1.

Lateral vibration of rod

Fig. 1 An element in a bending beam

First let us recall the basic theory of bending of a beam. Figure 1 illustrates an element of a beam
at the reference and bending states, respectively. We assume that the beam is at a pure bending
condition, that is, the two boundaries ab and cd intersect at Point O. As shown in Fig. 1b, the
neutral plane, which exhibits no strain, has a radius ρ . For any point with a coordinate y, its
strain is
ef − dx (ρ − y )θ − ρθ y
εx = = = − = −κy (1)
dx ρθ ρ
where κ (= 1/ ρ ) is the curvature of the neutral place. According to Hook’s law, we have
σ x = Eε x (2)

Fig. 2 Force and moment applied on the beam

The equilibrium condition gives
M + (σ x dA) y = 0
∫ (3)

Substituting (2) into (3), we have

M = Eκ y 2 dA
∫ (4)

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The moment of inertial I is defined as
I = y 2 dA
∫ (5)

Thus,
M = EIκ (6)

Fig. 3 Curvature and deflection of beam

The curvature depends on the first and second derivatives of the deflection with respect to the x
coordinate
1 d 2 v / dx 2
κ= = (7)
ρ [1 + (dv / dx) ]2 3/ 2

Assuming the slope is negligible compared to unity, we have

d 2v
κ= (8)
dx 2
Substituting (8) into (6), we have
d 2v
M = EI (9)
dx 2

Fig. 4 Free body diagram of an element in a beam

Figure 4 shows a free body diagram of an elementary length dx of the beam, where M and V are
the applied moment and shear force respectively, and p(x) is the force per unit length.
The total force in the y direction is zero, giving

2
 dV − p( x)dx = 0 (10)
Thus,
dV
= p(x) (11)
dx
The total moment about any point, say, a point in the right boundary of the element, is zero,
giving
1
dM − Vdx − p( x)(dx ) 2 = 0 (12)
2
Thus,
dM
=V (13)
dx
Substituting (13) into (11), we have
d 2M
= p( x) (14)
dx 2
Substituting (9) into (14), we have
d4y
EI 4 = p( x) (15)
dx
When considering the vibration of the beam, we need to take into account the inertia force, and
we have
∂4 y ∂2 y
EI = p ( x, t ) − ρA (16)
∂x 4 ∂t 2
We can rewrite (16) as
∂4 y ∂2 y
EI + ρA = p( x, t ) (17)
∂x 4 ∂t 2
which is the famous equation to govern the transverse vibration of the beam. Next let us assume
p(x,t) = 0, and analyze the free vibration of the beam as follows.
∂4 y ∂2 y
EI + ρA =0 (18)
∂x 4 ∂t 2
The free vibration can be found using the method of separation of variables as
y( x, t ) = Y ( x)G(t ) (19)
Substituting (19) into (18), we have

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 EI 1 d 4Y ( x ) 1 d 2G(t )
+ =0 (20)
ρA Y ( x ) dx 4 G(t ) dt 2
We assume that
EI 1 d 4Y ( x ) 1 d 2G(t )
4
= − 2
= ω2 (21)
ρA Y ( x ) dx G(t ) dt
We can rewrite (21) as
d 4Y ( x)
4
− α 4Y ( x) = 0 (22)
dx
d 2G(t )
+ ω 2G(t ) = 0 (23)
dt 2
where
ρAω 2
α4 = (24)
EI
The solution of (22) is of exponential form as follows.
Y ( x) = ke sx (25)
where k and s are constants. Substituting (25) into (22), we have
s4 − α 4 = 0 (26)
So that we have
s1 = α ; s2 = −α ; s3 = iα ; s4 = −iα (27)

The solution of (22) can be expressed as

Y ( x) = C1eαx + C2e −αx + C3eiαx + C4e −iαx (28)

Eq (28) can also be expressed as

Y ( x) = C1 cosh(αx ) + C2 sinh (αx ) + C3 cos(αx ) + C4 sin (αx ) (29)

e x + e− x e x − e− x
where cosh(x) = and sinh( x) = . Eq (29) gives the normal modes of the beam.
2 2
The four constants C1 , C2 , C3 , and C4 depend on the boundary conditions.

The solution of (23) is given by

G(t ) = D1 cos(ωt ) + D2 sin(ωt ) (30)
where D1 and D2 are constant depending on the initial conditions at t = 0.
The natural frequencies of the beam can be determined from (24) as follows.

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 EI
ω =α2 (31)
ρA
For each beam, there will be infinite vibration modes and corresponding natural frequencies. The
unknown constant C1 , C2 , C3 , and C4 in (29) and the value of α in (31) can be determined

from the given boundary conditions of the beam.

If the ith natural frequency is denoted as ωi and the ith corresponding normal mode is Yi (x) , the

free vibration response of the beam can be found by superposing the normal modes as
∞
y ( x, t ) = ∑ Yi ( x)[Ai cos(ωi t ) + Bi sin (ωi t )] (32)
i =1

where Ai and Bi can be determined by the initial conditions of the beam.

2. Boundary conditions
Typical boundary conditions for the lateral vibration of rod are as follows.
1) For both ends fixed
∂y
Left end: y x = 0 = 0 , =0
∂x x = 0

∂y
Right end: y x =l = 0 , = 0 where l is the length of the rod.
∂x x =l
2) One end fixed, and the other end free
∂y
Left end fixed: y x = 0 = 0 , =0
∂x x = 0

∂2 y ∂3 y
Right end free: = 0 , =0
∂x 2 x =l ∂x3 x =l
3) For both ends hinged

∂2 y
Left end: y x = 0 = 0 , =0
∂x 2 x = 0

∂2 y
Right end: y x =l = 0 , =0
∂x 2 x =l
4) One end fixed, and the other end hinged

5
 ∂y
Left end fixed: y x = 0 = 0 , =0
∂x x = 0

∂2 y
Right end hinged: y x =l = 0 , =0
∂x 2 x =l
Both natural frequencies and vibration modes depend on boundary conditions. Figure 5 shows
the mode shapes for the first, second, and third modes.

α1l = 4.730; α 2l = 7.853; α 3l = 10.996 α1l = 1.875; α 2l = 4.694; α 3l = 7.854

α1l = 3.142; α 2l = 6.283; α 3l = 9.424 α1l = 3.927; α 2l = 7.069; α 3l = 10.210

Fig. 5 Vibration mode shapes and natural frequencies for different boundary conditions

Example 1
Determine the natural frequencies of vibration of a beam fixed at one end and free at the other
hand.
Solution
The boundary conditions are
dY
At x = 0, Y = 0; =0
dx
d 2Y d 3Y
At x = l, M =0, = 0 ; V = 0, =0
dx 2 dx 3
Substituting x = 0, Y = 0 into Eq (29), we have

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 C1 + C3 = 0 (33)

dY
Substituting x = 0, = 0 into Eq (29), we have
dx
C2 + C4 = 0 (34)
Substituting (33-34) into (29), we have
Y ( x) = C1 cosh(αx) + C2 sinh(αx) − C1 cos(αx) − C2 sin(αx) (35)
Based on (35), we have
d 2Y
2
= α 2 (C1 cosh (αx ) + C2 sinh(αx ) + C1 cos(αx ) + C2 sin (αx )) (36)
dx
d 3Y
3
= α 3 (C1 sinh(αx ) + C2 cosh (αx ) − C1 sin (αx ) + C2 cos(αx )) (37)
dx
d 2Y
Substituting x = l, = 0 into (36), we have
dx 2
C1 cosh(αl ) + C2 sinh(αl ) + C1 cos(αl ) + C2 sin(αl ) = 0 (38)
Based on (38), we have
C1 cosh(αl ) + C1 cos(αl ) = −C2 sinh(αl ) − C2 sin(αl ) (39)

d 3Y
Substituting x = l, = 0 into (37), we have
dx 3
C1 sinh(αl ) + C2 cosh(αl ) − C1 sin(αl ) + C2 cos(αl ) = 0 (40)
Based on (40), we have
C1 sinh(αl ) − C1 sin(αl ) = −C2 cosh(αl ) − C2 cos(αl ) (41)
(39) divided by (41), we have
cosh(αl ) + cos(αl ) sinh(αl ) + sin(αl )
= (42)
sinh(αl ) − sin(αl ) cosh(αl ) + cos(αl )
which reduces to
cosh(αl ) cos(αl ) = −1 (43)

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 Fig. 6 Solutions to Eq (43)
Figure 6 plots two curves, one has a function y = cos x , and the other has a function
y = −1 / cosh x . The x coordinates for the intersections of the two blue curves are related to the
solutions of (αl ) to Eq (43), which corresponds to different vibration modes. The first three
solutions are given by α1l = 1.875; α 2l = 4.694; α 3l = 7.854, respectively. Based on (31), the

natural frequency given by the first mode is

(α1l ) 2 EI (1.875) 2 EI 3.516 EI

ω1 = 2 = = 2 (44)
l ρA l2 ρA l ρA
As we can see from (44), the fundamental natural frequency depends on the boundary conditions,
the length (l), the stiffness (E), the design (I and A) and the density ( ρ ) of the beam. For the first
mode shape, substituting α1l = 1.875 into (39), we have
C2
= −0.7341 (45)
C1
Substituting α1l = 1.875 and (45) into (35), we have

⎛ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎞
Y ( x) = C1 ⎜⎜ cosh ⎜1.875 ⎟ − 0.7341sinh ⎜1.875 ⎟ − cos⎜1.875 ⎟ + 0.7341sin ⎜1.875 ⎟ ⎟⎟ (46)
⎝ ⎝ l ⎠ ⎝ l ⎠ ⎝ l ⎠ ⎝ l ⎠ ⎠
Following the similar procedures, we get the equation for the second shape mode
⎛ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎞
Y ( x) = C1 ⎜⎜ cosh ⎜ 4.694 ⎟ − 1.0185 sinh ⎜ 4.694 ⎟ − cos⎜ 4.694 ⎟ + 1.0185 sin ⎜ 4.694 ⎟ ⎟⎟ (47)
⎝ ⎝ l ⎠ ⎝ l ⎠ ⎝ l ⎠ ⎝ l ⎠ ⎠
and the third shape mode is
⎛ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎞
Y ( x) = C1 ⎜⎜ cosh ⎜ 7.854 ⎟ − 0.9992 sinh ⎜ 7.854 ⎟ − cos⎜ 7.854 ⎟ + 0.9992 sin ⎜ 7.854 ⎟ ⎟⎟ (48)
⎝ ⎝ l ⎠ ⎝ l ⎠ ⎝ l ⎠ ⎝ l ⎠ ⎠

8
Figure 7 plots Y ( x) / C1 as a function of x/l. As we can see, the shape modes are consistent with
those as shown in Fig. 5, although the amplitudes in the y coordinate in Fig. 7 may be completely
opposite. The blue, green, and black curves represent the first, second, and third mode shapes,
respectively.

Fig. 7 The first, second, and third mode shapes