This method assures that the percentage increase in population from decade to
decade is constant. This method gives high results for young cities expanding at
faster rates and useful for old developed cities. If the present population of the city
is ‘P’ and the Average percentage increase/ decade ‘Ig’ then the population ‘Pn’ at
the end of “n’ future decades will be
n
 Ig 
Pn = P  I  
 100 
2) (Dec 2010)
YEAR POPULATION INCREASE/DECADE %INCREASE/DECADE
1940 81420 43580 53.52
1950 125000 45000 36
1960 170000 50000 29.41
1970 220000 10000 4.55
1980 230000
Ia = 37145 Ig = 30.87
I) By GEOMETRICAL INCREASE METHOD

population after 3 decades

n
 Ig 
P2010 = P1980 =  1  
 100 
3
 30.87 
230000  1 
 100 
P2010 = 515523
3)
Shallow wells Deep wells
1)Shallow well are surface wells with 1)Deeper depth is more than 75m depth
depth 5m
2)A well which rests in a previous strata 2)A well rests on an impervious layer &
& draws from surrounding aquifer draws its supply from the previous
formation laying below mota layer
through a borehole made into a mota
layer
3) water is liable to be contaminated

Deep well water is not liable to be
contaminated by impurities and
infections.
4 & 7) Infiltration galleries are porous barrel containing sludge layer, manholes
are provided, it will have depth, it is sunk in bed of rivers.
Infilteration wells are sunk in rivers more in depth, water is pumped to jack wells.
5) CLASSIFICATION OF SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
The various sources of water available on earth can be classified into the following
two categories
PRECIPITATION

Surface sources such as Sub surface

sources such as
1. Lakes (natural) 1. Springs
2. Streams and Rivers 2. Infiltration
galleries
3. Storage (impounded) reservoir 3. Infiltration
wells
4. Ocean generally not used for water supplies at present 4. Wells &
Tubewells (Borewells)
SURFACE SOURCES are those sources of water in which water flows over the
surface of the earth and is thus directly available for water supplies
NATURAL PONDS AND LAKES: The quantity of water available from pond or
lake is however generally small though they are not considered as principal sources
of water supply. It depends on the catchment area of the Lake Basin, annual
rainfall and geological formations.
The quality of water in lake is generally good and does not need much
purification. Larger and older lakes however provide comparatively pure water
then smaller and new lakes. Self purification of water due to sedimentation of
suspended matter bleaching of colour, etc… makes the lake water pure and better
when compared to stream or river waters.
STREAMS AND RIVERS: The quantity or discharge of the streams is generally

low, sometimes even go dry in summer season. Therefore they may be considered
as source of water supply only for small villages. The quality of water in streams is
normally good except the first runoff. But sometimes runoff water while flowing
over the ground is mixed with silt, clay, sand and other mineral impurities. This
can be removed in a sedimentation basin up to certain extent.
(Rivers are formed when the discharge of large number of springs and streams.
Combine together. Rivers (Perennial) are the most important sources of water for
public w.s.s. Therefore most of the cities are situated on the banks of the rivers the
rivers may be perennial or non-perennial (seasonal). Perennial rivers flow
throughout the year getting their waters during summer from snow and from rain in
winter. Perennial rivers may be considered as water supply sources directly where
as non perennial rivers can be used as public water supplies by providing storage
barriers across these rivers.
IMPOUNDED RESERVOIRS: During summer the water which is flowing in the

river may not be sufficient to feed the town and on the other hand during rainy
season it may be difficult to operate due to flood waters. Therefore hydraulic

structures are constructed across these river valleys forming impounded reservoirs.
The quality of water in these reservoirs is not much different from that of
lake water while top waters prove to develop algae, bottom layers of water may be
high in turbidity Co2, iron and manganese and on occasions H2S.
UNDER GROUND SOURCES (OR) SUB-SURFACE SOURCES

They are nothing but sub-surface sources with regard to their quantity and
quality aspect rainwater percolating into the ground and escaping beyond the reach
of vegetation and either collecting in underground basins or flowing underground
in sub-surface streams constitutes a ground water source.
Generally ground water is clear and colorless but is harder than the
surface water of the region in which they occur. In lime stone formation, ground
water is very hard and dispositive nature in pipe lines. In granite formations, they
are soft. The water as it seeps down comes in contact with organic and inorganic
substances during its passage through the ground and acquires chemical
characteristics representative of the starter it passes. Bacteria logically, ground
water is much better than surface water except where sub-surface pollution exists.
6)
Year population Increase per % increase per Incremental

decade decade increase
1880 25000
1890 27500 2500 0.1
1900 34100 6600 0.24 +1420
1910 41500 7400 0.22 +800
1920 47050 5550 0.13 -1850
1930 54500 7450 0.15 1900
1940 61000 6500 0.12 -950
Ia = 36000 Ig =0.96
Ii =1320
P1950 = 61000+360000+1320 = 98320
P2000 =284920
7) Q= 3182 √p
Q = 3182 √ 140 =37649 m3/sec

8 & 11) INTAKE STRUCTURES

Intakes or intake structures are masonry or concrete structures whose
function is to provide calm and still water, free from floating matter for water
supply.
Intakes consists of the opening, strainers or gratings through which the water
enters and the conduit for conveying the water, usually by gravity to a sump well.
From the well the water is pumped to the treatment plant.
SELECTION OF A SITE FOR INTAKE CONSTRUCTION

While selecting a site for intakes, the points to be kept in mind are.
i) Intake work should provide good quality water so that its treatment may
become less exhaustive
ii) Heavy water currents should not strike the structure directly
iii) Approach to the intakes should be easy
iv) As far as possible intakes should not be selected in the vicinity of sewage
disposal
v) Selection of site should be nearer to the treatment plant so that it reduces
the cost of conveyance of water
vi) They should not be located in navigation channels
vii) In meandering rivers, the intakes should not be located on curves or at
least on sharp curves
viii) Intake must be located at a place from where it can draw water even
during the driest periods of the year.
ix) Site should be such as to permit greater withdrawal of water, if required
of a future date.
TYPES OF INTAKES
Depending on the source of water the intake works are classified as follows.
i. Lake intake
ii. River intake
iii. Reservoir intake
iv. Canal intake
For obtaining water from lakes mostly submersible intakes are used. These intakes
are constructed in the bed of the lake below the low water level so as to draw water
in dry seasons also. It consists of a pipe laid in the bed of the river, one end of
which is provided with bell mouth opening with fine screens. The water enters
through the bell mouth opening and flows under gravity.
RIVER INTAKE
It is a circular masonry tower of 4 to 7 meter in diameter constructed along

the bank of the river at such place from where required quantity of water can be
obtained even in the dry period. The water enters in the lower portion of the intake
known as sump well from penstocks the penstocks are fitted with screens to check
the entry of floating solids and are placed on the downstream side so that water
free from most of the suspended solids may only enter the lack well. Number of
pen stock openings is provided in the intake tower to admit water at different
levels. The opening and closing of penstock values is done with the help of wheals
provided at the pump-house floor.
9) FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF A PARTICULAR TYPE

OF PUMP
1. Capacity of pumps
2. Importance of WSS
3. Initial cost of pumping arrangement
4. Maintenance cost
5. Space requirements for locating the pumps
6. Number of units required
7. Total life of water required
8. Quantity of water to be pumped.
10) Q = Discharge through pumps =18000m3/2 = 9000m3 per shift
=9000/ 8x60x60 m3/ sec = 0.3125m3/ sec
f’=0.01, L= 40+150 = 190m, d= 0.5m
H = head loss in pipe = f’ L(q/ 3.14)2 / 2gd
=1000x190x.03125x 0.3125/ 1.21x(0.5)5 = 0.49m
Total head = static head + head loss = 21.49m
BHP = WQH/ 7.5n = 1000x0.3125x 21.49 / 75x0.8 =111.92Hp

Use 4 nos pumps of each 30BHP
Unit 3:
(Dec 2010)
1) EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FOR FIRE DEMAND
A) KULCHILING’S FORMULA : It states that

Q  3182 p
(at a demand rate to be maintained at hydrants of 1-1.5 kg km2 lasting
For 3 hrs) where
Q = amount of water required in litres/min
P = population in thousands.
B) FREEMAN FORMULA : It states that

p 
Q=1136.5   10  and
10 
y  2.8 p
Where
y = period of occurrences of fire in years
Q and ‘p’ are same as above
C) NATIONAL BOARD OF FIRE UNDERWRITER’S FORMULA

FCPA central congested high valued city
i. When population is  2,00,000

Q = 4637 p 1  D.D1 p 
ii. When population is > 2,0,000 a provision for 54600 litres/ min may be made
with an extra
additional provision of 9100 to 30400 litres/min for a second fire.
For a Residential City

1. Small low buildings = 2200 litres/min
2. Large and higher buildings = 4500 litres/min
3. High value Residences apartment and tenements = 7650-1350
litres/min
4. Three storeyed buildings = 27,000 litres/min
D) BUSTON’S FORMULA - It states that

Q = 5663 p
All the above formulae suffer from the drawback, that they are not related
with the type of area served. These formulas therefore give equal results for
industrial and non industrial areas, although the possibility of occurrence of a fire
with of given duration is more for an industrial area as compared to the non-
industrial area.
ii) The various sources of water available on earth can be classified into the
following two categories
PRECIPITATION
Surface sources such as Sub surface

sources such as
5. Lakes (natural) 1. Springs
6. Streams and Rivers 2. Infiltration
galleries
7. Storage (impounded) reservoir 3. Infiltration
wells
8. Ocean generally not used for water supplies at present 4. Wells &
Tubewells (Borewells)
SURFACE SOURCES are those sources of water in which water flows over the
surface of the earth and is thus directly available for water supplies
NATURAL PONDS AND LAKES: The quantity of water available from pond or
lake is however generally small though they are not considered as principal sources
of water supply. It depends on the catchment area of the Lake Basin, annual
rainfall and geological formations.
The quality of water in lake is generally good and does not need much
purification. Larger and older lakes however provide comparatively pure water
then smaller and new lakes. Self purification of water due to sedimentation of
suspended matter bleaching of colour, etc… makes the lake water pure and better
when compared to stream or river waters.

STREAMS AND RIVERS: The quantity or discharge of the streams is generally

low, sometimes even go dry in summer season. Therefore they may be considered
as source of water supply only for small villages. The quality of water in streams is
normally good except the first runoff. But sometimes runoff water while flowing
over the ground is mixed with silt, clay, sand and other mineral impurities. This
can be removed in a sedimentation basin up to certain extent.
(Rivers are formed when the discharge of large number of springs and streams.
Combine together. Rivers (Perennial) are the most important sources of water for
public w.s.s. Therefore most of the cities are situated on the banks of the rivers the
rivers may be perennial or non-perennial (seasonal). Perennial rivers flow
throughout the year getting their waters during summer from snow and from rain in
winter. Perennial rivers may be considered as water supply sources directly where
as non perennial rivers can be used as public water supplies by providing storage
barriers across these rivers.
IMPOUNDED RESERVOIRS: During summer the water which is flowing in the

river may not be sufficient to feed the town and on the other hand during rainy
season it may be difficult to operate due to flood waters. Therefore hydraulic
structures are constructed across these river valleys forming impounded reservoirs.
The quality of water in these reservoirs is not much different from that of
lake water while top waters prove to develop algae, bottom layers of water may be
high in turbidity Co2, iron and manganese and on occasions H2S.
UNDER GROUND SOURCES (OR) SUB-SURFACE SOURCES

They are nothing but sub-surface sources with regard to their quantity and
quality aspect rainwater percolating into the ground and escaping beyond the reach
of vegetation and either collecting in underground basins or flowing underground
in sub-surface streams constitutes a ground water source.
Generally ground water is clear and colorless but is harder than the
surface water of the region in which they occur. In lime stone formation, ground
water is very hard and dispositive nature in pipe lines. In granite formations, they
are soft. The water as it seeps down comes in contact with organic and inorganic
substances during its passage through the ground and acquires chemical
characteristics representative of the starter it passes. Bacteria logically, ground
water is much better than surface water except where sub-surface pollution exists.

2) (Dec 2010)
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF A PARTICULAR TYPE
OF PUMP
9. Capacity of pumps
10.Importance of WSS
11.Initial cost of pumping arrangement
12.Maintenance cost
13.Space requirements for locating the pumps
14.Number of units required
15.Total life of water required
16.Quantity of water to be pumped.
Classification of pumps
Based on their Principal of Based on the type Based on the

type of operation of power required service
i. Displacement pumps i. Electrically driven pumps i.
Low lift pumps
ii. Centrifugal pumps ii. Gasoline pumps ii. High lift
pumps
iii. Airlift pumps iii. Steam engine pumps iii. Deep well
pumps
iv. Impulse pumps iv. Diesel engine pumps iv. Boosters
v. Stand
by pumps
3) Quantity of water =10MLD
Rate of filteration for RSF =3000 to 6000 lt/hr/sq.m

Area of filter =`10x 106 / 5000 = 83.34m2
Let the size of units be 8mx6m provide 2 units with one stand by total 3n0s
4)
Sl ITEM SOLW SAND FILTER RAPID GRAVITY
No FILTER
1. Pre Effluents either from plain Coagulation, Flocculation
treatment sedimentation tanks or and sedimentation is a
requirements raw waters without any must.
treatment are generally fed
into them and coagulation
is not at all required.
2. Base The gravel base supports The gravel base supports
material the sand. It varies from 3 the sand and also
to 65mm in size and 30 to distributes the wash water
75cm in depth. uniformly on eth swface of
sand. It varies from 3 to
40mm in size and its depth
is slightly more i.e about 60
– 90cm.
3. Filter sand The effective size of filter The effective size of the
sand ranges b/n 0.2 to filter sand ranges b/n 0.35
0.4mm and uniformity to 0.55 and uniformity
coefficient b/n 1.8 to 2.5 coefficient b/n 1.2 to 1.8.
or 3.0. the grain size The sand is laid in layers
distribution is generally with smallest grain size at
uniform throughout the top and ageist grain size at
depth of filter media the bottom.
except that top 10 to 15cm
may be laid of finer
variety
4. Under Laid in order to receive Laid in order to receive
drainage filtered water filtered water and also to
system pass water for back
washing ata very high rate.
5. Size of each Large such as (30m * Small such as (5m * 8m).
unit 60m). The area varying the area varying from 10 t
2
from 100 to 2000 m or 80m2 .
more
6. Rate of Small such as 100 to 200 Large such as 3000 to 6000
filtration litres per hour per m2 of litres per hour per m2 of
fitter area filter area.
7. Economy High initial cost of both Low initial cost, but higher
land and materials but low cost of operation and
cost of operation and maintenance overall it B
maintenance cheaper and economical
8. Depreciation Relatively low Relatively high
cost
9. Efficiency Very efficient in removing Less efficient in removing
bacteria (98 to 99%) but bacteria (80 to 905) but
less efficient in removing very efficient in removing
colour. colour.
10. Flexibility Not flexible for meeting Quite flexible for meeting
variations in demand reasonable variations in
demand.
11. Ease in Simple Complicated as under
construction drainage B to be properly
designed.
12. Spilled Not required Essential
super &
Blon if reqd.
13. Loss of lead Appoximately 10cm isthe Approximately 0.3m is the
initial loss and 0.8 to 1.2m infial loss and 2.5 to 3.5m
B the final limit when is the final limit when
cleaning B required cleaning is required.
14. Period of Cleaned at intervals of 1m Cleaned frequently at
cleaning to 3month intervals of 1-3 days.
5)

Breakpoint chlorination consists of a continual addition of chlorine to the water up

to the point where the chlorine enquiry is met and all present ammonia is oxidized,
so that only free chlorine remains. This is usually applied for disinfection, but it
also has other benefits, such as smell and taste control. In order to reach the
breakpoint, a superchlorination is applied. To achieve this, one uses chlorine
concentrations which largely exceed the 1 mg/L concentration required for
disinfection.
6) INTAKE STRUCTURES
Intakes or intake structures are masonry or concrete structures whose
function is to provide calm and still water, free from floating matter for water
supply.
Intakes consists of the opening, strainers or gratings through which the water
enters and the conduit for conveying the water, usually by gravity to a sump well.
From the well the water is pumped to the treatment plant.
SELECTION OF A SITE FOR INTAKE CONSTRUCTION

While selecting a site for intakes, the points to be kept in mind are.
x) Intake work should provide good quality water so that its treatment may
become less exhaustive
xi) Heavy water currents should not strike the structure directly
xii) Approach to the intakes should be easy
xiii) As far as possible intakes should not be selected in the vicinity of sewage
disposal
xiv) Selection of site should be nearer to the treatment plant so that it reduces
the cost of conveyance of water
xv) They should not be located in navigation channels
xvi) In meandering rivers, the intakes should not be located on curves or at
least on sharp curves
xvii) Intake must be located at a place from where it can draw water even
during the driest periods of the year.
xviii) Site should be such as to permit greater withdrawal of water, if required
of a future date.
TYPES OF INTAKES
Depending on the source of water the intake works are classified as follows.
v. Lake intake
vi. River intake

vii. Reservoir intake
viii. Canal intake
For obtaining water from lakes mostly submersible intakes are used. These intakes
are constructed in the bed of the lake below the low water level so as to draw water
in dry seasons also. It consists of a pipe laid in the bed of the river, one end of
which is provided with bell mouth opening with fine screens. The water enters
through the bell mouth opening and flows under gravity.
RIVER INTAKE
It is a circular masonry tower of 4 to 7 meter in diameter constructed along

the bank of the river at such place from where required quantity of water can be
obtained even in the dry period. The water enters in the lower portion of the intake
known as sump well from penstocks the penstocks are fitted with screens to check
the entry of floating solids and are placed on the downstream side so that water
free from most of the suspended solids may only enter the lack well. Number of
pen stock openings is provided in the intake tower to admit water at different
levels. The opening and closing of penstock values is done with the help of wheals
provided at the pump-house floor.
7) Quantity of water = 2.5 m3 / sec
Head loss =7.3m, Efficiency =70%
BHP= WQH/ 75npnm = 1000 x 2.5 x7.3 / .70 x75 x 0.9 = 386.72 HP
8) WHOLE SOME WATER – Absolutely pure water is never found in nature

absolutely pure water is the water which contains 2parts of ‘H’ and 1part of
oxygen by volume but the water found in nature contains a number of impurities in
varying amounts. The rain water which is originally pure also absorbs various
gases dost and other impurities while falling. This water when moves on ground
picks up silt, agonic and inorganic impurities. Complete, removal of these
impurities becomes costly and on other hand, certain impurities cause the water
tasteful and our body needs certain elements and if no present in water their
removal is not necessary such a water which does not contain harmful impurities
and thus contain other salts and impurities either good or unharmful to health is
called wholesome or potable water

Following are the requirements of wholesome water
1. Should be free from bacteria’s which may cause diseases.

2. Should be colourless and sparkling which may be accepted by the public
3. It should be tasty, adourfree and cool.
4. Should not corrode pipes
5. Should be free from all objectionable matter.
6. Should have dissolved oxygen (DO) and free from carbonic acid so that it
may remain.
PALATABILITY
To be palatable, water must be significantly free from colour, turbidly, taste and
Adour and of moderate temperature in summer and winter and well aerated. At
least 4 human perceptions respond to these qualities.
9) Sewage contains many barn ----------- which are discharged through

excremental matter of intestines of man and warm blooded animals these
organisms were used to be called colon – bacilli and are known as coli forms. It is
a full group of bacteria, but out of them “ESCHIRICHIACOLI” (E – coli) are the
most important
The E-coli bacteria are harmless organisms of coli form group, live longer in
water than pathogenic bacteria, it is generally presumed that the water will be safe
and free from pathogens if no coli form bacteria are present.
The term BACTERIUM –COLL (B-coll) used to indicate a group of

organisms that include. The whole “Coli – aero gens” group.
10) CHLORIDES
Chlorides in combination with other elements are always found in water. Nacl is
normally found in water the presence of nacl may be due to water coming in
contact with saltish layer or sewage entering into it for potable water the amount of
chlorides is limited to 250mg/lit. Chlorides may be readily measured by means of
volumetric procedures employing indicator solution. For most purposes the MOHR
method employing silver nitrate as indicator solution (yellow – brick red) is used.
NITROGEN CONTENT
The presence of nitrogen in water is an indication of organic matter present in

water and they may occur in any of the following
a. Albuminoid Nitrogen
b. Free ammonia
c. Nitrate
d. Nitrate (stabilized end product of nitrogen)
Presence of above indicate the degree of pollution of water. Permissible limits of
Nitrate is 45PPm
IRON AND MANGANESE

These metals at very low concentrations are highly objectionable in water
supplies for domestic or industrial use. Fe and Mm in concentration greater than
0.3ppm and 0.05ppm respectively stain plumbing fixtures and laundered clothes
moreover they cause incrustation of water main due to deposition of ferric
hydroxide and Mno. Foul taste and odours are produced by growth of fe bacteria in
water distribution mains. Fe and Mn may be determined either by precipitation
Technique if they are present in large amounts or by colorimeter or spectra
photometer. In they are present in small amounts (Phenol chlorine and per sulphate
method respectively)
Public water supplies should not contain more than 0.3ppm of Iron and 0.05ppm of
manganese. If they exceed the above limits they can be oxidized by oxidizing
agents like oxygen, chlorine and potassium permanganate (KMno4) or by simple
aerator Technique by adjusting P H 9-10 the manganese gets precipitated.
FLUORIDES
Excessive fluoride ions in drinking water cause DENTAL FLUOROSIS or

MOTLING OF TEETH. On the other hand, communities whose drinking water
contains no fluoride have a high prevalence of dental caries optimum fluoride
concentrations provided in public water supplies generally in range of 1-1.5mg/lit
reduce dental caries to a minimum without causing noticeable dental fluorosis.
Several fluoride compounds are used in treating municipal water all of these
dissociate readily yielding fluoride ions (fluoridation).
Excessive amounts of fluoride lons drinking water can be removed by

defluoridation. The two current treatment methods for defluoridation use either
activated alumina are bone char. In india “NALAGONDA TECHNIQUE OF
DEFLUORIDATION” is most widely used as it is easier and convenient to use in
rural areas.
11)
who limit
(Silica scale)
b/n 1-3
H
b. P value 6.6-8.0
e. Nitrate 45mg/lit

chromium silver
k. Barium 1mg/lit
12) We have
 1 
P H  log   
H 
H
P of incoming water
 1 
P 
H
 7.2  log10   
 H1 
1

P H of outgoing water
 1 
P 
H
 8.4  log10   
 H2 
2
log10  H1    7.2
 H1    107.2
lll ly ,  H 2    108.4
 H1     H 2  
Avg.Value of  H   
2
10  108.4
1.2

2
 H   3.35 108

 1 
Avg.Value of P H  log   
H 
 1 
 log  8 
 3.35 10 
P H  7.477
Unit 4:
1) (Dec 2010)
Absolutely pure water is never found in nature absolutely pure water is the
water which contains 2parts of ‘H’ and 1part of oxygen by volume but the
water found in nature contains a number of impurities in varying amounts.
The rain water which is originally pure also absorbs various gases dost and
other impurities while falling. This water when moves on ground picks up
silt, agonic and inorganic impurities. Complete, removal of these impurities
becomes costly and on other hand, certain impurities cause the water tasteful
and our body needs certain elements and if no present in water their removal
is not necessary such a water which does not contain harmful impurities and
thus contain other salts and impurities either good or unharmful to health is
called wholesome or potable water.

2 & 5) DRINKING WATER STANDARDS (BIS)

who limit
(Silica scale)
b/n 1-3
H
b. P value 6.6-8.0
e. Nitrate 45mg/lit

chromium silver
k. Barium 1mg/lit
Excessive fluoride ions in drinking water cause DENTAL FLUOROSIS or

MOTLING OF TEETH. On the other hand, communities whose drinking water
contains no fluoride have a high prevalence of dental caries optimum fluoride
concentrations provided in public water supplies generally in range of 1-1.5mg/lit
reduce dental caries to a minimum without causing noticeable dental fluorosis.

Several fluoride compounds are used in treating municipal water all of these
dissociate readily yielding fluoride ions (fluoridation).
Excessive amounts of fluoride lons drinking water can be removed by

defluoridation. The two current treatment methods for defluoridation use either
activated alumina are bone char. In india “NALAGONDA TECHNIQUE OF
DEFLUORIDATION” is most widely used as it is easier and convenient to use in
rural areas.
3) material purpose situations
Cast iron good resistance, strength soil corrisive

Steel light, good resistances layers to pipes
Psc with and higher pressure higher practice
Ac more resistance to corrosion soil corrosive
Pvc more flexible hotels & house connection
4) Amount of water to be treated = 1x10 5x 250 =25 x 10 6 l/day

Chlorine required = 0.4 x 25 x106 / 10 6 = 10Kg
Bleaching powder contains =10x 100/ 30 = 33.2 Kg
Chlorine used per litre of water = 33.3 x 10 6/ 25 x 10 6 =1.33 mg/l
Residual chlorine =0.2 mg/l
Chlorine demand =1.33-0.2 =1.22mg/l
6 & 10) AERATION
PURPOSE OF AERATION: The basic purpose of aeration is the improvement of

the physical and chemical characteristics of water for domestic, commercial and
other industrial uses.
Aeration is necessary to promote the exchange of gases between the water and
the atmosphere Aeration is practiced for 3purposes.
a. Expulsion of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and other volatile
substances causing taste and odour.
b. To precipitate impurities like iron and manganese.
c. To add oxygen to water for imparting freshness, e.g water from underground
sources devoid of or deficit of oxygen.

TYPES OF AERATORS
There are two methods of aeration in present practice. One method exposes
water films to the air and the other introduces air in the form of small bubbles in
the water. The first is called as ‘WATER FALL AERATDRS” and second as the
“DIFFUSED AIR AERATORS”.
WATER FALL AERATORS

There are three methods under this category.
a. Spray aerators
b. Cascade aerators/step
c. Multiple tray aerators.
7) DETENTION TIME
This is an important term used in the design of sedimentation basin. It is the

average theoretical time for which the water is detained in the tank.
Hence it is the ratio of the volume of the basin i.e T = C/Q
For Rectangular tank
BLH
t
Q
For circular tank
t =
 0.011d  0.785 H  d 2
Detention time Q
The detention time usually ranges between 4 to 8 hours for plain

sedimentation and 2 to 4hrs for sedimentation with coagulation.
For efficient removal of the sediment it is necessary that the flow is

uniformly distributed throughout the cross section however, in actual
practice, certain amount of short circuiting always exist, which permit a
substantial amount of water to pass through directly through the tank without
being detained for the internodes time therefore the actual average time of
flow or the average time required by a particle to pass through the basin at a
given rate of flow is called “FLOWING THROUGH PERIOD” This is
always less than the detention time which is corresponding theoretical time
infect the efficiency of the basin is determined by the ratio of the observed

flowing through period and the theoretical detention time, called as

displacement efficiency.
Flowing through period
displacement efficiency =
Detention time.
It generally varies between 0.25 to 0.5 in normal sedimentation basins.
8) When certain chemicals called coagulants are added to water an in doluble,

gelatinous, flocculent precipitate called FLOC is formed. This precipitate
during its formation descent through the water, adsorb and entangle very
fine suspended and colloidal impurities. Therefore the gelatinous precipitate
has the tendency of removing fine and colloidal particles quickly and
completely.
Coagulation is a process of add in chemicals to the raw water in order to make

the finely divided colloidal and suspended particles which remain in suspension
to dense enough to settle down.
9) CHEMICALS USED FOR COAGULATION (COAGULANTS)
a. ALUMINIUM SULPHATE [ ] or ALUM
ALUM reacts with natural alkalinity in water to form aluminuium hydroxide floc..
If water doesnot contain sufficient alkalinity to react with the alum,
lime[ ] or soda ash [ ] is fed to provide the necessary alkalinity.
i) AL2  SO4 3 .18H 2O  3Ca  OH 2  2 AL  OH 3  3CaSo4  18H 2O

ii) AL2  SO4 3 .18H 2O  3Na2Co3  3H 2O  2 AL  OH 3   3Na2 So4  3Co2  18H 2O
The effective PH range for alum coagulant is 5.5 – 8.0 An advantage of using
soda ash is that unlike lime it does not increase water hardness, only corrosiveness.
b. FERROUS SULPHATE (COPPERAS)

Ferrous sulphate reacts with natural alkalinity but the response is much
slower than that between alum and natural alkalinity. Lime is generally
added to raise the pH to the point where ferrous lons are precipitated as ferric
hydroxide by the caustic alkalinity
FeSo4 .7 H 2O  Ca( HCu3 )2  Fe  HCo3 2  CaSo4  7 H 2O

Fe  HCo3 2  2Ca(OH )2  Fe  OH 2  2CaCo3  2H 2O
4 Fe  OH 2  O2  2 H 2O  4 Fe  OH 3
This treatment adds some hardness but no corrosiveness but dosing

operation with two chemicals is more difficult.
c. CHLORINATED COPPERAS
Chlorinated copperas treatment is a second method of using ferrous
sulphate. In this process chlorine is used to oxidize the ferrous sulphate to
ferric sulphate.
3Feso4 .7H2O 1.5cl2  Fe2  So4 3  Fecl3  H2O

Ferric sulphate and ferric chloride react with natural alkalinity or lime, as
illustrated by the following reactions with ferric chloride
2 FeCl3  3Ca  HCO3 2  2 Fe  OH 3    3Cacl2  6CO2
2 FeCl3  3Ca  OH 2  2 Fe  OH 3   3Cacl2 .
Colour in water is generally not affected by copperas and lime treatment
where as chlorinated copperas is effective in the removal of colour.
d. OTHER COAGULANTS (SODIUM ALUMINATE).
6nALo2  AL2  So4 3 .18H2O  8AL OH 3  3Na2So4  6H2O
k) Quantity of water treated = 13 x 10 6 l/ day

Alum dose =12mg/l
Amount of alum required = 13x 10 6 x12 mg =156 kg
Al 2 (SO4)3.18 H2o + Ca (HCo3)2 – 2Al (oH)3 + 3 Caso4 + 18 H2o + 6 Co2
2(26.97) + 3 (32.066+ 4x16) +18 (2 x 1.008+ 16) = 666mg
Wt of Co2 = 12.01 +2x16 = 44
666mg of alum =6x 44mg of co2
=6x44 x12 / 666 of Co 2 = 4.76mg
Unit 5:
1)
AERATION
PURPOSE OF AERATION: The basic purpose of aeration is the improvement of

the physical and chemical characteristics of water for domestic, commercial and
other industrial uses.
Aeration is necessary to promote the exchange of gases between the water and
the atmosphere Aeration is practiced for 3purposes.
d. Expulsion of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and other volatile
substances causing taste and odour.
e. To precipitate impurities like iron and manganese.
f. To add oxygen to water for imparting freshness, e.g water from underground
sources devoid of or deficit of oxygen.
TYPES OF AERATORS
There are two methods of aeration in present practice. One method exposes
water films to the air and the other introduces air in the form of small bubbles in
the water. The first is called as ‘WATER FALL AERATDRS” and second as the
“DIFFUSED AIR AERATORS”.
WATER FALL AERATORS

There are three methods under this category.
d. Spray aerators
e. Cascade aerators/step
f. Multiple tray aerators.
2)
Any particle which does not alter its size shape and weight while rising or settling
in any fluid is called “DISCRETE PARTICLE” all the particles having the
specific gravity more than the liquid will readily move down due to gravitational
force when any discrete particle is falling through a quiescent fluid, it will
accelerate until the frictional resistance or drag force becomes equal to
gravitational forces acting upon the particle. At such stage the particles will settle
at uniform velocity. This uniform velocity is called settling velocity and is a very
important factor.
Flocculation is a process of mixing the coagulated water in order to achieve
through mixing or uniform distribution of coagulants throughout the water on slow

mixing of the mixture “FLOCS” are formed which is in the form of gelatinous
precipitate which may be removed by settling
The tank or basin in which flocculation process is carried out is called

flocculation chambers (Floc chamber)
3)
The Coagulation – sedimentation plant, sometimes called simply a

COAGULATION PLANT or CLARIFLOCCULATOR contains the following
four units.
i. Feeding device
ii. Mixing device or mixing basin
iii. Flocculation tank or flocculate
iv. Setting or sedimentation tank
The chemical coagulant is first of all fed into the raw water through the feeding
device. This mixture is than thoroughly mixed and agitated in the mixing basin.
The flock which is formed as a result of the chemical reaction taking place in the
mixing basin is then allowed to consolidate in the flocculation tank. The
flocculated water is finally passed into the sedimentation tank, where these
flocculated particles settle down and be removed.
FEEDING DECICES
A) DRY FEEDING DEVICES

B) WET FEEDING DEVICES
MIXING DEVICES
There are two types of mixing basins
a. Mixing basins with baffle walls

b. Mixing basins equipped with mechanical devices.
4) It is the process of making water sterile by killing bacteria’s present in it.
Suitability of the disinfectant

The disinfectant should be effective in killing the micro organisms potentially

present in water with in available contact time, the range of water temperature
encountered concentrations etc.
The disinfectant should be readily available at reasonable cost.
It should be safe to handle and its method of application is simple.
It should not render the water toxic, unpalatable or objectionable.
It should have ability to persist in residual concentration as a safeguard against
recontamination.
5) Zeolite process

Some materials that are insoluble in water, called 'Zeolites', have the property of
combining with certain harmful ions in a solution and, at the same time producing
other harmless ions. Zeolites are referred to as 'Ion Exchange Resins' and are
complex compounds of sodium, aluminium, silicon and oxygen.
When water containing Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ ions, is passed through Zeolite beds,
these ions are picked up by the Zeolite which then replaces them with harmless
sodium ions … Na+ . If we represent the Zeolite as a letter 'Z', the equation can be
shown as follows: -
Ca (2+) + Na2Z ===> CaZ + 2(Na+)
This indicates that the calcium ions have come out of solution and are replaced by
sodium ions in the solution.
This process is called 'Water Softening by Ion Exchange' as follows: -
Hard water Containing 'Ca' and 'Mg' ions ===> Water treatment plant Containing
Sodium Zeolite beds which attract the Ca & Mg ions ===> Treated (softened)
water Containing harmless 'Na' ions
When the Zeolite is 'saturated', (all Na ions used up), it is regenerated by passing a
concentrated salt (NaCl) solution through the Zeolite bed. This forces the Ca and
Mg ions out of the Zeolite back into the water and replaces them with sodium. The
solution containing the Ca and Mg is disposed of.
The sodium salts remaining in the treated water are harmless and will not form
deposits of scale.
6) WATER BORNE DISEASES are those which are transmitted by contaminated

water. Water is a very good carrier of micro organisms. Communicable diseases
which may be transmitted by water include bacterial, viral and protozoan
infections
The diseases caused by bacterial infections are

a. Typhoid fewer
b. Para-Typhoid
c. Bacillary dysentery
d. Cholera
e. Solmonellosis
f. Shigellosis
Viral infections
a. Infectious hepatitis(jaundice)
b. Polio myelitis
Protozoan infections
a. Amoebic dysentery (Amoebiasis)
b. Giardiasis.
7 & 9) The process of passing the settled water through beds of such granular
materials (called filtered media) is known as filtration. Filtration may help in
removing colour, odour, turbidity and pathogenic organisms from water
In the filtration process the water gets purified under four different process. These
process are
i. Mechanical straining
ii. Flocculation and sedimentation
iii. Biological metabolism
iv. Electrolytic changes.
i) MECHANICAL STRAINING
The suspended particles present in settled water and which are of bigger
size than the size of the voids in the filter media cannot pass through
these voids and get arrested in them. So the resultant water will be free
from the suspended particles. Most of the particles are removed in the
upper sand – grit layers. These arrested particles forms a mat on top of
the filter bed, which further helps in straining out the impurities
ii) FLOCCULATION AND SEDIMENTATION

The filters are also able to remove the particles of size smaller than
the size of the voids present in it. These void spaces act like tiny
coagulation sedimentation tanks and the colloidal matter arrested in these
voids is a gelatinous mass and therefore attract the other finer particles.
Therefore these fine particles thus settled down in the voids and removed.
iii) BIOLOGICAL METABOLISM

Certain useful micro-organisms are generally present in the voids

of filter media. These organisms require organic impurities as their food
for the survival and utilize such organic impurities and convert them into
harmless compounds by the process of biological metabolism the
harmless compounds so formed, generally form a layer on the top which
B called SCHMUTZDECKE or DIRTY SKIN. This layer further helps in
adsorbing and straining out the impurities.
iv) ELECTOLYTIC CHANGES

The process of filtration can also be explained by the theory of
ionization. According to this theory, a fitter helps in purifying the water
by changing the chemical characteristics of the water. This may be
explained by the fact that the sand grains of the filter media and the
impurities in the water carry cleotrical charges of opposite in nature when
these charged particles some in contact with each other they get attracted
and making the water purer. After a certain interval the electrical charges
of the fitter media gets exhausted and have to be restored by washing the
filter.
8) RAPID SAND FILTERS

In order to reduce the requirement of space and to increase the rate of
filtration a lot of research was conducted which finally led to the development of
rapid sand filters or sometimes called MECHANICAL SAND FILTERS.
The RAPID FILTERS are of two types. i.e,
1. One which utilize comparatively larger sized sand particles which allow
greater rate of filtration as compared to that of slow sand filters. They are
called rapid gravity filters

2. One which utilize the development of pressure over the filtering water and
there by increasing the rate of filtration. They are called PRESSURE
FILTERS
Rapid sand gravity filters are used for large municipal supplies, whereas
pressure filters, being more handy, may be used for small installations, such
as for industrial plants and swimming pools.
Rapid gravity filters were developed in the last decade of the 19 th
century through the efforts of G.W. fuller of U.S.A there filters employ
coarser sand with effective size as 0.5mm or so on an average these filters
may yield as high as 30times the yield given by S.S.F waters from the
coagulation sedimentation tanks are used in these filters and filtered water is
treated with disinfectors, so as to0 obtain potable supplies.
10) Max water demand per day = population x per capita demand
= 100000 x270 = 2700000 =27 x 106 L/day
MDD = 1.8X 27X 10 6 L/DAY
Rate of filtration = 4500 l/ sq.m/ day
Total surface area = MDD/ Rate of filteration
= 1.8 x27 x10 6 / 24 /4500 sq.m = 450sq.m
Two units are required to be designed , area of each unit =450/2 =225sq.m
L=1.5B, B 2=150m , B=12.25m, L= 1.5x 12.25 = 18.37 =18.4m
11)
Sl ITEM SOLW SAND FILTER RAPID GRAVITY

No FILTER
1. Pre Effluents either from plain Coagulation, Flocculation
treatment sedimentation tanks or and sedimentation is a
requirements raw waters without any must.
treatment are generally fed
into them and coagulation
is not at all required.
2. Base The gravel base supports The gravel base supports

material the sand. It varies from 3 the sand and also

to 65mm in size and 30 to distributes the wash water
75cm in depth. uniformly on eth swface of
sand. It varies from 3 to
40mm in size and its depth
is slightly more i.e about 60
– 90cm.
3. Filter sand The effective size of filter The effective size of the
sand ranges b/n 0.2 to filter sand ranges b/n 0.35
0.4mm and uniformity to 0.55 and uniformity
coefficient b/n 1.8 to 2.5 coefficient b/n 1.2 to 1.8.
or 3.0. the grain size The sand is laid in layers
distribution is generally with smallest grain size at
uniform throughout the top and ageist grain size at
depth of filter media the bottom.
except that top 10 to 15cm
may be laid of finer
variety
4. Under Laid in order to receive Laid in order to receive
drainage filtered water filtered water and also to
system pass water for back
washing ata very high rate.
5. Size of each Large such as (30m * Small such as (5m * 8m).
unit 60m). The area varying the area varying from 10 t
2
from 100 to 2000 m or 80m2 .
more
6. Rate of Small such as 100 to 200 Large such as 3000 to 6000
2
filtration litres per hour per m of litres per hour per m2 of
fitter area filter area.
7. Economy High initial cost of both Low initial cost, but higher
land and materials but low cost of operation and
cost of operation and maintenance overall it B
maintenance cheaper and economical
8. Depreciation Relatively low Relatively high
cost
9. Efficiency Very efficient in removing Less efficient in removing
bacteria (98 to 99%) but bacteria (80 to 905) but
less efficient in removing very efficient in removing
colour. colour.

10. Flexibility Not flexible for meeting Quite flexible for meeting
variations in demand reasonable variations in
demand.
11. Ease in Simple Complicated as under
construction drainage B to be properly
designed.
12. Spilled Not required Essential
super &
Blon if reqd.
13. Loss of lead Appoximately 10cm isthe Approximately 0.3m is the
initial loss and 0.8 to 1.2m infial loss and 2.5 to 3.5m
B the final limit when is the final limit when
cleaning B required cleaning is required.
14. Period of Cleaned at intervals of 1m Cleaned frequently at
cleaning to 3month intervals of 1-3 days.
12) LOSS OF HEAD AND NECESSITY OF CLEANING

The water percolating through the filter moves downward under the
force of gravity. This motion is opposed by the resistance offered by the sand
grains and impurities arrested in them. The percolating water, therefore busy some
of its head. The loss of head can be easily computed by knowing the water level in
the filter and the pressure of water in the outlet pipe. The difference between the
two heads will give the loss of head called filter held head loss through a clean
granular media filter is generally less than 0.9m with accumulation of impurities,
head loss gradually increases until the filter is back wasted usually at 2.4 – 3.0m.
NEGATIVE HEAD AND AIRBINDING

Filtration can be stopped because of a low rate of filtration, passage of
excess turbidity through the bed or air binding. As head loss increases across the
bed the lower portion of the filter is under a partial vacuum this negative head
permits the release of dissolved gases which tend to fill the pores of the filter,
causing air binding and reducing the rate of filtration.
RATE OF FILTRAITON OR RATE OR LOADING FOR RAPID GRAVITY

FILTERS
The rate of filtration that can be obtained from rapid gravity filters is
very high, and is generally of the order of 300 to 6000 litres/hv/m2 of filter area (i.e

50 to 100 litres/min/m2). This high rate of filtration leads to considerable saving of

space as well as filter materials.
Unit 6:
1)
THEORY OF FILTRATION
In the filtration process the water gets purified under four different process.
These process are
v. Mechanical straining
vi. Flocculation and sedimentation
vii. Biological metabolism
viii. Electrolytic changes.
v) MECHANICAL STRAINING
The suspended particles present in settled water and which are of bigger
size than the size of the voids in the filter media cannot pass through
these voids and get arrested in them. So the resultant water will be free
from the suspended particles. Most of the particles are removed in the
upper sand – grit layers. These arrested particles forms a mat on top of
the filter bed, which further helps in straining out the impurities
vi) FLOCCULATION AND SEDIMENTATION

The filters are also able to remove the particles of size smaller than
the size of the voids present in it. These void spaces act like tiny
coagulation sedimentation tanks and the colloidal matter arrested in these
voids is a gelatinous mass and therefore attract the other finer particles.
Therefore these fine particles thus settled down in the voids and removed.
vii) BIOLOGICAL METABOLISM

Certain useful micro-organisms are generally present in the voids
of filter media. These organisms require organic impurities as their food
for the survival and utilize such organic impurities and convert them into
harmless compounds by the process of biological metabolism the
harmless compounds so formed, generally form a layer on the top which
B called SCHMUTZDECKE or DIRTY SKIN. This layer further helps in
adsorbing and straining out the impurities.
viii) ELECTOLYTIC CHANGES

The process of filtration can also be explained by the theory of

ionization. According to this theory, a fitter helps in purifying the water
by changing the chemical characteristics of the water. This may be
explained by the fact that the sand grains of the filter media and the
impurities in the water carry cleotrical charges of opposite in nature when
these charged particles some in contact with each other they get attracted
and making the water purer. After a certain interval the electrical charges
of the fitter media gets exhausted and have to be restored by washing the
filter.
The filter sand and grit generally obtained from rocks like quartzite, and should
contain the following properties.
i. Should be freeform dirt and other impurities
ii. Should be uniform in nature and size
iii. Should be hard and resistant
iv. Should be such as not to lose more than 5% of its weight after
being placed in hydrations acid (HCl) for 24hours.
The size of the sand is measured and expressed by the term called EFFECTIVE
SIZE. The effective size i.e, ‘D10’ may be defined as “The size of the sieve in mm
through which ten percent of the sample of sand by mass will pass”
The UNIFORMITY in size or degree of variations in sizes of particles is measured

and expressed by the term called UNIFORMITY CO EFFICIENT. The
2)Solution:
Avd. daily demand = population  per capita der
= 50000 150
 7.5 106 litres / day
Maxm.dailydemand  1.8  7.5  106
 13.5 106 litres / day
Rate of filtration per day = (180  24)litres / m 2 / day
 4.32 103 litres / m 2 / day
MDD
Total surface are a of filters reqd . 
Rate of filtration per day
13.5  106
=
4.32  103
 3125m 2

Now six units are to be used out of the one is to be kept as STAND – BY
and hence on 5 units should provide the necessary area of filter required.
The area of each filter unit.

1
  Total area required
5
3128

5
 625 m2
Now if ‘L’ is the length and ‘B’ is the breadth of each unit then L = 2B
L.B = 525 m 2
2B.B = 625 m 2
B 2 = 312.5 m 2
B = 17.67m
Say B = 18m
L = 2B = 2 * 18 = 36m
Hence use 6 filter units with one unit as stand – by, each unit of size 36m *
18m, arranged in series with 3units on either side.
3) Chlorine is one of the most widely used disinfectants. It is very applicable and
very effective for the deactivation of pathogenic microorganisms. Chlorine can be
easily applied, measures and controlled. Is is fairly persistent and relatively cheap.
Chlorine has been used for applications, such as the deactivation
of pathogens in drinking water, swimming pool water and wastewater, for the
disinfection of household areas and for textile bleaching, for more than two
hundred years. When chlorine was discovered we did not now that disease was
caused by microorganisms. In the nineteenth century doctors and scientists
discovered that many diseases are contagious and that the spread of disease can be
prevented by the disinfection of hospital areas. Very soon afterward, we started

experimenting with chlorine as a disinfectant. In 1835 doctor and writer Oliver

Wendel Holmes advised midwifes to wash their hands in calcium hypochlorite
(Ca(ClO)2-4H2O) to prevent a spread of midwifes fever.
However, we only started using disinfectants on a wider scale in the nineteenth
century, after Louis Pasteur discovered that microorganisms spread certain
diseases.
Chlorine has played an important role in lengthening the life-expectancy of
humans. For more information about pathogens in aquatic systems, please take a
look at pathogens in freshwater ecosystems
4) Amount of water to be treated = 1x10 5x 250 =25 x 10 6 l/day
Chlorine required = 0.4 x 25 x106 / 10 6 = 10Kg
Bleaching powder contains =10x 100/ 30 = 33.2 Kg
Chlorine used per litre of water = 33.3 x 10 6/ 25 x 10 6 =1.33 mg/l
Residual chlorine =0.2 mg/l
Chlorine demand =1.33-0.2 =1.22mg/l
5) Ultraviolet Radiation (UV) treatment of swimming pool water

The disinfectant ability of radiation from the ultraviolet section of the
electromagnetic spectrum is well established. UV treatment has been used in
drinking water, industrial and effluent applications.
The primary action of UV is to kill bacteria, viruses, moulds and spores, thus
reducing the risk of transmission of stomach, skin and respiratory tract infections
to pool users. UV has an important secondary action: it initiates photochemical and
photo-oxidation reactions which destroy chloramines. This is particularly
important in leisure pools where features such as water slides and waves give a
greater surface area for the release of chloramines into the air. UV reduces the
burden, making the atmosphere safer and more pleasant.
The limiting factor tends to be the water clarity, as dissolved and suspended
material inhibits UV penetration. Filtration will remove some of these solids from
swimming pool water; but to optimise the effectiveness of the UV it is important
that the full flow of water returning to the pool is exposed to the ultraviolet
radiation. This will ensure the pool water is treated on a regular and continuous
basis. An automatic wiper removes solids that settle onto the quartz thimble around
the UV arc tube.

A chlorine or bromine based disinfectant must be used in conjunction with UV
systems to maintain a disinfectant residual in the pool. UV radiation inactivates
bacteria and helps break down chloramines and other pollutants.
6) Advantages of soda lime process over zeolite process.

1. There is a good reduction in mineral content in case of lime soda.
2. It has good bactericidal effect.
3. The process is more economical.
4. Unskilled labourers can be made use of.
5. The process is suitable for acidic and turbid waters
6. The process is suitable for removing iron and manganese.
Unit 7:
1)Suitability of the disinfectant
The disinfectant should be effective in killing the micro organisms potentially
present in water with in available contact time, the range of water temperature
encountered concentrations etc.
The disinfectant should be readily available at reasonable cost.
It should be safe to handle and its method of application is simple.
It should not render the water toxic, unpalatable or objectionable.
It should have ability to persist in residual concentration as a safeguard against
recontamination.
Chlorine as a disinfectant
Chlorine is one of the most widely used disinfectants. It is very applicable and very
effective for the deactivation of pathogenic microorganisms. Chlorine can be easily
applied, measures and controlled. Is is fairly persistent and relatively cheap.
Chlorine has been used for applications, such as the deactivation
of pathogens in drinking water, swimming pool water and wastewater, for the
disinfection of household areas and for textile bleaching, for more than two

hundred years. When chlorine was discovered we did not now that disease was
caused by microorganisms. In the nineteenth century doctors and scientists
discovered that many diseases are contagious and that the spread of disease can be
prevented by the disinfection of hospital areas. Very soon afterward, we started
experimenting with chlorine as a disinfectant. In 1835 doctor and writer Oliver
Wendel Holmes advised midwifes to wash their hands in calcium hypochlorite
(Ca(ClO)2-4H2O) to prevent a spread of midwifes fever.
However, we only started using disinfectants on a wider scale in the nineteenth
century, after Louis Pasteur discovered that microorganisms spread certain
diseases.
Chlorine has played an important role in lengthening the life-expectancy of
humans.
2)Continuous systems
In the continuous water is available to the consumers for all the 24 hours of a
day.In this system water is not stagnant any point of time and fresh water is
available.
1. Intermittent systems
In this system water is supplied to the consumers only during some fixed
hours of the day. This method is adopted when there is less pressure and
insufficient quantity of water.
3) Air relief : The water flowing through the pipe lines always contain some air.
This air tries to accumulate at high points and may interfere with the flow. Air
relief valves are therefore provided at the summits along the water pipe to provide
an exit for such accumulated.
Reflux valves: Reflux valves are also known as check valves or non return valves.
It is an automatic device which allows water to flow in one direction only. They
are placed in water pipes which obtain water directly from the pumps. When the
pump is stopped the water in the pipe line does not rush back and damage the
pump

4) We have
 1 
P H  log   
H 
H
P of incoming water
 1 
P 
H
 7.2  log10   
 H1 
1
P H of outgoing water
 1 
P 
H
 8.4  log10   
 H2 
2
log10  H1    7.2
 H1    107.2
lll ly ,  H 2    108.4
 H1     H 2  
Avg.Value of  H   
2
10  108.4
1.2

2
 H   3.35 108

 1 
Avg.Value of P H  log   
H 
 1 
 log  8 
 3.35 10 
P H  7.477

5)
Soda lime is a process used in water treatment to remove Hardness from water.
This process is now obsolete but was very useful for the treatment of large
volumes of hard water. Addition of lime (CaO) and soda (Na2CO3) to the hard
water precipitates calcium as the carbonate, and magnesium as its hydroxide. The
amounts of the two chemicals required are easily calculated from the analysis of
the water and stoichiometry of the reactions. The lime‐ soda uses lime, Ca (OH)2
and soda ash, Na2CO3, to precipitate hardness from solution.
Soda lime water softening process
Carbon dioxide and carbonate hardness (calcium and Magnesium bicarbonate) are
complexed by lime. In this process Calcium and Magnesium ions are precipitated
by the addition of lime (Ca(OH)2) and soda ash (Na2CO3).

Following are the reactions that takes place in this process:
As slacked lime is added to a water, it will react with any carbon dioxide present as
follows:
Ca(OH)2+CO2→CaCO3 ↓ +H2O....(1)
The lime will react with carbonate hardness as follows:
Ca(OH)2 + Ca(HCO3)2 → 2CaCO3 ↓ +2H2O.....(2)
Ca(OH)2 + Mg(HCO3 )2 → MgCO3 + CaCO3 ↓ +2H2O.....(3)
The product magnesium carbonate in equation 3 is soluble. To remove it, more

lime is added:
Ca(OH)2 + MgCO3 → CaCO3 ↓ +Mg(OH)2 ↓.....(4)
Also, magnesium non-carbonate hardness, such as magnesium sulfate, is removed:
Ca(OH)2 + MgSO4 → CaSO4 + Mg(OH)2 ↓.....(5)
Lime addition removes only magnesium hardness and calcium carbonate hardness.
In equation 5 magnesium is precipitated, however, an equivalent amount of
calcium is added. The water now contains the original calcium non-carbonate
hardness and the calcium non-carbonate hardness produced in equation 5. Soda ash
is added to remove calcium non-carbonate hardness:
Na2CO3 + CaSO4 → Na2SO4 + CaCO3 ↓.....(6)

To precipitate CaCO3 requires a pH of about 9.5; and to precipitate Mg(OH)2

requires a pH of about 10.8, therefore, an excess lime of about 1.25 meq/l is
required to raise the pH.
The amount of lime required: lime (meq/l) = carbon dioxide (meq/l) + carbonate
hardness (meq/l) + magnesium ion (meq/l) + 1.25 (meq/l)
The amount of soda ash required: soda ash (meq/l) = non-carbonate hardness
(meq/l)
After softening, the water will have high pH and contain the excess lime and the
magnesium hydroxide and the calcium carbonate that did not precipitate.
Recarbonation (adding carbon dioxide) is used to stabilize the water. The excess
lime and magnesium hydroxide are stabilized by adding carbon dioxide, which
also reduces pH from 10.8 to 9.5 as the following:
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 ↓ +H2O
CO2 + Mg(OH)2 → MgCO3 + H2O
Further recarbonation, will bring the pH to about 8.5 and stabilize the calcium
carbonate as the following:
CO2 + CaCO3 + H2O→ Ca(HCO3)2
It is not possible to remove all of the hardness from water. In actual practice, about
50 to 80 mg/l will remain as a residual hardness.
6) The various physical characteristics and examinations are

i. Temperature
ii. Colour
iii. Turbidity
iv. Taste and odour

Temperature: The most desirable temperature for public water supply scheme is
100C. Temperature above 260C are undesirable and above 370C are unfit for
P.W.S.S. as they are not palatable
Colour: Colour in water is usually caused by the presence of organic matter in

colloidal and dissolved state. The colour can be measured by comparing the colour
of water sample with other standard glass tubes called NESLER’S TUBES
containing solutions of different standsrd colour intensities) The standsrd unit of
colour is that which is produced by one milligram of platinum – cobaltus chloride
dissolved in 1-litre of dist5illed water. For domestic supplies the permissible limit
is 20 colour units (CU) on platinum cobalt scale and should be preferably less than
To. For precise determination of small colour intensities, compact instrument
properly lighted from inside called TINTOMETER is used.
Turbidity: It is the measure of inter frame given by insoluble process of soil

organics, mionoorganisms and other materials for the passage of light through
water the standard unit is that which is produced by 1 milligram of finely divided
silico in one litre of distilled water the permissible limit of turbidity is 5 to 10units
on silica scale
TASTE AND ODOUR
The dissolved organic materials and inorganic salts or dissolved gases impart
taste and odors to the water but for the drinking water it must not contain any
undesirable or objectionable taste and odors. It is measured in terms of odors
intensity which is related with the threshold number. The Threshold number
represents the dilution ration at which the odors is hardly detectable. For domestic
purpose the threshold odors umber is limited between 1 and 3
7) Copper sulphate is generally available in powder form or in crystals form. It

may be applied either directly in the distribution pipes or in open reservoirs. The
dose may vary from 0.3 to 0.6 p.p.m. For its application to the reservoirs, it is
ground in fine powder and sprinkled on the water surface .The amount of copper
sulphate necessary to kill various algae may be troublesome because of taste and
odours will be temporarily increased. Hence smaller amounts are often successful
as prophhylatic doses to prevent trouble.
Chemical and physical adsorption

Adsorption is a fundamental process in the physicochemical treatment of

municipal wastewaters, a treatment which can economically meet today's higher
effluent standards and water reuse requirements. Activated carbon is the most
effective adsorbent for this application. Expanded-bed contact systems permit most
efficient use of granular carbon for waste treatment. The adsorption process is
enhanced by in-situ partial regeneration effected by biological growth on the
surfaces of the carbon. Physicochemical systems using adsorption with activated
carbon consistently produce high levels of treatment and have a high degree of
stability and reliability. Advantages over biological treatment systems include:
lower land area requirements: lower sensitivity to diurnal flow and concentration
variations and to toxic substances: potential for significant heavy metal removal;
greater flexibility in design and operation; and, superior removal of organic wastes.
Chemical adsorption (chemisorption)analysis techniques provide much of

the information necessary to evaluate catalyst materials in the design and
production phases, as well as after a period of use. Although a catalyst and the
reactants and products can be of many forms, this article only will address solid
catalysts and gas or vapor reactants and products.
A distinctive characteristic of a solid material is a distribution of weak surface

energy sites. Gas or vapor molecules can become bound to these sites. This
generally describes the adsorption phenomenon. The quantity of molecules taken
up by the surface depends on several conditions and surface features including
temperature, pressure, surface energy distribution, and the surface area of the solid.
A plot of the quantity of molecules adsorbed versus pressure at
constant temperature is called the adsorption isotherm.
Physical adsorption is the result of relatively weak Van der Waal's interaction
forces between the solid surface and the adsorbate- a physical attraction. Physical
adsorption is easily reversed.
8) The distribution system consists of network of pipes with appurtenances, for

transporting water from purification plant to the consumers tap.
A good distribution systems should satisfy the following requirements.
1. The systems should be capable of supplying water at consumers tap at

reasonable pressure head.
2.It should meet the fire demand simultaneously

3.It should be easy to operate and maintain
Methods of distribution system
1. Gravity system.
2. Combined gravity and pumping systems
3. Pumping system.
Systems of water supply.
1. Continuous systems
In the continuous water is available to the consumers for all the 24 hours of a
day.In this system water is not stagnant any point of time and fresh water is
available.
2. Intermittent systems
In this system water is supplied to the consumers only during some fixed
hours of the day. This method is adopted when there is less pressure and
insufficient quantity of water.
9) Dead end or tree systems: In this system, one main pipe line runs through the
centre of the populated area and sub mains taken off from this to both sides. There
are no cross connections between the branches and sub mines. Due to several dead
ends there is accumulation of sediment there and stagnation of water. However the
flow rate in each pipe is easily known due to which the pipe diameters can be
found.
Radial system: This systems is just the reverse of the circular system. In this
systems the whole area is divided in to a number of distribution districts, Each
district has a centrally located distribution reservoir from where distribution pipes
run radially towards the periphery of the distribution district. This system gives
quick service without much loss of head.

Unit 8:
1)
i) Carbon dioxide and carbonate hardness (calcium and Magnesium bicarbonate)
are complexed by lime. In this process Calcium and Magnesium ions are
precipitated by the addition of lime (Ca(OH)2) and soda ash (Na2CO3).
Following are the reactions that takes place in this process:
As slacked lime is added to a water, it will react with any carbon dioxide present as
follows:
Ca(OH)2+CO2→CaCO3 ↓ +H2O....(1)
The lime will react with carbonate hardness as follows:
Ca(OH)2 + Ca(HCO3)2 → 2CaCO3 ↓ +2H2O.....(2)
Ca(OH)2 + Mg(HCO3 )2 → MgCO3 + CaCO3 ↓ +2H2O.....(3)
The product magnesium carbonate in equation 3 is soluble. To remove it, more
lime is added:
Ca(OH)2 + MgCO3 → CaCO3 ↓ +Mg(OH)2 ↓.....(4)
Also, magnesium non-carbonate hardness, such as magnesium sulfate, is removed:
Ca(OH)2 + MgSO4 → CaSO4 + Mg(OH)2 ↓.....(5)
Lime addition removes only magnesium hardness and calcium carbonate hardness.
In equation 5 magnesium is precipitated, however, an equivalent amount of
calcium is added. The water now contains the original calcium non-carbonate
hardness and the calcium non-carbonate hardness produced in equation 5. Soda ash
is added to remove calcium non-carbonate hardness:
Na2CO3 + CaSO4 → Na2SO4 + CaCO3 ↓.....(6)

To precipitate CaCO3 requires a pH of about 9.5; and to precipitate Mg(OH)2
requires a pH of about 10.8, therefore, an excess lime of about 1.25 meq/l is
required to raise the pH.
The amount of lime required: lime (meq/l) = carbon dioxide (meq/l) + carbonate
hardness (meq/l) + magnesium ion (meq/l) + 1.25 (meq/l)
The amount of soda ash required: soda ash (meq/l) = non-carbonate hardness
(meq/l)
After softening, the water will have high pH and contain the excess lime and the
magnesium hydroxide and the calcium carbonate that did not precipitate.
Recarbonation (adding carbon dioxide) is used to stabilize the water. The excess
lime and magnesium hydroxide are stabilized by adding carbon dioxide, which
also reduces pH from 10.8 to 9.5 as the following:
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 ↓ +H2O
CO2 + Mg(OH)2 → MgCO3 + H2O
Further recarbonation, will bring the pH to about 8.5 and stabilize the calcium
carbonate as the following:
CO2 + CaCO3 + H2O→ Ca(HCO3)2
It is not possible to remove all of the hardness from water. In actual practice, about
50 to 80 mg/l will remain as a residual hardness.
ii)
Flouridation
It has been found that a fluoride concentration of 0.7 to 1.2 p.p.m in water is
beneficial for the
Prevention of dental caries in children. The allowable level of the fluoride is

determined by the annual average of the maximum daily air temperature.
Higher levels of fluoride have responsible for mottling of teeth. However in areas
where water is of low fluoride content, dental caries is high.
The fluoride compounds that are adopted in fluoridation as sodium

fluoride,sodium silico fluride and hypoflusilic acid.
The application of fluorides in water may be either in water may be either in

powder form or in solution form. However in solution form is preferred. In powder
form sodium fluoride or sodium fluosilicate is toxic and must be contained in dust
tight hoppers and containers.
iii)
Defluoridation
Excess concentrations of fluoride causes dental flurosis,when the concentrations is

morethan 1 to1.5ppm. it should be removed from water. The process of removing
fluoride concentration of water is known as defluoridation.
The principal methods of defluoridation are
i. Calcium sulphates
ii. Bone charcoal
iii. Synthetic tri- calcium phosphate
iv. Flourex
v. Ion-Exchanger
vi. Lime
vii. Aluminium compounds
viii. Activated carbon
Distribution system
There are four principal methods of laying our distribution systems
1. Dead end or tree systems

2. Grid iron system or reticulation systems
3. Circular systems or ring system
4. Radial systems.
Dead end or tree systems: In this system, one main pipe line runs through the
centre of the populated area and sub mains taken off from this to both sides. There
are no cross connections between the branches and sub mines. Due to several dead
ends there is accumulation of sediment there and stagnation of water. However the
flow rate in each pipe is easily known due to which the pipe diameters can be
found.
Grid iron or reticulation systems: If the dead ends of the previous systems are
interconnected, water can be made to circulate continuously through the whole of
the distribution systems. This systems is there also known as the interlaced
systems. The branch lines interconnect all the submains. The systems is ideal for
cities laid out on rectangular plan resembling a grid-iron.

Circular systems or ring system: In this systems, the supply main forms a ring
around the distribution district. The branches are connected cross wise to the mains
and also to each other.The systems is most suitable for the town or area having
well planned streets and roads.The systems possesses the same advantage and
disadvantage as those of grid iron systems.
Radial system: This systems is just the reverse of the circular system. In this
systems the whole area is divided in to a number of distribution districts, Each
district has a centrally located distribution reservoir from where distribution pipes
run radially towards the periphery of the distribution district. This system gives
quick service without much loss of head.
Design of distribution system
1. Surveys and maps

2. Tentative layout
3. Discharge in pipe line
4. Calculation of pipe diameter
5. Computation of pressures
2) Fire Hydrants are an integral part of private fireline construction and public
water pipeline main systems. Fire hydrants are basically outlets that release large
quantities of pressurized water to extinguish fires. Public fire hydrants are typically
supplied by municipal potable water pipeline mains; whereas private fire hydrants
are typically located behind a detector check and specifically only used for fire
suppression and is not typically drinking water.
Public fire hydrants are usually designed and spaced to be installed in a new
construction setting approximately every 500 ft. They are usually located along a
street, in the sidewalk at a certain distance away from the curb. Each public fire
hydrant typically includes a gate valve on the branch off the municipal water
pipeline supply.
Fire hydrant outlet sizes and number of outlets are determined by local zoning
requirements and local fire department codes. Fire hydrants are designed with an
operating valve for each outlet. Outlets can range in size from 2 ½ to 4 ½ inches in
diameter. Outlets range from two to three outlets, in most cases.

Example Corrosion and its prevention in Steel pipe (or black iron pipe) was once
the most popular choice for supply of water and flammable gases. Steel pipe is still
used in many homes and businesses to convey natural gas or propane fuel, and is a
popular choice in fire sprinkler systems due to its high heat resistance. In
commercial buildings, steel pipe is used to convey heating or cooling water to heat
exchangers, air handlers, variable air volume (VAV) devices, or other HVAC
equipment.
Steel pipe is sometimes joined using threaded connections, where tapered threads
(see National Pipe Thread) are cut into the end of the tubing segment, sealant is
applied in the form of thread sealing compound or thread seal tape (also known as
PTFE or Teflon tape), and it is then threaded into a corresponding threaded fitting
using a pipe wrench. Beyond domestic or light commercial settings, steel pipe is
often joined by welding, or by use of mechanical couplings made by companies
such as Victaulic or Grinnell that hold the pipe joint together via a groove pressed
or cut (a rarely used older practice), into the ends of the pipes.
3)
Solar distillation:
Figure shows a single-basin still. The main features of operation are the same for
all solar stills. The incident solar radiation is transmitted through the glass cover
and is absorbed as heat by a black surface in contact with the water to be distilled.

The water is thus heated and gives off water vapour. The vapour condenses on the
glass cover, which is at a lower temperature because it is in contact with the
ambient air, and runs down into a gutter from where it is fed to a storage tank.
Design objectives for an efficient solar still
For high efficiency the solar still should maintain:
• a high feed (undistilled) water temperature
• a large temperature difference between feed water and condensing surface
• low vapour leakage.
A high feed water temperature can be achieved if:

• a high proportion of incoming radiation is absorbed by the feed water as heat.
Hence low absorption glazing and a good radiation absorbing surface are required
• heat losses from the floor and walls are kept low
• the water is shallow so there is not so much to heat.
A large temperature difference can be achieved if:

• the condensing surface absorbs little or none of the incoming radiation
• condensing water dissipates heat which must be removed rapidly from the
condensing surface by, for example, a second flow of water or air, or by
condensing at night.
Design types and their performance
Single-basin stills have been much studied and their behaviour is well understood.
Efficiencies of 25% are typical. Daily output as a function of solar irradiation is
greatest in the early evening when the feed water is still hot but when outside
temperatures are falling.
Material selection is very important. The cover can be either glass or plastic. Glass
is considered to be best for most long-term applications, whereas a plastic (such as
polyethylene) can be used for short-term use.
Sand concrete or waterproofed concrete are considered best for the basin of a long-
life still if it is to be manufactured on-site, but for factory-manufactured stills,
prefabricated ferro-concrete is a suitable material.
Multiple-effect basin stills have two or more compartments. The condensing
surface of the lower compartment is the floor of the upper compartment. The heat
given off by the condensing vapour provides energy to vaporize the feed water
above. Efficiency is therefore greater than for a single-basin still typically being
35% or more but the cost and complexity are correspondingly higher.
Electro Dialysis (ED) is a membrane process, during which ions are transported
through semi permeable membrane, under the influence of an electric potential.
The membranes are cation- or anion-selective, which basically means that either
positive ions or negative ions will flow through. Cation-selective membranes are
polyelectrolytes with negatively charged matter, which rejects negatively charged
ions and allows positively charged ions to flow through.
By placing multiple membranes in a row, which alternately allow positively or
negatively charged ions to flow through, the ions can be removed from wastewater.
In some columns concentration of ions will take place and in other columns ions
will be removed. The concentrated saltwater flow is circulated until it has reached
a value that enables precipitation. At this point the flow is discharged.
This technique can be applied to remove ions from water. Particles that do not
carry an electrical charge are not removed.
Cation-selective membranes consist of sulphonated polystyrene, while anion-
selective membranes consist of polystyrene with quaternary ammonia.
Sometimes pre-treatment is necessary before the electro dialysis can take place.
Suspended solids with a diameter that exceeds 10 µm need to be removed, or else
they will plug the membrane pores. There are also substances that are able to
neutralize a membrane, such as large organic anions, colloids, iron oxides and
manganese oxide. These disturb the selective effect of the membrane.
Pre-treatment methods, which aid the prevention of these effects are active carbon
filtration (for organic matter), flocculation (for colloids) and filtration techniques.
An electrodialysis systems

Reverse Osmosis
A technique used in processes requiring high-quality, purified water, such in semiconductor
processing or biochemical applications, is reverse osmosis. It can be used to treat boiler feedwater,
industrial wastewater, or process water. Reverse Osmosis is a water purification technique that reduces
the quantity of dissolved solids in solution (Kucera, 54). It was first developed in the 1950's by the US
government to provide fresh drinking water for the Navy, and since then, advances have made it much
more feasible for obtaining purified water from wastewaters produced in many industrial applications. RO
uses waterline pressure to push raw wastewater against a special semipermeable membrane. It is
essentially a molecular squeezing process which causes H2O molecules to separate from the
contaminants. The separated water molecules then pass thru to the inside of the membrane on to a holding
reservoir. The contaminants are washed from the membrane and disposed of. Recently, RO has been used
in treating boiler feedwater, in addition to industrial and process wastewaters. Boilers are found
throughout the chemical processing industry and the primary method to treat boiler wastewater is an ion-
exchange based demineralization. However, RO has been demonstrated to be more cost effective than this
demineralization process
BELL AND SPIGOT JOINT
Design of pipes using monograms

For the known design discharge. The pipe dia are assumed in such a way that the velocity of
flow varies from 0.6 to 3m/sec smaller velocity is assumed for pipes of smaller dia & larges
velocity for pipes of larger dia. The loss of head in the pipe is then cal using hydraulic formulas.
Out of these formulas Hagen – William formula is more commonly used. The use of Hagen
Williams formula however involves trial & error sol & in order to avoid this monogram of
Hagen Williams formula has been developed. These are in all four variably
1. Discharge Q in m3/min or lit/sec
2. Dia of pipe in mm
3. Loss of heat in m/1000m light of pipe
4. Velocity of flow in m/sec
If out of 4 quantities any 2 are known. The other 2 can be found from the monogram. The
monogram should in fig is valid for a value of roughness co-eff. C4 = 100. For any other value
of CH the head loss obtained from the monogram is multiplied by the factor CH/100

Civil Vi Environmental Engineering I (10cv61) Solution

Transféré par

Informations du document

Description originale:

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Civil Vi Environmental Engineering I (10cv61) Solution

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Environmental Engineering – I 10CV61

Question Paper Solution

1. VARIOUS TYPES OF WATER DEMAND (Dec 2010)

i) Total annual volume (V) in liters or million liters.

It is difficult to precisely assess the quantity of water demanded by the public,

i) Domestic water demand

As correctly as possible the total water demand of a particular section of the

Department of Civil Engineering, S J B Institute of Technology Page 1

FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND

Department of Civil Engineering, S J B Institute of Technology Page 2

Type of characteristics Type of Impurities Max. Permissible

c. Hardness 7-115mg/litre as Caco3

h. Lead (PB) 0.05-0.1mg/lit

i. Arsenic selenium 0.05mg/lit

Department of Civil Engineering, S J B Institute of Technology Page 3

year population Increase in ppn Rate of growth

Avg growth pre decade in arthematic method = 180000/4 =45000

Pon at the end of 2030= 250000+45000 = 295000

Pn = P0 (1+r)n = P2030 = 250000(1+1.5/4) = 344375

6& 8) FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND

1. Size and type of city

Department of Civil Engineering, S J B Institute of Technology Page 4

8. Policy of metering system

i) Domestic water demand

As correctly as possible the total water demand of a particular section of the

The various methods of forecasting the population are

Department of Civil Engineering, S J B Institute of Technology Page 5

6. Comparative graphical method

Department of Civil Engineering, S J B Institute of Technology Page 6

PER CAPITA DEMAND (RATE OF DEMAND) (Q)

Total yearly water requirement of the citty in Litres

By incremental increase method P2021 = Ia + Ii + P2011

Year -1970 population – 47000 Ia = 22000 Ig =0.17095

P2000 = P1970 (1+Ig/100) n = 47,000 (1+ IG /100) 3 = 75459

P2006= 47000(1+0.17095)3.6 = 82954

Department of Civil Engineering, S J B Institute of Technology Page 7

GEOMETRICAL INCREASE METHOD

I) By GEOMETRICAL INCREASE METHOD

Department of Civil Engineering, S J B Institute of Technology Page 8

3) water is liable to be contaminated

5) CLASSIFICATION OF SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY

Department of Civil Engineering, S J B Institute of Technology Page 9

Surface sources such as Sub surface

STREAMS AND RIVERS: The quantity or discharge of the streams is generally

IMPOUNDED RESERVOIRS: During summer the water which is flowing in the

season it may be difficult to operate due to flood waters. Therefore hydraulic

UNDER GROUND SOURCES (OR) SUB-SURFACE SOURCES

Year population Increase per % increase per Incremental

P1950 = 61000+360000+1320 = 98320

Q = 3182 √ 140 =37649 m3/sec

Department of Civil Engineering, S J B Institute of Technology Page 11

8 & 11) INTAKE STRUCTURES

SELECTION OF A SITE FOR INTAKE CONSTRUCTION

It is a circular masonry tower of 4 to 7 meter in diameter constructed along

9) FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF A PARTICULAR TYPE

10) Q = Discharge through pumps =18000m3/2 = 9000m3 per shift

=9000/ 8x60x60 m3/ sec = 0.3125m3/ sec

f’=0.01, L= 40+150 = 190m, d= 0.5m

H = head loss in pipe = f’ L(q/ 3.14)2 / 2gd

=1000x190x.03125x 0.3125/ 1.21x(0.5)5 = 0.49m

Total head = static head + head loss = 21.49m

BHP = WQH/ 7.5n = 1000x0.3125x 21.49 / 75x0.8 =111.92Hp