MACROMOLECULES

Macromolecules are giant molecules with many atoms and very large masses for a molecule.
Nearly all macromolecules include the element carbon as a building block, because it is the only
element that readily forms giant chains or networks by bonding to other carbon atoms and other
elements. Chemists can create macromolecules in laboratories or in factories. Most of the synthetic
(laboratory-made) macromolecules are polymers, molecules created by linking together many
identical units, called monomers. Living organisms build polymers and other complex
macromolecules through natural processes.
A polymer’s properties depend on its size, its monomers, the strength of its bonds, and whether links
form between different parts of the molecule. Larger molecules tend to have higher melting points,
so macromolecules tend to be solid at room temperature. The type of monomer or monomers affects
the polymer structure and its properties. The repeating monomer unit may be polar or nonpolar,
depending on the types of atoms it contains and whether they form polar bonds. If the monomers are
polar, attractions can form between different parts of the molecule or between the monomers and
other molecules. The bonds between the units may be stable, or they may break easily in water or in
other substances. Hydrogen bonds linking two parts of a polymer can make it hold a special shape or
strengthen it.
Synthetic polymers include the plastics polystyrene, polyester, nylon (a polyamide), and polyvinyl
chloride. These polymers differ in their repeating monomer units. Scientists build polymers from
different monomer units to create plastics with different properties. For example, polyvinyl chloride
is tough and nylon is silklike. Synthetic polymers usually do not dissolve in water or react with other
chemicals. Strong synthetic polymers form fibers for clothing and other materials. Synthetic fibers
usually last longer than natural fibers do.
Living organisms produce three main types of biological polymers: polysaccharides, proteins, and
nucleic acids. Polysaccharides are made of linked sugar molecules, such as fructose and glucose.
Plants use sugars to make polysaccharides, such as starch and cellulose, to store energy and form
cell walls. Animals eat plants to gain energy from the plants’ sugars and polysaccharides. These
molecules are important sources of energy for both plants and animals.
Proteins consist of amino acids linked together. There are 20 different amino acids, which can
combine in a myriad of ways to form the protein molecules an organism needs. Protein chains can
curl or twist in upon themselves and hold a special form because of hydrogen bonds and other bonds
between parts of the molecule. Proteins perform a variety of functions in a living organism. They
form the enzymes that make chemical reactions possible in the human body. The protein
hemoglobin carries oxygen to cells. Other proteins in the cells use the oxygen to break down the
sugar glucose to create the energy the body needs. Proteins also form important bodily structures.
Proteins are, for instance, the important part of muscles that enables limbs to bend and the heart to
pump. They also form fingernails and hair to protect the skin.
Nucleic acids are macromolecules found in the cell’s nucleus and cytoplasm. There are two classes
of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA forms an
organism’s genetic code—the set of hereditary instructions that govern the activities of every cell.
The DNA Important sources of energy.instructions serve as “blueprints” for all the proteins a cell
needs to make. RNA enables a cell to use the DNA blueprints to build proteins. In nucleic acids,
sugars link together with phosphorous and oxygen atoms (which together form the phosphate group)
to form the macromolecule’s backbone. Nitrogen-containing side chains, called bases, link to the
sugars of the backbone. The sequence of the bases forms the code that the cell uses to make proteins.
During cellular replication—when a cell divides into two “daughter” cells—the DNA code is copied
so that each daughter has a complete set of the original genetic code.
Contributed By:
Donald K. Brandvold, Encarta 2000

1. Answer the following questions:

a) What is the difference between a monomer and a polymer?
b) What are synthetic polymers used for?
c) What is the role of nucleic acids?
d) What is the role of enzymes?
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

The chemical industry comprises the companies that produce industrial chemicals. It is central to
modern world economy, converting raw materials (oil, natural gas, air, water, metals, minerals) into
more than 70,000 different products.

Polymers and plastics, especially polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene

terephthalate, polystyrene and polycarbonate comprise about 80% of the industry’s output worldwide.
Chemicals are used to make a wide variety of consumer goods, as well as thousands inputs to
agriculture, manufacturing, construction, and service industries. The chemical industry itself consumes
26 percent of its own output. Major industrial customers include rubber and plastic products, textiles,
apparel, petroleum refining, pulp and paper, and primary metals. Chemicals is nearly a $3 trillion
global enterprise, and the EU and U.S. chemical companies are the world's largest producers.

Sales of the chemical business can be divided into a few broad categories, including basic chemicals
(about 35 to 37 percent of the dollar output), life sciences (30 percent), specialty chemicals (20 to 25
percent) and consumer products (about 10 percent.

Basic chemicals, or "commodity chemicals" are a broad chemical category including polymers, bulk
petrochemicals and intermediates, other derivatives and basic industrials, inorganic chemicals, and
fertilizers. Typical growth rates for basic chemicals are about 0.5 to 0.7 times GDP. Product prices are
generally less than fifty cents per pound. Polymers, the largest revenue segment at about 33 percent of
the basic chemicals dollar value, includes all categories of plastics and man-made fibers. The major
markets for plastics are packaging, followed by home construction, containers, appliances, pipe,
transportation, toys, and games. The largest-volume polymer product, polyethylene (PE), is used
mainly in packaging films and other markets such as milk bottles, containers, and pipe. Polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), another large-volume product, is principally used to make pipe for construction
markets as well as siding and, to a much smaller extent, transportation and packaging materials.
Polypropylene (PP), similar in volume to PVC, is used in markets ranging from packaging, appliances,
and containers to clothing and carpeting. Polystyrene (PS), another large-volume plastic, is used
principally for appliances and packaging as well as toys and recreation. The leading man-made fibers
include polyester, nylon, polypropylene, and acrylics, with applications including apparel, home
furnishings, and other industrial and consumer use. The principal raw materials for polymers are bulk
petrochemicals.

Chemicals in the bulk petrochemicals and intermediates are primarily made from liquefied petroleum
gas (LPG), natural gas, and crude oil. Their sales volume is close to 30 percent of overall basic
chemicals. Typical large-volume products include ethylene, propylene, benzene, toluene, xylenes,
methanol, vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), styrene, butadiene, and ethylene oxide. These chemicals
are the starting points for most polymers and other organic chemicals as well as much of the specialty
chemicals category.

Other derivatives and basic industrials include synthetic rubber, surfactants, dyes and pigments,
turpentine, resins, carbon black, explosives, and rubber products and contribute about 20 percent of the
basic chemicals' external sales. Inorganic chemicals (about 12 percent of the revenue output) make up
the oldest of the chemical categories. Products include salt, chlorine, caustic soda, soda ash, acids
(such as nitric, phosphoric, and sulfuric), titanium dioxide, and hydrogen peroxide. Fertilizers are the
smallest category (about 6 percent) and include phosphates, ammonia, and potash chemicals.

Life sciences (about 30 percent of the dollar output of the chemistry business) include differentiated
chemical and biological substances, pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, animal health products, vitamins,
and crop protection chemicals. While much smaller in volume than other chemical sectors, their
products tend to have very high prices—over ten dollars per pound—growth rates of 1.5 to 6 times
GDP, and research and development spending at 15 to 25 percent of sales. Life science products are
 a much smaller ........................, transportation and packaging materials. Polypropylene (PP),
similar in volume to PVC, is used in markets ranging from packaging, appliances, and containers
to ....................... and carpeting. Polystyrene (PS), another large-volume plastic, is used principally
for appliances and packaging as .................. as toys and recreation. The leading man-made fibers
include polyester, nylon, polypropylene, and acrylics, with applications including ......................,
home furnishings, and other industrial and consumer use. The principal .................... materials for
polymers are bulk petrochemicals.

4. Translate into English:

a. Policlorura de vinil cu numele prescurtat PVC este o substanţă din categoria materialelor
termoplastice cu o structură amorfă.
b. O altă utilizare a wolastonitului este în industria maselor plastice, unde folosirea acestui
mineral determină creşte rezistenţei şi elasticităţii maselor plastice (poliesteri, poliamide, sau
polipropilen).
c. Pesticidele sunt substanţe sau un amestecuri de substanţe ce conţin ingrediente biologic active
împotriva dăunătorilor.
d. Sulfatul de magneziu este folosit ca îngrăşământ chimic în agricultură servind ca sursă de
magneziu pentru plante
e. Petrom este cea mai importantă companie românească de petrol şi gaze, cu activităţi în
sectoarele Explorare şi Producţie, Rafinare şi Produse Petrochimice, Marketing, Gaze Naturale
şi Energie.

Biotechnology

Biotechnology is technology based on biology, agriculture, food science, and medicine. Modern use
of the term refers to genetic engineering as well as cell- and tissue culture technologies. However, the
concept encompasses a wider range and history of procedures for modifying living organisms
according to human purposes, going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of plants and
"improvements" to these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection and hybridization.
By comparison to biotechnology, bioengineering is generally thought of as a related field with its
emphasis more on mechanical and higher systems approaches to interfacing with and exploiting living
things. United NationsConvention on Biological Diversity defines biotechnology as any technological
application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify
products or processes for specific use.

Practice. Ask questions for the underlined answers.

Biotechnology draws on the pure biological sciences (genetics, microbiology, animal cell culture,
molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology, cell biology) and in many instances is also dependent
on knowledge and methods from outside the sphere of biology (chemical engineering, bioprocess
engineering, information technology, biorobotics). Conversely, modern biological sciences (including
even concepts such as molecular ecology) are intimately entwined and dependent on the methods
developed through biotechnology and what is commonly thought of as the life sciences industry.

Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop
production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable
plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses.

For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of
organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Biotechnology is also used to recycle,
transgenic animals or transgenic plants, such as Bt corn. Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as
Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells, are also used to [MANUFACTORY] certain pharmaceuticals.
Another promising new biotechnology [APPLY] is the development of plant-made [PHARMACY].

Practice. Put the verbs in brackets into the right form:

Modern biotechnology can (use) to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The
first genetically engineered products (be) medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite one
example, in 1978 Genentech (develop) synthetic humanized insulin by (join) its gene with a plasmid
vector inserted into the bacterium Escherichia coli. Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes,
previously (extract) from the pancreas of abattoir animals (cattle and/or pigs). The resulting
genetically engineered bacterium enabled the production of vast quantities of synthetic human insulin
at relatively low cost. According to a 2003 study (undertake) by the International Diabetes Federation
(IDF) on the access to and availability of insulin in its member countries, synthetic 'human' insulin is
considerably more expensive in most countries where both synthetic 'human' and animal insulin (be)
commercially available: e.g. within European countries the average price of synthetic 'human' insulin
was twice as high as the price of pork insulin. Yet in its position statement, the IDF (write) that "there
is no overwhelming evidence to prefer one species of insulin over another" and "[modern, highly-
purified] animal insulins (remain) a perfectly acceptable alternative.

Modern biotechnology (evolve), making it possible to produce more easily and relatively cheaply
human growth hormone, clotting factors for hemophiliacs, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and other
drugs. Most drugs today (base) on about 500 molecular targets. Genomic knowledge of the genes
involved in diseases, disease pathways, and drug-response sites (expect) to lead to the discovery of
thousands more new targets. (adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology).
Practice. Translate into English.
a. Inițial insulina era extrasă din pancreasul animalelor sacrificate în abatoare, precum
vitele saau porcinele .
b. I s-au administrat medicamente pentru coagularea sângelui.
c. Noile medicamente se pot fabrica relativ ușor și ieftin.
d. Se discută încă dacă aceste produse dăunează sau nu mediului înconjurător.
e. Există probe în sprijinul acestei ipoteze științifice.
f. Aceste enzime se folosesc pe scară largă drept catalizatori industriali.
g. Aceste organisme modificate genetic au certe virtuți terapeutice.

FORCES BETWEEN MOLECULES

Molecules can form compounds that are in any of the three main physical states of matter, that is,
gases, liquids, or solids. In gases, the molecules are constantly moving and far apart. In solids, they
are locked in position close together. In liquids, they are in between: the molecules are close
together, but they can move or flow. Forces of attraction between molecules determine which state a
substance will be in at a particular temperature and pressure. Forces of repulsion between molecules
make it difficult to squeeze the molecules in a liquid or solid closer together. In general, forces
between molecules are called intermolecular forces.
The state of a substance changes as its temperature and pressure change. The temperature determines
the kinetic energy of the substance’s molecules. Kinetic energy is the energy of movement of the
molecules, and more kinetic energy tends to drive molecules apart. This energy opposes the
attractive intermolecular forces that tend to hold them together. As temperature increases, kinetic
energy increases, and a substance will go from a solid, to a liquid, to a gas. Pressure works in the
opposite manner, forcing molecules closer together so that intermolecular forces of attraction can
bind the molecules together. Increasing pressure can make the distant molecules in gas squeeze
together to form a liquid or make a liquid form a solid.
In gases, the molecules have very high kinetic energies, energies strong enough to overcome
attractive forces and drive molecules apart. Gas molecules constantly move and will occupy the
The strong intermolecular attraction of the hydrogen bond is responsible for the unusual properties
of water. For example, water boils at 100° C (212° F). Without hydrogen bonding, water would boil
at –80° C (-112° F), and liquid water would not exist on Earth. Proteins often form hydrogen bonds
between different parts of a single molecule. These bonds hold the protein in a folded-up shape.
Hydrogen bonding is also important in the DNA molecules that make up an organism’s genetic
code.
Intermolecular forces of repulsion result from the negative charge of each molecule’s outer
electrons. This negative charge repels the negative charge of every other molecule’s outer electrons.
Forces of repulsion only comes into effect when the molecules are close together, as in a liquid or
solid. They prevent molecules from getting too close to each other, making it difficult to compress a
molecular liquid or solid.

1.Find the English equivalents for:

forțe de atracție, forțe de respingere; a comprima; gaz; legături de hydrogen; protein;
sarcinăpozitivă/ negativă; cod genetic al unui organism viu; ADN; fluor; azot; oxygen; a fierbe;
proton; elemctron; ammoniac; methanol; punct de topire; solideamorfe; solidecristalizate;
proprietățileapei; dipol; sare de bucătărie; a se condensa; vapori; a îngheța; energiecinetică; alcooli

2.Translate into English:

a. Apa are proprietățineobișnuitedatorateputernicelorlegături de hydrogen.
b. Electronii pot aveasarcinielectrice positive sau negative, care
determinăcomportamentulatomilor din care aceștiafac parte.
c. Legăturiledintreproteinelecomponente ale unei molecule determină forma acestora.
d. Legăturile din interiorulunuicristal cu legăturăionicăsuntmaiputernicedecâtceledintr-un
cristal molecular.
e. Comportamentul maselor plastice sau al sticlei este mai asemănător cu cel al lichidelor
vâscoase decât cu cel al substanțelor solide.

SEPARATION

1. Use the verbs in brackets in the right form:

Separation (to be)……… simply the process of dividing material into its component parts.
This may involve separating a solid from a solid, such as removing nuts from their shells;
separating a solid from a liquid, such as (to remove)……….. pulp from juice; removing a
liquid from a solid, such as squeezing oil from a kernel of corn; removing a liquid from a
liquid, such as (to separate)……… fat from milk; or removing gas from a solid or liquid,
such as vacuum canning. Separation is a process that is arguably more important to the
bottom line of food processors today than any other. This claim is (to base)………. on
three factors: 1. multiple value (to stream)…………… from one raw material; 2.
improved yields; 3.energy savings in downstream processes. Separation (to add)…... value
to the extracted product, its residue, or both. As the United States (to seek)……. to reduce
its reliance on fossil fuels, the economic importance of effective separation has never (to
be)………. greater. Petroleum is used to produce a large number of industrial products,
from fabrics to paints to chemicals to medicines. Nearly all of these goods can be (to
produce)……… with biobased materials. A cluster of biobased manufacturers, referred to
as a biorefinery, can produce food, enzymes, medicines, and fuel in one complex. What
(to be)……. previously considered waste now can be separated and processed, and (to
use)………. to make a variety of products. This can significantly increase profitability.
The raw material may come directly from storage, or it may (to undergo)………… some
pre-processing, such as size reduction, before entering the separation process. It is
possible (to separate)…………. foods based on many physical properties including size,
shape, density, viscosity, solubility, and thermal, diffusional, and optical properties.