CENTRO ESCOLAR UNIVERSITY

Mendiola, Manila

Philosophy of Education: Contextualizing Education in Southeast Asia

WENDELL GLENN P. CAGAPE

PhD in Southeast Asian Studies
Centro Escolar University
wendscagape@gmail.com
wendellglenncagape@gmail.com

There are many questions about education and how it impacts society. These questions we
raised everyday can be traced back to how our philosophy of education transcended through the
era and survived institutional innovation at its best.
The same can be observed in Southeast Asia too, when education has played a prominent
role in improving society across the region, elevating the human capital to that at par with the
needs of national development and cohesively integrate these into the regional social and cultural
fiber of the ASEAN.
Philosophy of Education involves the use of philosophical techniques and insights to
understand fundamental questions about education (Raley & Preyer, 2010).
Fundamentally, the modern context of our philosophy of education traced it roots back to
the old Greece. In 500 BC, in the age of Pericles, the world have seen the contributions to the
western world, by Greece of formal education. This is where Plato, have been educated when he
grew up in Athens. This education is seen then as private endeavor and was being handled by
professional teachers as well as tutors. There were no public schools then. In the Republic, Plato
outlines the normal education of a Greek boy, which he also received – learning to read and write
and study the poets. Education began in Athens around 640-550 BC with Solon's edict that every
boy should be taught to swim and to read in schools and palestras, or the gymnastic schools. Solon
did not define the curriculum or the methods but only the age and rank of students and the
qualifications of the pedagogues, that is the slaves who tutored each student (Murphy, 2015).
Plato regards education as a means to achieve justice, both individual justice and social
justice. According to Plato, individual justice can be obtained when each individual develops his
or her ability to the fullest. In this sense, justice means excellence (Lee, 1994). And this is to be

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done in the frontiers of education. He was foremost a student to Socrates, a faithful one until the
death of his mentor in Athens. Thereafter, Plato traveled the world, seeking the wisdom of Euclid,
the Philosopher then spent time with Archytas in Tarentum. He later went to Sicily to the court of
Dionysius I, the tyrant who is egotistical and who sought the company of great men and thinkers
to add up to his prestige and honor. Plato came back to Athens to establish his own Academy.
After the death of Dionysius I, Plato was called back to Sicily by Dion, the brother-in-law
of Dionysius I to train and educate the young Dionysius. It was here that Plato became a teacher
and a scholar.
Plato was relentless in his analysis of the conditions and limitations to the acquisition of
knowledge imposed by a world that was elusive because it was in constant movement. He believed
that all human beings, with the exception of true philosophers, lived in a world of appearances.
This is why Socrates of his Dialogues incessantly demonstrates to his interlocutors how much their
claims to knowledge are illusory because based on unfounded 4 opinions or on prejudices. In
Laches, to cite but one example, two prominent generals are obliged to admit that they do not know
the meaning of courage (Hummel, 1994).

Situating Education in Southeast Asia

In the Philippines, education became a central strategy towards poverty reduction and
strengthened national competitiveness. Thus, the government, as part of the Philippine
Development Plan 2011-2016, is investing in education, specifically in enhancing the knowledge
and skills of Filipinos (UNESCO, 2015). At this time too, Congress passed into law RA 10533
otherwise known as the K-12 Law. A pillar of President Benigno S. Aquino III’s agenda, was
imagined as a way of helping impoverished communities by giving students the skills they need
to land high-paying jobs in fields like technology and finance (Hernandez, 2015).
In Singapore, it has gone from a developing nation, with low educational enrollment and
completion, to becoming the premier education system in Asia. However, while Singapore has
indeed become the standard of excellence in the developed world for urban education, it still faces
challenges (Kent, 2017). In understanding the educational system in Singapore, it is helpful to note
that there were three phases in the education developments in Singapore since its independence.
The first phase was ‘survival-driven’ where the aim was to produce trained workers in the early
years of Singapore’s independence and industrialization. Industralisation in late 1960s demanded
that Singapore produce sufficient skilled workers for an export-oriented economy. Responding to
this demand, there was a shift in emphasis from academic to technical education, characterised by
the development of post-secondary technical and vocational education at the polytechnics (Tan,
Koh, & Choy, 2016).
In Malaysia, the diverse backgrounds of students in Malaysia’s education system requires
citizens to understand others, ethnics and stay united in hope of creating a harmonious society.
Therefore, the need to celebrate the diversity of students was enshrined as one of the five
aspirations of the Malaysian education system, which is "an education system that offers a shared

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experience and values to children by appreciating diversity" (Omara, Che Noha, Hamzaha, &
Majidb, 2015).
Indonesia has decided to expand universal participation in education from 9 to 12 years.
The next decade, therefore, will be one largely of growth in senior secondary provision and
participation. While this decision is to be welcomed, it will be important to ensure that quantitative
growth does not occur at the expense of quality. This will require greater efficiency in the
deployment of teachers and a better alignment of programme offerings with school size. Enlarged
participation in senior secondary school will also require greater attention to the relevance of
education to the life, work and further learning prospects of students. There could well be much
frustration and discontent – among students, parents and employers – if upper secondary and
tertiary education is not reconstructed and made more relevant to Indonesia’s economic
circumstances (Schleicher, 2015).
Since the Doi Moi (Reform) in the mid-1980s, Vietnam’s open-door policy and laissez-
faire oriented economy have paved the way for the blossoming of internationalisation and
privatisation in the higher education sector, especially evidenced in mushrooming joint programs
nationwide. Partnership programs in Vietnam are generally characterised with an import-oriented
approach in adopting ‘whole-package’ Western programs and standards, since such tasks as
managing curriculum, monitoring academic performance, and awarding degrees are undertaken
by foreign providers while local institutions are in charge of infrastructure, admission, and
administration tasks (Nhan & Nguyen, 2018).
In Cambodia, the restructuring progression in education systems and the overall social
services in the early 1980s marks the country’s recommitment to socio-economic development
and expanding educational opportunity. The schooling rehabilitation process was rutted and
obstructed by the continued social insecurity, especially in the rural and remote areas. The Asian
Development Bank (1996) described the educational situation during the 1980s as poor school
conditions, large numbers of unqualified teachers, an absence of a national curriculum framework,
inadequate book supply systems, and a high pupil dropout rate in primary school. Nevertheless,
since the early 1980s that basic education opportunity had been massively expanded through the
initiation of comprehensive primary schooling strategies (Dy, 2004).
In Myanmar, fundamental challenges continue to exist in relation to pedagogy. In what is
a very thorough review of the education sector conducted in 1992 by the Myanmar Education
Research Board, it was stated that: “Myanmar’s rigid school examination system, which
encourages elitism, is a relic of the colonial period that survived Myanmar’s gaining independence
in 1948 and still dominates the education system. With failure rates high, success in examinations
became an important target of education.” Two decades later, an examination culture continues to
flourish. Teachers feel compelled to teach what will be tested, and students are inclined to learn
only whatever might be on the exam (Hayden & Martin, 2013).

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Forms of Education
Everywhere in the world, there are widely adhered to forms of education and they are as
follows:
• Formal Education;
• Informal Education and;
• Non-formal Education
Formal education corresponds to a systematic, organized education model, structured and
administered according to a given set of laws and norms, presenting a rather rigid curriculum as
regards objectives, content and methodology (Dib, 1988). Formal education refers to the
institutional ladder that goes from preschool to graduate studies (Schugurensky, 2000). In the
Philippine experience, formal education are both public and private basic and higher education
programs which are offered under a regulated format of combined curricular and administrative
management and supervision, under a classroom setting, and under a minimum number-of-days
classes.
Non-formal education is student-centered and responsive to its needs than administered
through a rigid law or policy mandating how it is to be administered. In a report by Carolina
Guerrero (2007) to the UNESCO entitled: “Education for All by 2015: will we make it?”, she
reported that “at the turn of the century, major changes in the field of non-formal education in the
Philippines occurred such as the change in the concept, the approach, the focus, and the outcome”.
ALS of the Department of Education, where students do not usually follow a rigid requirement for
a formal education because these are short-term, skill-based non-diploma/non-degree granting
programs. This too applies widely to non-formal education in the Philippine setting.
Informal education means all educational activities which Are done out of school and
university formal education system, with in centralized aims and based on Individual needs and
interest in different forms during life of all people (Farahani, Mirzamohamadi, & Noroozi, 2014).
Informal education in this the Philippine include those from the TESDA.

The Philosopher’s philosophy of Education

As widely subscribed, Plato and Aristotle are front-runners and champions of education.
There are other major philosophers who contributed their philosophies too, from the Greek and
Roman backgrounds.
The study presents the classical philosophers as well as highlight also the contributions of
Lao Tzu on education, to suit my interests in Southeast Asia.
Hereunder are the salient philosophies on education by the famous philosophers of our
time.

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 Philosopher Major philosophical
thought
Plato (428-348 Republic
BC)
Established the first western
world’s university,
Academy around 385 BC
Aristotle (384- Aristotle believed that
322BC) education was central – the
fulfilled person was an
educated person.
Philosophy on Education
Plato’s early works (dialogues) provide much
of what we know of Socrates (470 – 399BC).
In these early dialogues we see the use of the
so called Socratic method. This is a question
and answer form of arguing with an ‘expert’
on one side and a ‘searcher’ on the other. In
the dialogues, the questioning of the expert by
the ‘searcher’ often exposes gaps in the
reasoning. Part of this can be put down to
Plato’s dislike of the Sophists (particularly as
teachers of rhetoric) and his concern that
teachers should know their subject.
Plato’s relevance to modern day educators can
be seen at a number of levels. First, he
believed, and demonstrated, that educators
must have a deep care for the well-being and
future of those they work with. Educating is a
moral enterprise and it is the duty of educators
to search for truth and virtue, and in so doing
guide those they have a responsibility to
teach.
First, his work is a testament to the belief that
our thinking and practice as educators must be
infused with a clear philosophy of life. There
has to be a deep concern for the ethical and
political. We have continually to ask what
makes for human flourishing? From this we
should act to work for that which is good or
‘right’, rather than that which is merely
‘correct’.
Second, along with many others in his time,
he placed a strong emphasis on all round and
‘balanced’ development. Play, physical
training, music, debate, and the study of
science and philosophy were to all have their
place in the forming of body, mind and soul.
Like Plato before him, he saw such learning
happening through life – although with
different emphases at different ages.
5

Socrates (470- His thought, as into his
399 BC) material (thematic) aspect
as into his formal
(methodological) one,
constitutes in its set a
peremptorily challenging
problematics to
philosophers and educators
over eras, because his
weighing questions any
perspective which intends to
jail knowledge, in a way to
circumscribe it such as a
Third, he looked to both education through
reason and education through habit. By the
latter he meant learning by doing – ‘Anything
that we have to learn to do we learn by the
actual doing of it… We become just by doing
just acts, temperate by doing temperate ones,
brave by doing brave ones.’
(Aristotle Niconachean Ethics, Book II, p.91).
Such learning is complemented by reason –
and this involves teaching ‘the causes of
things’. We can see here a connection with
more recent theorists that have emphasized
experience, reflection and connecting to
theories.
Fourth, and linked to the above, Aristotle
bequeathed to us the long-standing
categorizing of disciplines into the theoretical,
practical and technical. We have suffered at
different points from a continuing emphasis in
education, after Aristotle, on contemplation as
the highest form of human activity. However,
many writers have picked up on his concern
for the practical – and for practical reasoning.
We can this at work, for example, in the work
of Carr and Kemmis (1986), and Grundy
(1987) when they argue for a concern with
process and praxis in education. It has also
been a significant element in the reformulation
of informal education by writers such as Jeffs
and Smith (1990; 1994, 1996).
Socrates is, for excellence, the dialogue
philosopher and educator; he bets that there is
the key to individual and collective progress
of human being, as materially as spiritually.
Without any pretention of self-naming himself
sage or master, although he is considered by
others such as one (and here we are included),
he leaves his message which crosses eras; this
message consists on the points which we
mention hereafter, which can be considered
prolific references in order to educator may
think and rethink his or her own formation,
supported by socratic reflection; they are: a)
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 professionals´ prerogative;
that is: Socrates refuses thatprivileged portion of it; so, depriving a human
knowledge should be
something jailed and sold
by specialized individuals;
its proof is that he own
claimed that he had never
been paid to dialogue with
anyone.
St. Thomas Doctor Angelicus
Aquinas greatest of the “Scholastics” aimed at developing intellectual abilities, in
(Schoolmen). Scholasticism contrast to a vocational, professional, or
is a medieval Catholic
school of philosophy and
theology. The roots of
Scholasticism go back to the freeman as opposed to a slave. In the feudal
8th century educational
reforms of Charlemagne
Knowledge belongs to mankind, not only to a
being of knowledge means to infringe it a
capital right. b) Knowledge is free;
consequently, it is not to be bargained or
commercialized, being, thus, illicit to be
enriched due to it – there is here his
condemnation to sophists. c) The principle of
knowledge is to recognize his or her own
ignorance; so, who intends to become a sage,
make of himself or herself an ignorant; who
intends to become a master, make of himself
or herself a disciple. d) Knowledge and virtue
identify each other; thus, it is not correct to
claim that somebody is wise without being
virtuous; on the same way, it is wrong to
affirm that somebody is virtuous not being
wise. e) Virtue and happiness amount each
other, that is, the virtuous conduct is rewarded
by itself; therefore, virtue is a happy behavior;
ipso facto, it does not mean to look happiness
for without virtue, on the same way that it is a
nonsense to look virtue for after reaching
happiness, such as if the second one could be
out of the first one. f) Philosophy and
pedagogy maintain between each other a
dialectic relation, that is: there is a dialogue
between them, which benefit both, because it
is possible to philosophize in order to educate
on the same way that it is possible to educate
to philosophize. g) Philosopher and educator
are dialogue agentes; therefore, being the
dialogue the common factor between
philosophy and education, on the measures
that both serve themselves from it they will
contribute to prosperity both to philosophical
activity either to educational one.
The modern term ‘liberal arts’ is a curriculum
technical curriculum. In ancient Greece and
Rome (the classical period), the term
designated the education appropriate to a
system of the Middle Ages, education was
open only to the privileged few – the
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 (Charles the Great; 747 –
814), King of the Franks.
Education was called the
“liberal arts”; “liberal”
because education was open
only to freemen
(Latin: liber, “free”), and
not to slaves.
Michel de one of the most influential
Montaigne (1533 writers of the French
- 1592) Renaissance, in the field of
education.
“Learning is Living and
Living is Learning”
equivalent of the classical freeman of Greece
and Rome. Education was limited to those
who didn’t need to make a living.
The education curriculum consisted of two
main divisions. The trivium (“three”) and
the quadrivium (“four”). The trivium consisted
of three language subjects: “grammar”,
“rhetoric” and “dialectic”.
The quadrivium consists of arithmetic,
geometry, astronomy and music. Let me say
more about the trivium of “grammar”,
“rhetoric” and “dialectic”.
The classical and medieval meaning of
“grammar” was not restricted to the rules of
language. “Grammar” consisted of rules as
well as literature, for example, poetry and
drama.
“Rhetoric” is the art of persuading an listeners
or readers to feel, think or act a certain way.
“Rhetoric” also has the ordinary (non-
academic) meaning of “empty words”, “hot
air”, as in “He’s all rhetoric and no
substance.” “Rhetoric” in this sense is the
most trivial of the trivium.
The third component of the trivium was
“dialectic”. “Dialectic was another name for
logical reasoning, or simply, “logic”. The
classical philosophers as well as the Medieval
theologians based their intellectual practice on
the assumption that all mentally healthy
humans are endowed with the same rules of
logic: the rules of my mind are the same as the
rules of everyone else’s mind. The dialectical
method is also called the Socratic method,
because it came down to us through Socrates
via Plato. (Plato, a pupil of Socrates,
preserved and expanded his teacher’s thought
in the “Platonic dialogues”).
Let the tutor make his pupil examine and
thoroughly sift everything he reads, and lodge
nothing in his head upon simple authority and
upon trust
As to the rest, this method of education ought
to be carried on with a firm gentleness, quite
8

“Education of Children
(1575)
Lao Tzu, ( 570 The name “Laozi” is best
B.C. - 490 B.C.) taken to mean “Old (lao)
Master (zi),” and Laozi the
ancient philosopher is said
to have written a short book, the Highest Primordial Mystery), and less
which has come to be called formally the “five-thousand character” text, on
simply the Laozi, after its
putative author, a common
practice in early China.
When the Laozi was
recognized as a “classic”
(jing)—that is, accorded
canonical status in the
classification of Chinese
literature, on account of its the Heshanggong commentary to fit the
profound insight and
significance—it acquired a
more exalted and
hermeneutically instructive contain 4,999 characters.
title, Daodejing (Tao-te
ching), commonly
translated as the “Classic of
the Way and Virtue.”
contrary to the practice of our pedants, who
instead of tempting and alluring children to
letters, present nothing before them but rods
and ferrules, horror and cruelty. Away with
this violence! away with this compulsion! than
which, I certainly believe nothing more dulls
and degenerates a well-born nature. If you
would have him fear shame and chastisement,
do not harden him to them. Inure him to heat
and cold, to wind and sun, and to dangers that
he ought to despise. Wake him from all
effeminacy in clothes and lodging, eating and
drinking; accustom him to every thing, that he
may not be a Sir Paris, a carpet-knight, but a
sinewy, hardy, and vigorous young man
The Daodejing is also referred to as the Daode
zhenjing (True Classic of the Way and
Virtue), the Taishang xuanyuan
Daodejing (Classic of the Way and Virtue of
account of its approximate length. Most
versions exceed five thousand characters by
about five to ten percent, but it is interesting to
note that numerological considerations later
became an integral part of the history of the
work. According to the seventh-century
Daoist master Cheng Xuanying, Ge Xuan (fl.
200 C.E.) shortened the text that accompanied
magical number of five thousand. This claim
cannot be verified, but a number
of Laozi manuscripts discovered at Dunhuang
The current Daodejing is divided into two
parts (pian) and 81 chapters or sections
(zhang). Part one, comprising chapters 1–37,
has come to be known as the Daojing (Classic
of Dao), while chapters 38–81 make up
the Dejing (Classic of Virtue). This is
understood to be a thematic division—chapter
1 begins with the word Dao, while chapter 38
begins with the phrase “superior virtue”—
although the concepts of Dao and virtue (de)
feature in both parts. As a rough heuristic
guide, some commentators have suggested
9
 that the Daojing is more “metaphysical,”
whereas the Dejing focuses more on
sociopolitical issues.

Situating philosophy in education in Southeast Asia and in Asia in general needs to also
highlight the contributions of Confucius.
Confucian is here defined as traditional attitudes and practices existing in East Asian
societies which ultimately are derived from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius
(551-479 BCE) and his later followers. These teachings are characterised by their emphasis on
ethics and statecraft, and resulted, in the case of China, in a society dominated by a secular elite
recruited through a merit-based examination system. Education was the route to social status and
material success, and promoted harmony based on morality and hierarchy. The status of education
remains high in Confucian heritage cultures; this is reflected in the degree of parental interest in
education, in pressure on children to succeed at school and in the priority it receives in family
expenditure (Starr, 2012).
The Han dynasty 202 BC to 220 AD abandoned Taoism and adopted Confucianism as an
official ideology. This ideology preaches the notion that harmony and cooperation were preferred
over disagreement and competition, and it is believed to be once coexisting with Buddhism and
Christianity. This form of thinking has been a far-reaching influence and dominating on traditional
Chinese culture for years (Ling, Ramachandran, Shuib, & Harman, 2014).
Bringing Confucius to Southeast Asia can be gleaned in the educational system in
Singapore. A philosophy that is central to the Singaporean education system is that of
Confucianism. The central concept is ren (jen) which to Confucius meant that “the good life is an
endless aspiration for ethical perfection.” Morality is thus a crucial part of Singaporean education
system justasit isin Japan (Ubong, 2011).
Further, in the last 15 years, there have been numerous shifts in education policies in
Singapore. Principals are expected to be role models in providing a Student-Centric Values-
Driven education, where developing 21st-century competencies and providing multiple pathways
of success to every child is seen as a fundamental tenet of schooling. In view of this, principals
must be able to determine what a specific policy means to the school, their students and the
community at large. In addition, reform efforts should also focus on changing the cultures of the
classroom and the schools so as to improve the quality of education (Jayapragas, 2016).
Finally, in Asia and in Southeast Asia in particular, there are educators who follows Lao
Tzu philosophy of education called Tao Te Ching. Tao Te Ching (pronounced as: Dow Deh Jeeng)
is at the foundations of both philosophical and religious Taoism and is part of the core of all
Chinese religion and philosophy (Deppe, 2010). One of the most influential contributions of the
Tao Te Ching is the philosophy of water. Lao Zi uses the water metaphor in Dao De Jing to
transform meanings of Dao from the metaphysical level to social and behavioral levels. Through
the water metaphor Dao is unified into three concepts: Zhi xu (attainment of complete vacuity),

10
yong rou (softness/weakness), and chu xia (subordination)/bu zheng (non-competition) (Chen &
Hont, 2002).

Theories of Education
Our analysis of this study will be enhanced by our understanding of the different
contemporary theories of education.
But before we proceed at the discussion on the theories of education, let us quickly review,
for this paper, the contributions of Heidegger and Wittgenstein in the context of the Philosophy of
Education in the 20th to the 21st centuries.
In the 20th century, there was a decided change in the direction of philosophy—indeed, a
revolution: epistemology, understood as the search for ultimate Truth, and which had largely ruled
the day for the last 2,500 years, was abandoned. By the search for ultimate Truth‘ we mean the
quest to find an absolutely certain and immovable foundation upon which to base any and all
claims to know‘ anything whatsoever. Kurt Gödel, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Martin Heidegger
were the three principal architects of this revolution, i.e., they abandoned said search because they
considered it impossible to complete. Their work is significant for educational practice because it
enables teachers and students to engage in a form of critical thinking, which we discuss below,
that creates the possibility for elevating one‘s consciousness above Tradition (Dwyer, Maruyama,
& Fontaine, 2011). Further, they wrote that “Prior to this revolution, the epistemological questions,
―What do we know? and ―How do we know it? ruled the day. These questions demanded
answers that were absolutely certain. Looking back to the 20th century, we can see that many
philosophers abandoned the search for absolute certainty, and turned toward pragmatism. Their
turn notwithstanding, their questions generally remained the same, i.e., they did not stop asking
epistemological questions. What changed were the standards of acceptable answers, as illustrated
by Dewey‘s warranted assertability”. Finally, they opined that “Wittgenstein and Heidegger
insisted that we cease to ask epistemological questions. What they advocated is not a turn toward
pragmatism, but rather that we simply ask different questions. The questions that replace
epistemological ones are, ‗How does human consciousness develop, and how does it apprehend
its environment?’ These are questions about education, as we discuss below , and philosophers of
education are in many ways uniquely suited to answer them.”
Hereunder is the matrix of contemporary theories of education culled out from the work of
Molly Zhou and David Brown (2014):
Theorist Theory Context and impact to education
B. F. Skinner Behaviorism Behaviorism is primarily concerned
(Burrhus Frederic with observable and measurable
Skinner, 1904–1990) aspects of human behavior. In
defining behavior, behaviorist
learning theories emphasize changes
in behavior that result from
stimulus-response associations made

11
 by the learner. Behavior is directed
by stimuli. An individual selects one
response instead of another because
of prior conditioning and
psychological drives existing at the
moment of the action.

In education, advocates of
behaviorism have effectively
adopted this system of rewards and
punishments in their classrooms by
rewarding desired behaviors and
punishing inappropriate ones.
Rewards vary, but must be important
to the learner in some way. For
example, if a teacher wishes to teach
the behavior of remaining seated
during the class period, the
successful student's reward might be
checking the teacher's mailbox,
running an errand, or being allowed
to go to the library to do homework
at the end of the class period. As
with all teaching methods, success
depends on each student's stimulus
and response, and on associations
made by each learner.

Behaviorist techniques have long

been employed in education to
promote behavior that is desirable
and discourage that which is not.
Among the methods derived from
behaviorist theory for practical
classroom application are contracts,
consequences, reinforcement,
extinction, and behavior
modification

Jean Piaget (1896– Cognitive Learning From his observation of children,

1980) Piaget understood that children were
creating ideas. They were not
limited to receiving knowledge from
parents or teachers; they actively
constructed their own knowledge.

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 Piaget's work provides the
foundation on which constructionist
theories are based. Constructionists
believe that knowledge is
constructed and learning occurs
when children create products or
artifacts. They assert that learners
are more likely to be engaged in
learning when these artifacts are
personally relevant and meaningful.

An important implication of Piaget's

theory is adaptation of instruction to
the learner's developmental level.
The content of instruction needs to
be consistent with the developmental
level of the learner. The teacher's
role is to facilitate learning by
providing a variety of experiences.
"Discovery learning" provides
opportunities for learners to explore
and experiment, thereby
encouraging new understandings.
Opportunities that allow students of
differing cognitive levels to work
together often encourage less mature
students to advance to a more
mature understanding. One further
implication for instruction is the use
of concrete "hands on" experiences
to help children learn.
Albert Bandura Social Cognitive Theory Social cognitive theory (SCT) refers
(1925- ) to a psychological model of
behavior that emerged primarily
from the work of Albert Bandura.
Initially developed with an emphasis
on the acquisition of social
behaviors, SCT continues to
emphasize that learning occurs in a
social context and that much of what
is learned is gained through
observation. SCT has been applied
broadly to such diverse areas of
human functioning as career choice,
organizational behavior, athletics,
and mental and physical health. SCT

13
also has been applied extensively by
those interested in understanding
classroom motivation, learning, and
achievement.

One strength of SCT is that it

provides a clear foundation for
classroom interventions designed to
improve students' learning. In this
section, several general implications
for instruction derived from the key
concepts described above are
described. More complete treatments
of the instructional implications of
SCT readers are available elsewhere.

More specifically, instruction based

on SCT should support students'
engagement in each of the four sub-
processes of observational learning.
Students' attention can be increased
by using models that are viewed as
competent, prestigious, and similar
to themselves. Students also pay
closer attention when the skill or
material being demonstrated is
considered more personally relevant
or interesting. Instruction should
support students' retention by
facilitating the creation of verbal
labels or images through the use of
mnemonics, graphic organizers, or
other similar learning strategies.
Opportunities for rehearsal, both in
the form of repeated exposure to
models and in the form of time to
reflect on the material or skills also
assist retention. The effective use of
models depends on providing
students multiple opportunities to
practice the behaviors or skills they
have observed. This process will be
improved if students are provided
feedback about their efforts that is
specific, more immediate, and
insightful about what the learner is

14
 doing well and what needs
improvement.
Lev Semyonovich Social Cultural Learning The social world as defined by
Vygotsky (1896- Vygotsky considers not only the
1934) interpersonal interactions between,
say, a student and teacher, or student
and peer, but also the broader
sociocultural and historical
influences on learning and the
learning environment. The
underlying themes of Vygotsky’s
theory on cognitive development
have thus often been summarized as:
(i) the significance of culture, (ii) the
role of a principal proponent of
culture: language, and (iii) the
student’s relationship with (and
development within) this social
(cultural) world. In this context,
culture is viewed as socially
accepted behaviors, attitudes and
beliefs, and is constructed through
human societal products such as
institutions, symbol systems and
tools such as language. Culture in
this sense, is a dynamic outcome of
historical events and developments,
and thus products of human
development. However, as
emphasized by Vygotsky, at any
particular historical time, culture
itself will influence human mental
functioning and behavior, and thus a
complex (integrated) relationship
between the cultural environment
and personal development. In other
words, humans are not only
producing culture, but are also
products of culture themselves.

Although the social influences on

cognitive development have been
considered by other researchers,
such as Piaget and Bandura,
Vygotsky emphasized that
individual development is inherently

15
 integrated with cultural, historical
and inter-personal factors.
Furthermore, Vygotsky viewed the
individual in the social context as
the unit of analysis in development,
rather than the sole individual. In
other words, whilst the
internalization of thoughts, attitudes,
and beliefs have been widely
accepted to be socially influenced,
further higher mental development is
postulated by Vygotsky to be
inseparably dependent upon social
interactions, and indeed new
understanding is not necessarily
viewed as an external feature to be
adopted by the student, but
something which is created in the
process of the social (teaching)
interactions
Lawrence Kohlberg Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of
(1927-1987) moral development constitute an
adaptation of a psychological theory
originally conceived of by the Swiss
psychologist Jean Piaget. Kohlberg
began work on this topic while a
psychology postgraduate student at
the University of Chicago in 1985,
and expanded and developed this
theory throughout his life.

The theory holds that moral

reasoning, the basis for ethical
behavior, has six identifiable
developmental stages, each more
adequate at responding to moral
dilemmas than its predecessor.
Kohlberg followed the development
of moral judgment far beyond the
ages studied earlier by Piaget, who
also claimed that logic and morality
develop through constructive stages.
Expanding on Piaget's work,
Kohlberg determined that the
process of moral development was
principally concerned with justice,

16
 and that it continued throughout the
individual's lifetime, a notion that
spawned dialogue on the
philosophical implications of such
research.

Kohlberg's body of work on the

stages of moral development has
been utilized by others working in
the field. One example is the
Defining Issues Test (DIT) created
in 1979 by James Rest, originally as
a penciland-paper alternative to the
Moral Judgement Interview. Heavily
influenced by the six-stage model, it
made efforts to improve the validity
criteria by using a quantitative test,
the Likert scale, to rate moral
dilemmas similar to Kohlberg's. It
also used a large body of
Kohlbergian theory such as the idea
of "postconventional thinking." In
1999 the DIT was revised as the
DIT-2; the test continues to be used
in many areas where moral testing is
required, such as divinity, politics,
and medicine.

John Dewey (1859- Experiential Learning John Dewey's philosophical view

1952 throughout his career was on the
"theory of inquiry" on how species
survived in their environment.
Dewey believed in Charles Darwin's
theory of nature selection, adopting
the naturalistic approach of Darwin.
He thought that a living organism
interacting with the environment
responds by developing an
understanding of how to adapt to
that situation and excel. One of
Dewey's most outstanding essays
was the "Reflex Arc Concept in
Psychology" in 1869.

Experiential Learning Theory

"provides a holistic model of the

17
 learning process and a multi-linear
model of adult development". In
other words, this is an inclusive
model of adult learning that intends
to explain the complexities of and
differences between adult learners
within a single framework. The
focus of this theory is experience,
which serves as the main driving
force in learning, as knowledge is
constructed through the
transformative reflection on one's
experience.

Experiential Learning Theory

outlines the manner in which
learners gain knowledge and
understanding through experiences.
Though some may debate which
steps are present in experiential
learning, there is no debate about the
worth of experience in learning.
Through experience, learners are
able to construct firsthand a sense of
understanding of the events going on
around them. Educators have begun
to harness the power of experience
in study abroad courses, field
studies, role plays, and numerous
computer-based interventions. The
future could bring even more
applications of this theory, a
possibility as exciting for the learner
as much as it is the facilitator.

Howard Gardner Multiple Intelligences Theory Various theories on learning have

(1943- ) been developed with increasing
frequency in the last few decades. In
order to understand the relationship
between these theories, Curry's
onion model (Curry, 1983) was
developed with four layers --
personality learning theories,

18
information processing theories,
social learning theories, and
multidimensional and instructional
theories.

Personality learning theories define

the influences of basic personality
on preferences to acquiring and
integrating information. Models
used in this theory include Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator, which
measures personality in
dichotomous terms- extroversion
versus introversion, sensing versus
intuition, thinking versus feeling,
and judging versus perception, and
the Keirsey Temperament Sorter,
which classifies people as rationals,
idealists, artisans, or guardians.

Information processing theories

encompass individuals' preferred
intellectual approach to assimilating
information, and includes David
Kolb's model of information
processing, which identifies two
separate learning activities:
perception and processing.

Howard Gardner's theory of

Multiple Intelligences utilizes
aspects of cognitive and
developmental psychology,
anthropology, and sociology to
explain the human intellect.
Although Gardner had been working
towards the concept of Multiple
Intelligences for many years prior,
the theory was introduced in 1983,
with Gardner's book, Frames of
Mind.

Gardner's research consisted of brain

research and interviews with stroke
victims, prodigies, and individuals
with autism. Based on his findings,

19
 Gardner established eight criteria for
identifying the seven (he has
subsequently added an eighth and is
considering a ninth) separate
intelligences. The eight criteria used
by Gardner to identify the
intelligences are listed below:
• Isolation by brain
damage/neurological
evidence
• The existence of prodigies,
idiot savants, and exceptional
individuals
• Distinguishable set of core
operations
• Developmental stages with
an expert end state
• Evolutionary history and
plausibility
• Susceptibility to encoding in
a symbol system
• Support from experimental
psychological tasks
• Support from psychometric
research

Challenging these theories also is the coming of age of Michel Foucault, the French
Philosopher who was an influential figure post Second World War. His contemporary thoughts on
philosophy has links to education. Foucault is a poststructuralist who abhors scientific approaches
in the human sciences. Foucault’s contribution to education is contained in his treaties in the
Discipline and Punish as well as in the Birth of the Prison which highlighted discipline, docile
bodies, hierarchical observation, normalizing judgment, the examination and panopticism – all of
which have resonance to education (Aubrey & Riley, 2017).

Philippine Philosophy of Education

In the Philippine contexts, educators adhere to five major philosophies of education,
namely: essentialism, perennialism, progressivism, existentialism and behaviorism.
According to Dr. Gilbert Magulod, Jr. (2017) of the Cagayan State University, “teaching
consists of beliefs, attitude, values and behaviors espoused by teacher to facilitate the students‟
learning and development. These behaviors follow a pattern or model depending on the teacher‟s

20
educational philosophy. The educational philosophies are the framework to guide, filter, and
consider the effort of teacher towards what she/ he believes as the purpose of education. In relation,
educational philosophy is a point of view that provides a logical, rational, and valid basis for
educational effort and criteria for the selection of a sound educational practice”. Hereunder are the
educational philosophies he cited were prevalent in the Philippine educational system.

Essentialism refers to the educational philosophy which

pertains to the traditional or „back to basic
movement” as approach in teaching. As the
name implies, it seeks to instill learners with
the “essentials” of academic pursuit and
knowledge. Educators espousing this
philosophy believe that teaching students with
the mastery of 3Rs will make them competent
in the world. For these basic skills are
essentials for an individual to live well in the
modern society. This philosophy encourages
academic rivalry where the classroom is stiff
and controlled.
Perennialism is an educational philosophy adhering to the
concept of conservative point of view mainly
focused on the intellectual and moral
standards. It emphasizes that schools must
teach students with the ideas that are
everlasting and the search for enduring truths
are constant. Values are constant and
unchanging through the literature, arts,
philosophies, and religions.
Progressivism Progressivism as educational philosophy
captures the belief that students manifest
meaningful learning when they are actively
involved in learning activities that they have
interest with. Actual and experiential learning
are important and will develop individual
learner’s creativity and imagination. This
philosophy emphasizes the different learning
styles and dispositions of students, their
multiple intelligences and individual learning
preferences. The curriculum in this
philosophy shows dynamism and relevance to
the needs of the society
Existentialism Existentialism is a philosophy that put much
student’s freedom to learn. It supports the idea

21
 that to exist is to find the essence of life. It
requires student centered teaching approach
where students are given the freedom of
choice which they know will unleash their
potentials and creativity. Educators in this
philosophy serve as facilitators who guide
students define their own essence by assisting
them to various choices they would like to
take.
Behaviorism Social Reconstructionism philosophy aims to
bring out the consciousness of an individual
about the social events, concerns and
problems being confronted. This philosophy
provides vision of the better world by looking
solutions and addressing social concerns and
issues. It purports the idea that teachers
should be an instrument to encourage and lead
students for social reforms. Methods of
teaching may include problem oriented type,
community-based learning and group
discussions.

Source: Dr. Gilbert Magulod, Jr. Educational Philosophies Adhered by Filipino Preservice
Teachers: Basis for Proposing Initiatives for 21st Century Teacher Education Preparation Program
as published in the Asia Pacific Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, Vol. 5, No. 1, February
2017

The K-12 curriculum and the ASEAN Integration

In 2007, the members of the ASEAN countries approved a “blueprint” to guide each
member on initiatives and measures to achieve regional integration which is scheduled for 2015.
ASEAN integration allows its member-countries (and the citizens of those countries) to join in the
free flow of capital, labor, services, goods, and foreign investments (Pacete, 2015). To ensure that
integration benefits all, actions and programs must be purposive in nature. They must be intentionally
directed to addressing the problems of unemployment, poverty and inequality (Del Rosario Jr.,
2015).

The Philippines, in response to the encompassing ASEAN common community, initiated

reforms in the education sector through the passage of RA 10533. In the K-12 curriculum, the length
of basic education has been expanded. Two more years have been added to the existing four years
of secondary education, which will extend basic education to 12 years and one-year kindergarten has
been mandated as part of basic education. The extension of secondary education means that students
aged 16-17, will now be in senior high school and entry into tertiary education will be at age 18
(Okabe, 2013).

22
 According to Maria Teresa F. Calderon, Ph.D (2014) of the Arellano University, “The school
of essentialism must be revisited”. She further stated that “The emphasis in this conservative
perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach. The core of the
curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor. Although this educational
philosophy is similar in some ways to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core
curriculum may change. Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable
members of society. It should focus on facts-the objective reality out there--and "the basics," training
students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set or
influence policies. Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and discipline.
Teachers are to help students keep their nonproductive instincts in check, such as aggression or
mindlessness.” The concerns for the K-12 has even been shared by those in the tertiary level
institutions as it affected the administration of key curriculum and modified the General Education
curricula.

It was seen that professors of general education were most affected during the rollout of the
senior high school curriculum in 2016 (Fuentes & Castronuevo, 2017).

And finally, it was believed then that the goals of the K-12 program is to provide employment
to Filipino youths. Under the new K to 12 program, they would at least be assured of a vocational
certificate that would enable them to land job (Del Mundo, 2013).

Fast forward to 2018, a Philippine Business for Education study recently said only about
20 percent of 70 of the country’s leading companies across all sectors were inclined to hire senior
high graduates. According to PBED Executive Director Love Basillote, many companies accept
only job applicants with at least two years of college education, which potentially excludes SHS
graduates. This hiring policy explains the discrepancy between the graduates’ supposedly high
competency and their low chances of getting a job (Yee, 2018), which prompted even Senator
Grace Poe to call on employers to hire graduates of senior high schools (Leonen, 2018).
Corroborating the study of the Philippine Business for Education, the Jobstreet claimed in their
most recent survey that only 24% of companies will hire graduates from senior high schools, which
was welcomed by the Department of Education (Mateo, 2018).

In the end, our analysis of the K-12 curriculum as implemented by the DepEd warrants the
question raised by a columnist as she aptly asked: Quo Vadis? Have they, as in Rousseau’s Emile,
received indeed proper nurturing? K-12 shall have “no child left behind.” Every student with
his/her own special needs, “exists in his/her own right and be guided to grow in accordance with
his/her own nature.” Anchored on this philosophy, the SHS pioneer graduates we hope shall find
themselves where they should be—to further their education or begin well a youthful career
(Tanhueco-Tumapon, 2018).

23
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