FIRE PROTECTION

DESIGN FOR FIRE RESISTANCE

fire is a special kind of oxidation known as

combustion
oxidation is a process in which molecules
of a fuel are combined with molecules of
oxygen, producing a mixture of gases and
energy
when this occurs rapidly, as in a fire,
energy is released as heat and light, and
some gases become visible as smoke
fire has a triangle of needs:
fuel
high temperature
oxygen
if deprived of any of these needs, building
fires will be extinguished
triangle’s influence on building design is
as follows

FUEL: is the building’s structure and

contents; the designer controls the choice
of structural and finish materials but rarely
the final contents
TEMPERATURES: achieved in fires are well
beyond the ability of building cooling
systems to control, so special water
systems are often installed to deprive fire
of the high temperatures it needs
OXYGEN: may be denied to a fire partly by
limitations on ventilation, but these can
have serious safety consequences
another design response is to install fire
suppression systems that either cover the
fuel or displace oxygen with another gas
 Sources of Ignition

buildings commonly contain three basic

sources of ignition:
chemical
electrical
mechanical
 chemical combustion
in chemical combustion, some chemicals
reach ignition at ordinary temperatures
within buildings
chemical combustion depends upon
the rate of heat generation
the air supply
the insulation provided by the
immediate surroundings
 electrical
electrical heat energy is most commonly
supplied by
resistance heating
induction
dialectic process
arcing
static electricity
 mechanical

mechanical heat energy is produced

by friction including sparks
by overheating of machinery
occasionally by the heat of
compression
 Products of Combustion

thermal products of combustion: flame and

heat
nonthermal products: smoke and its wide
range of constituent gases, liquids, and
solids
 thermal products

can cause
burns
Shock
Dehydration
heat exhaustion
fluid blockage of the respiratory tract
responsible for about 25% of the deaths
resulting from building fires
 nonthermal products
most fire deaths are caused by the nonthermal
products
smoke can usually be seen and smelled
made up of droplets of flammable tars and small
particles of carbon suspended in gases, it irritates
the eyes and nasal passages, sometimes blinding
and/or choking a person
gases are especially dangerous because, without
visible smoke, they are so often difficult to detect
some gases are directly toxic, but all are
dangerous because they displace oxygen
common gases released in building fires include
carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
 Carbon monoxide
a deadly product of combustion and is often
the most abundant
produced when insufficient oxygen is
available to completely oxidize the burning
material
it is more readily attached to hemoglobin
molecules in red blood cells than is oxygen,
thus depriving the brain and muscles of
needed oxygen
this leads to irrational behavior and loss of
consciousness, then to death
 Carbon dioxide
likely to result from combustion but,
unless intentionally introduced into a
space as a means of fire suppression,
should not be present in concentrations
with serious health impacts (beyond
potential headaches and dizziness)
 other dangerous and commonly
encountered building-fire gases

hydrogen sulfide
sulfur dioxide
ammonia
oxides of nitrogen
cyanide
phosgene
hydrogen chloride
these types of gases may cause eye, skin,
nose, and throat irritation
and in sufficient concentrations can be
psychotropic and/or toxic
in indoor fires, oxygen commonly becomes
insufficient because the fire consumes it so
rapidly
the normal concentration of oxygen in air is
about 21%
at less than 17%, muscular coordination and
judgment are diminished
at 14% down to 10%, people remain
conscious but become irrational, and fatigue is
rapid
at 10% down to 6%, collapse occurs, but
revival is possible when increased oxygen
is supplied
the technique of starving the fire of
oxygen can therefore pose a threat to
human beings
both by increasing the chances of carbon
monoxide production and by depriving
people of oxygen
 Objectives in Fire Safety
four common design intents related to
building fire safety, in order of usual
importance, are:
1. Protection of life
2. Protection of building
3. Protection of contents
4. Continuity of operation
 Fire Safety and Other
Environmental Control Systems
thermal mass
high ceilings
windows,
solid (noncombustible) overhangs over
windows
elevated water storage tanks
thermal mass
useful for
for passive heating and cooling systems
for acoustic isolation of airborne sound
 for fire barriers (most thermally massive
materials will not burn easily)
high ceilings
useful for
daylight distribution
displacement ventilation
collecting a large quantity of smoke
before it reaches the occupants
allowing smoke and/or flames from a
fire to be seen from a greater indoor
distance
windows
for daylight, ventilation, and view
allow access for firefighting and rescue
provide escape routes
relieve smoke accumulation with fresh
air
relieve some of the stress of trapped
occupants
solid (noncombustible) overhangs over
windows
provide sunshading
but also discourage the vertical
spread of fire over the building face
can serve as emergency exterior
places of refuge
elevated water storage tanks
provide both adequate water pressure
for plumbing fixtures
water for firefighting in the first few
minutes of a fire before firefighters
arrive
 Protection of Life
designers should consider how building
occupants make decisions in a fire
in the first phase, cues are detected—the
smell of smoke, sounds associated with a
fire (breaking glass, sirens, alarm bells),
and, more rarely, the sight of flames
open plans (with longer visible indoor
distances) are more amenable to exposing
such clues to a wider population
in the second phase, the occupants define
the situation: Just how serious is this fire?
the more numerous the cues, the more
rapid the definition phase
how other people are reacting is
influential, and in the absence of strong
cues can actually lead to a group refusal to
evacuate in the early stages of a fire
in the third phase, coping behavior begins:
fight or flight?
for most low-rise buildings, a reasonable
goal is the evacuation of all occupants in
the time interval between the detection of
a fire and the arrival of the firefighters
designers can provide clearly defined
pathways to exits (exit access) that can be
kept relatively clear of smoke
to accommodate a wheelchair, a minimum
clear width of 32 in. (813 mm) is required
exits can take a variety of forms
vertical exits include smokeproof
towers, exterior and interior stairs and
ramps, and escalators that meet
specific requirements
vertical exits do not include elevators;
they are too easily stalled or, worse,
opened at the floor of a fire by
malfunctioning signal equipment
exits in the horizontal plane include doors
leading directly to the outside, 2-hour fire-
rated enclosed hallways, and moving walks
special horizontal exits are provided by
internal firewalls penetrated by two fire
doors—one swinging open in either
direction
exit discharge is the area outside an exit
that leads to a public way and may still
need protection in a fire
at least 30% of building fire deaths result
from fire cutting off the paths to exits
EXAMPLE: A multistory office building is 80 ft (24
m) wide by 300 ft (80 m) long. What exit capacity
is required per floor?
SOLUTION (I-P units)
The gross floor area = 80 × 300 = 2400 ft2
From Table 24.4, “business” categories are based on
one
person per gross 100 ft2
The population per floor is, therefore, (2400
ft2)/(100 ft2/person) = 240 people
Exit doors (to stairs): 240 people × 0.2 in./person
= 48 in. total
(One 34-in. clear door into each of two stairs = 2
doors × 34 = 68 in., more than the minimum.)
Stairs: 240 people × 0.3 in./person = 72 in. total
(Two stairs at 44 in. each = 88 in., more than the
minimum.)
building population as estimated for fire
safety is usually much greater than the
population for which HVAC, water, or
elevator service is designed
stairs with direct access to outdoor air at
each floor—so-called smokeproof towers—
are the safest kind
fire stair must allow firefighters to move
up while occupants are moving down.
another phenomenon is reentry, in which
occupants who have exited decide to
reenter despite the danger
high-rise buildings present much more
difficult problems
firefighting equipment can ordinarily reach
no higher than seven floors (about 90 ft
[27 m])
typically, only two exit stairways are
provided
downward flow rates in stairs were
formerly assumed at about 45 persons/
minute/22 in. (559 mm) of width, but
more recently, peak flows of only 24
persons/minute/22 in. (559 mm) have
been observed.
 Property Protection
one of the earliest design concerns in this
category is that the site should permit access
for firefighting equipment
another factor is the amount of time it will
ordinarily take for firefighters to reach a site
another design concern is adequate water to
fight the fire
exposure protection is becoming common in
areas where highly flammable surroundings
pose a serious threat of fires originating
outside a building
exposure protection guards against heat
transfer by radiation and convective
currents and against direct fire transfer via
flying embers
exposure protection begins with the use of
nonflammable materials for the building’s
exterior
compartmentation
concealed spaces
structural protection allows a building to
continue to stand during a fire and enables
it to be salvaged rather than demolished
after a fire
 Continuity of Operations
for most building functions, it is desirable to
minimize the disruption of operation that a
fire will cause
design strategies to encourage continuity of
operations include
special fire alarm/suppression systems
for especially critical operations areas
design of HVAC systems to allow for
100% outside air
provision for the speedy removal of the
water dumped on a fire from a sprinkler
system
 WATER FOR FIRE SUPPRESSION

the most popular medium for building fire

suppression is water, which is readily
available and relatively low in cost
water cools, smothers, emulsifies, and dilutes
as it turns to vapor, it removes 970 Btu/lb of
water (2256 kJ/kg) at atmospheric pressure
its volume increases 1700 times—a process
that hinders access to the oxygen needed by
the fire
water has several disadvantages that
sometimes preclude its use for fire
suppression:
it damages most building contents,
including interior surfaces
as a stream, it conducts electricity
readily (less readily as a spray)
many flammable oils will float on
water while continuing to burn
standpipes and hoses with a separate
water reserve, upfeed pumping, and/or
fire department connections are listed in
three classes and five types
the major differences are whether the
system is for first-aid or full-scale
firefighting
whether the system has an automatic
water supply or a manual one
 Class I Systems
are for full-scale firefighting
typically required in both sprinklered and
unsprinklered buildings more than three
stories high, as well as in malls
this system is for use by trained
firefighters using 2½-in. (64-mm) hose
connections at designated locations
 Class II Systems
are for first-aid firefighting before the fire
trucks arrive
these systems use 1½-in. (38-mm) hose
connections and typically provide access to
a hose, nozzle, and hose rack in each
specified location
the difficulty for untrained people to
manage a 100-ft (30-m) hose containing a
huge flow (100 gpm [378 L/ min] or more)
has led to a decline in the use of this
system
many fire departments would rather the
building occupants evacuate than try to
manage such large hoses and water
quantities
significant water damage is a potential
threat when hoses cannot be controlled
 Class III Systems
combine the characteristics of Classes I
and II
serving both for first-aid and for full-scale
firefighting
hose connections of both sizes are
provided (with adapters) at each specified
location
the disadvantages of Class II systems also
apply to Class III
STANDPIPE SYSTEM TYPES
 Automatic-wet systems

the pipes are filled with water and are

connected to a water supply capable of
automatically meeting the firefighting
demands
water flows immediately upon opening of
a hose valve
 Automatic-dry systems
the pipes are filled with pressurized air,
and are connected to a water supply
capable of automatically meeting the
firefighting demands
through a device such as a drypipe valve,
water replaces the air when a hose valve is
opened
Semiautomatic-dry systems
the pipes are filled with air and are
connected to a water supply capable of
automatically meeting the firefighting
demands
through a device such as a deluge valve,
water replaces the air when both a remote
sensing device at the hose station and a
hose valve are opened
 Manual-dry systems

the pipes are filled with air, and there is no

connection to a water supply system other
than that provided by the fire department
 Manual-wet systems

the pipes are filled with water, with a

connection to a domestic water source that
is used merely to fill and test the system
water for firefighting is provided by the
fire department
minimum flow rates and minimum and
maximum pressure are all addressed
during the design of standpipe systems.
two methods of sizing
pipe schedule
 hydraulic method
Class I and III standpipes not exceeding
100 ft (30 m) in height must be a minimum
of 4 in. (102 mm) nominal pipe size
Class I and III standpipes more than 100
ft (30 m) in height must be a minimum of 6
in. (152 mm) nominal pipe size (although
the topmost 100 ft [30 m] may be a
minimum of 4 in. [102 mm] nominal pipe
size)
for combined standpipe and sprinkler
systems, regardless of height, a minimum
of 6 in. (152 mm) nominal pipe size is
required
for Class I and III systems, a minimum
hose pressure of 100 psi (690 kPa) is now
required because of the widespread use of
fog nozzles (rather than stream nozzles)
the maximum hose pressure (also the
maximum for sprinklers) is 175 psi (1207
kPa)
 Sprinkler System Design
Impacts
a sprinkler is likely to be already
positioned above the point of a fire and is
capable of being deployed in seconds, not
minutes
sprinkler systems are widely relied on as
proven automatic fire suppressers
provision must be made for an adequate
water supply, adequate water pressure,
and backup power for pumping
 Alarm Gong
an alarm gong mounted on the outside of
the building warns of water flow through
the alarm valve upon activation of a
sprinkler head
this warning gives the building personnel
an opportunity to make additional
firefighting arrangements that can
minimize loss and speed the termination of
the fire
 Siamese Connections

siamese connections permit fire engines to

pump into the sprinkler system in a
manner similar to that used for standpipe
systems
 Provisions for Drainage
sprinkler heads can release a great deal of
water, most of which will remain unvaporized
and quickly collect at floor level
in addition to waterproofing the floors and
lower walls, columns, and other elements,
provision should be made, where possible, for
gravity drainage of water
scuppers in exterior walls are preferable to
floor drains, which are more easily clogged by
debris
 Water Supply
sprinklers (and standpipes) can be
supplied with water from elevated storage
tanks used for domestic water
these tanks supply a constant pressure on
the distribution lines
store sufficient water to balance supply
and demand
prevent excessive starting and stopping of
a fire pump
provide a dependable fire reserve
 Sprinkler Construction

common types of sprinkler heads

upright (SSU)
pendant (SSP)
sidewall
upright heads sit on top of the exposed
supply piping
pendant heads hang below the piping,
which can then be concealed above
suspended ceilings
the pendant heads themselves have a
number of variations: recessed, flush,
concealed, and ornamental pendant heads
sidewall sprinklers are usually located
adjacent to one wall of a smaller room
the spray pattern from a typical
upright or pendant sprinkler
Source: NFPA 13
other special sprinkler models

extra large orifice - for delivering large

water quantities where water pressures
are relatively low
multilevel sprinklers - for use where other
sprinklers are at a higher plane within the
same space
quick-response sprinkler heads - more
thermally sensitive heads open sooner
than ordinary heads, and thus tend to fight
a fire with even fewer heads operating
 Sprinkler Spacing and Hazard

the spacing of sprinkler heads and the

sizing of supply pipes are complex matters
guidelines for preliminary sprinkler
location
first consideration is the degree of
hazard faced by the occupants
once the degree of hazard is known,
sprinklers and pipes can be
approximately located in plan
within each space, sprinklers should be
located so as to detect a fire readily and to
discharge water over the greatest area
piping for the sprinkler supply can be
hydraulically designed
a complicating factor is the expectation
that only a small percentage of the
sprinklers will actually open
more than 50% of the fires studied over a
49-year period were extinguished by two
or fewer sprinklers
the expected flow rate vary from 150 to
25000 gpm (10 to 158 L/s)
sprinkler head’s actual performance
sprinkler systems are usually designed for a
maximum working pressure of 175 psi (1206
kPa)
preliminary design guideline:
Light hazard systems need a minimum
residual pressure of 15 psi (104 kPa) and
500–750 gpm (32 to 47 L/s) at the base of
the system riser for 30 to 60 minutes.
Ordinary hazard systems need a minimum
residual pressure of 20 psi (138 kPa) and
850–1500 gpm (54 to 95 L/s) at the base
of the system riser for 60 to 90 minutes.
 Residential Sprinklers
a fast-response device with a tested ability
to enhance survivability in the room of fire
origin
sensitive to both smoldering and rapidly
developing fires, opening quickly to fight a
fire with only one or two heads operating
important because residences normally do
not have a water supply with sufficient
capacity for standard sprinkler systems
toxic gases and smoke quickly fill the small
rooms typical of residences; a fast
response is important for life safety
codes that otherwise require residential
sprinklers in all areas make an exception
for bathrooms no larger than 55 ft2 (5.1
m2)
for closets with the least dimension not
exceeding 3 ft (0.9 m)
For open porches, garages, and carports;
for uninhabited attics and crawl
for entrance foyers that are not the sole
means of egress
 Quick-Response Sprinklers
all light hazard occupancies are now required
to have quick-response (also called fast-
response) sprinklers
these include hotels, motels, offices, and other
buildings where faster sprinkler operation
could enhance life safety
one measure of thermal sensitivity is the
response time index (RTI), which indicates
how fast the sprinkler can absorb sufficient
heat from its surroundings to cause activation
it is expressed as the square root of
meters-seconds
quick-response (fast-response) sprinklers
have an RTI of 50 or less
standard-response sprinklers have an RTI
of 80 or more
conventional automatic sprinklers
generally have an RTI of 250 to 300
because of the thermal lag inherent in the
glass bulb (or fusible link), the sprinkler
body, and the water within sprinkler pipes,
air temperature around a sprinkler may
reach 1000ºF (538ºC) before a standard
sprinkler, rated at 175ºF (79ºC), actually
opens
the fast-response sprinkler’s operating
element has a smaller mass, enabling it to
respond to the air temperature rise more
quickly
 Early Suppression Fast-
Response (ESFR) Sprinklers
these sprinkler heads are tested for their
ability to suppress specific high challenge fire
hazards encountered in high-piled storage
they operate at a higher pressure and flow,
and the water droplets produced depend upon
momentum rather than gravity to penetrate to
the bottom of high-velocity fire plumes
these sprinkler heads require a minimum
water pressure of 50 psi (345 kPa) and a
minimum flow of 100 gpm (6.3 L/s). They
have largely replaced large-drop sprinklers
that depended on the weight of the water
droplet to penetrate the fire plume
 Extended Coverage Sprinklers
these are limited to a type of unobstructed
construction consisting of flat, smooth ceilings of
a slope not exceeding 2 in. per foot (158 mm/m)
a smooth ceiling means that luminaires and air
grilles are flushed or recessed, not suspended
from the ceiling
sprinklers can also be specifically listed for
“noncombustible obstructed” construction, or as
upright and pendant sprinklers within trusses or
bar joists having web members not more than 1
in. (25 mm) thick, or where specifically listed for
flat, smooth ceilings of a slope not exceeding 4 in.
per foot (316 mm/m)
 Wet-Pipe Systems
the most common and most simple
systems
they are filled with water under pressure
and are limited to spaces in which the air
temperature does not fall below 40ºF
(4.4ºC)
in the wet-pipe system, sprinklers in the
affected area are opened by heat-sensitive
elements within the sprinkler heads
themselves and immediately emit water
the typical sprinkler system is served by a
single riser with a main line and branch
lines
two variations that increase reliability
gridded system - each branch is served
from either end, allowing each sprinkler
head to receive water from either
direction in the branch line
loop system - each branch line can
receive water from either direction
 Circulating Closed-Loop
Systems

these wet-pipe systems use the rather

large sprinkler piping to circulate water for
water source heat pumps
water is not normally removed from this
system, merely circulated
water temperature in these systems must
not exceed 120ºF (49ºC) or fall below 40ºF
(4ºC).
 Dry-Pipe Systems
these systems are filled with compressed
air (or nitrogen) rather than with water
they are used in unheated areas
as soon as a sprinkler head opens, the
compressed air rushes out, allowing water
to enter the formerly dry-pipe network
through a dry-pipe valve
the system then functions like a wet-pipe
system
due to the delay in delivering water
throughout a previously dry piping system,
a maximum system capacity of 750 gal
(2839 L) is recommended
dry-pipe systems require a device to
maintain design air pressure within the
pipes
air pressure might be maintained by a
compressor, by an air receiver tank, or by
connection to an existing pressurized air
system
 Preaction Systems
the pipes are filled with air that may or
may not be under pressure
in addition to the sprinkler heads, either a
heat- or a smoke-detection system is
installed
the detectors are more sensitive than the
sprinkler head
Water is held back by the preaction valve
when the heat or smoke detectors are
activated, they open the preaction valve, an
alarm is sounded, and water fills the pipes
the system then functions like a wet-pipe
system, with water flow into a space occurring
only upon the opening of a sprinkler head
preaction systems are popular where the
building’s contents are especially subject to
water damage— computer rooms, retail
stores, museums, and so on—because the
early alarm provided by water filling the
piping often permits the fire to be found and
extinguished manually, before any sprinklers
open
 Deluge Systems
these systems have open sprinklers on dry
pipes
as with preaction systems, a separate heat- or
smoke-detection system is installed
the detectors control a deluge valve, which,
once opened, floods the system with water,
and all heads emit water
huge quantities of water are thus released
deluge systems are used where extremely
rapid fire spread is expected or other places
where flammable liquid fires may break out
 Mist Systems
a mist system offers fast initiation of an alarm
as well as more rapid response to a fire
smaller volumes of water mean less water
damage, and the mist can move more easily
around obstructions
mist systems are more tolerant of small
amounts of ventilation, reduce the radiant
heat transfer from a fire, and eliminate the
residues associated with many clean-agent
gases
these systems produce a much smaller
water droplet, thanks to inlet pressures
ranging from 45 to 4100 psi (310 to 28,270
kPa), depending upon the design of the
sprinkler head
the heads are typically spaced closer
together and have more sensitive thermal
elements
three classes of mist systems
Class I mists
 have a droplet size 200 microns, the
finest mists.
achieved at the expense of flow rate and
spray velocity, and requires significant
input of energy to produce useful
quantities
these mists are most suitable where
enclosure reduces the need for spray
momentum and fuel wetting is not critical
Class II mists
 have a droplet size from 200 to 400
microns
with larger drops, it is easier to achieve
higher mass flow rates, and
considerable surface wetting is possible
these mists are likely to be effective on
fires involving ordinary combustibles
Class III mists
 have a droplet size from 400 to 1000
microns
they can be generated by small-orifice
sprinklers and fire hose fog nozzles, and
deliver the highest mass flow rates
 Planning Guidelines
1. The maximum floor area of the building
that can be protected by a single system
shall not exceed 52,000 sq ft for hazards
classified as light or ordinary. The
maximum area is reduced for extra-
hazard classified buildings.
2. The maximum floor area that can be
covered by a sprinkler shall not exceed
that given by Table 24.9
3. In addition to the maximum floor area
limitation, sprinklers shall meet the
following dimensional limitations:
 The maximum distance between
sprinklers shall be no more than 15 ft for
light and ordinary hazards and 12 ft for
extra ordinary hazards and above, except
that spacing of side-wall type sprinklers
may be according to the approved area of
coverage.
 When sprinklers are spaced less than 6 ft
on centers, baffles shall be located
between the sprinklers to prevent
nonactivated sprinklers from being cooled
off by the water discharged from adjacent
sprnklers.
The distance of a sprinkler from a wall
shall be no more than half of the
allowed distance between sprinklers or
less than 4 in. from a wall.
The distance between vertical
obstructions and the sprinkler shall not
be less than that given in Table 24.9.
 System Design Approaches
Pipe Schedule Method
traditional method permitted for new light-
and ordinary-hazard occupancies of 5,000 sq ft
or less
for modernization of existing systems design
by the pipe schedule
the size of branches and risers can be
determined from a pipe schedule, assuming
that other requirements, such as residual
pressure and flow rates, are all in compliance
with Codes
In general, the pipe schedule yields more
conservative pipe sizes
Pipe schedule for number of sprinklers allowed in a sprinkler system

Hazard Classification
Pipe size,
Light Ordinary
in.
Steel Copper Steel Copper
1 2 2 2 2
1¼ 3 3 3 3
1½ 5 5 5 5
2 10 12 10 12
2½ 30 40 20 25
3 60 65 40 45
3½ 100 115 65 75
4 a a 100 115
5 160 180
6 275 300
8 b b
a One 4-in. system may serve up to 52,000 sq ft of floor area
b One 8-in. system may serve up to 52,000 sq ft of floor area
Source: NFPA 13
 Hydraulic Method
the hydraulic method actually calculates
the pipe size of the entire piping system
based on
distribution of sprinklers
developed length
fitting losses
size and location of areas within the
building
water density and pressure required
Hydraulic Calculation Procedure

Determine the building hazard

classification and the allowed maximum
sprinkler protection area. (Table 24.9)
Determine the water demand for the
sprinkler system and the hose stream
system.
Determine the pressure available from the
water supply source by a flow test at the
street main or storage system.
Determine the required flow rate and
pressure of the end head (last sprinkler).
Calculate the residual pressure available
from the end head to the water supply
main, the required total pressure, and the
average pressure loss (psi/ft), including
the loss through pipe fittings.
The sizes of branches, cross-mains, ceiling
mains, and underground mains can be
determined from the standard chart of
friction loss versus flow rate for the
selected piping material, the calculated
flow rate (total demand in gpm), the
maximum water velocity, and/or selected
friction loss