Radiation: Effects and Dose

Radiation is the process by which energy is emitted as either particles or waves.

Broadly, it can take the form of sound, heat, or light. However, most people generally
use it to refer to radiation from electromagnetic waves, ranging from radio waves,
through the visible light spectrum, and up through to gamma waves. Radiation is
generally classified ionizing or non-ionizing, based on whether it has enough energy
to knock electrons off atoms that it interacts with, as well as being able to do lower-
energy damage such as breaking chemical bonds in molecules. Ionizing radiation,
which is caused by unstable atoms giving off energy to reach a more stable state, is
more of a health threat to humans because it involves changing the basic makeup of
atoms in cells, and more specifically the DNA molecules inside of cells (Marion
Technologies Inc., 2010).

Every living creature on earth contains significant quantities of carbon-14 and most
(including humans) contain significant quantities of potassium-40. These tiny levels of
radiation are not any more harmful than sunlight, but just as excessive quantities of
sunlight can be dangerous, so too can excessive levels of radiation. Radiation effects
shows two types of Poisoning according to the exposure obtained:

Acute radiation syndrome (ARS) also known as radiation poisoning, radiation

sickness or radiation toxicity, is a constellation of health effects which occur within
several months of exposure to high amounts of ionizing radiation. The term generally
refers to acute problems rather than ones that develop after a prolonged period. The
onset and type of symptoms that develop depends on the dose of radiation exposure.
Relatively smaller doses result in gastrointestinal effects such as nausea and vomiting
and symptoms related to falling blood counts such as infection and bleeding. Relatively
larger doses can result in neurological effects and rapid death. Treatment of acute
radiation syndrome is generally supportive with blood transfusions and antibiotics
(National Center for Environmental Health, 2015).

Chronic radiation syndrome has been reported among workers in the Soviet nuclear
program due to long term exposures to radiation levels lower than what is required to
induce acute sickness. It may manifest with low blood cell counts and neurological
problems. Radiation exposure can also increase the probability of developing some
other diseases, mainly different types of cancers.

Effects of Radiation on the Body

Hair

The losing of hair quickly and in clumps occurs with radiation exposure at 200 rems or
higher.

Brain

Since brain cells do not reproduce, they won't be damaged directly unless the
exposure is 5,000 rems or greater. Like the heart, radiation kills nerve cells and small
blood vessels, and can cause seizures and immediate death.

Thyroid

The certain body parts are more specifically affected by exposure to different types of
radiation sources. The thyroid gland is susceptible to radioactive iodine. In sufficient
amounts, radioactive iodine can destroy all or part of the thyroid. By taking potassium
iodide, one can reduce the effects of exposure.

Blood System

When a person is exposed to around 100 rems, the blood's lymphocyte cell count will
be reduced, leaving the victim more susceptible to infection. This is often referred to
as mild radiation sickness. Early symptoms of radiation sickness mimic those of flu
and may go unnoticed unless a blood count is done. According to data from Hiroshima
and Nagaski, show that symptoms may persist for up to 10 years and may also have
an increased long-term risk for leukemia and lymphoma.

Heart

Intense exposure to radioactive material at 1,000 to 5,000 rems would do immediate

damage to small blood vessels and probably cause heart failure and death directly.
Gastrointestinal Tract

Radiation damage to the intestinal tract lining will cause nausea, bloody vomiting and
diarrhea. This is occurs when the victim's exposure is 200 rems or more. The radiation
will begin to destroy the cells in the body that divide rapidly. These including blood, GI
tract, reproductive and hair cells, and harms their DNA and RNA of surviving cells.

Reproductive Tract

Because reproductive tract cells divide rapidly, these areas of the body can be
damaged at rem levels as low as 200. Long-term, some radiation sickness victims will
become sterile.
EXTERNAL RADIATION PROTECTION
The three basic methods used to reduce the external radiation hazard are time,
distance, and shielding. Good radiation protection practices require optimization of
these fundamental techniques.

A. Time
The amount of radiation an individual accumulates will depend on how long the
individual stays in the radiation field.

Dose (mrem) = Dose Rate (mrem/hr) x Time (hr)

stay time- how long a person can stay in an area without exceeding a prescribed limit.

Stay Time = Limit (mrem)/DoseRate (mrem/hr)

Example:

How long can a radiation worker stay in a 1.5 rem/hr radiation field if we wish to limit
his dose to 100 mrem?

Stay Time = 100 mrem/1500 mrem/hr

= 0.067 hr

= 4 minutes

B. Distance

The amount of radiation an individual receives will also depend on how close the
person is to the source.

1. The Inverse Square Law

- Point sources of x- and gamma radiation follow the inverse square law,
which states that the intensity of the radiation (I) decreases in proportion to the
inverse of the distance from the source (d) squared:

I1 d 2 
2

I 2 d1 2
 Example: Radiographer A receives 5 mR per second of scatter radiation standing
3 feet from the patient. What rate of radiation does radiographer B standing 7 feet
away?

Given:

mR
I1  5
sec
d1  3 ft
d 2  7 ft

Reqd: I2 =?

Answer: I2 = 0.92 mR/sec

2. Gamma Exposure Rate Formula

The exposure rate from a gamma point source can be approximated from the
following expression:

When d is in feet When d is in meter

I= 6CEf /d2 I= 0.5CEf /d2

Where:

C is the activity of the gamma emitter, in Curies

E is the gamma ray energy in MeV

f is the fraction of disintegrations yielding the gamma of energy E

d is the distance from the source in feet or meter

Example:

An individual walk into a room containing a 500-Curie 60Co beam type irradiator.
All indications are that the beam exit port is closed. The individual stands in the
path of the beam and performs work on a piece of medical equipment located
approximately one meter from the source. The individual works for about 5 minutes
and then exits the room. Upon exiting, the individual discovers that the beam port
was open the entire time. You are the resident expert. You are called at home and
asked to estimate the dose received. What is the individual’s estimated dose?

Given:

C= 500 Curie

d= 1 m

t = 5mins

E= 1.33 MeV (see table for Co 60)

f = 0.9998 (see table for Co 60)

Required:

Dose=?

Answer: 28 R

C. Shielding

When reducing the time or increasing the distance may not be possible, one can
choose shielding material to reduce the external radiation hazard. The proper
material to use depends on the type of radiation and its energy.
*Alpha and Beta Radiation. Alpha particles are easily shielded. A thin piece of paper
or several cm of air is usually sufficient to stop them. Thus, alpha particles present no
external radiation hazard. Beta particles are more penetrating than alpha particles.
Beta shields are usually made of aluminum, brass, plastic, or other materials of low
atomic number to reduce the production of bremsstrahlung radiation (see figure
below).

Maximum Range of Beta Particles vs. Energy

*X and Gamma Radiation. Monoenergetic x- or gamma rays collimated into a narrow
beam are attenuated exponentially through a shield according to the following
equation:

I = Io e-μx

Where:

I is the intensity outside of a shield of thickness x

Io is the unshielded intensity

μ is the linear attenuation coefficient of the shielding material

x is the thickness of shielding material.

The linear attenuation coefficient, μ, is the sum of the probabilities of interaction per
unit path length by each of the three scattering and absorption processes -
photoelectric effect, Compton effect, and pair production. Note that μ has dimensions
of inverse length (1/cm).
μ
Mass attenuation coefficient: μm = 𝜌

Where

μm = cm2/g

𝜌 = density (g/cm3)

Example: What is the dose rate after shielding a source that emits only 1 MeV photons
if the unshielded dose rate is 100 mrem/h and the source is shielded by 1/2 inch lead?

Given:

Io = 100 mrem/hr

X= 0.5 in Pb

From the table @ 1 MeV:

𝜌 = 11.35 g/cm3
 μm=0.068 cm2/g

Required:

I=?

Answer: 37mrem/hr

*Half Value Layer. The half value layer (HVL) is the thickness of a shielding material
required to reduce the intensity of radiation at a point to one half of its original intensity.
It can be calculated by setting I=0.5Io and solving the attenuation equation for x:

From the equation:

I = Io e-μx

Let I=0.5Io

0.5Io= Ioe-μx

0.5=e-μx

ln 0.5
X 0.5    HVL


Example: Determine the lead HVL for Cs-137 photons (0.662 MeV) using the shielding
equation.

Given:

E=0.662 MeV

From the Table:

μm=0.114 cm2/g

𝜌 = 11.35 g/cm3

Required:

HVL=?

Answer: 0.54 cm Pb
Tables :