BIOLOGY

A. The study of living organisms (plants and animals) is called biology.

The term Biology is of Greek origin- ‘bios’ meaning the ‘life’ and ‘logy’ meaning ‘the study of ’
combining the two meanings together we can say that biology is the study of life (living thing )/ (animate
objects).
BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY
Traditionally, the main branches of biology are botany and zoology.
1. Botany – the science which studies plants alone.
2. Zoology – the science which studies animals alone.
OTHERS INCLUDE:
3. Morphology – the study of external features of an organism.
4. Anatomy – the study of internal features of living things.
5. Histology – the study of detail structure of internal structures of organisms.
6. Physiology – deals with study of the functions of parts of organisms.
7. Embryology – the study of organisms from an egg stage to adult.
8. Cytology – the study of basic unit of life.
9. Genetics – the study of how characters are passed from parent to the young ones (heredity).
10. Physiology – the study of the behaviors of organisms.
11. Taxonomy – the study that deals with the classification of organisms.
12. Ecology – the study of organisms in relation to their environment.
13. Pathology – the study of diseases.
C. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS
MEMORY TIP:
The first letter of each characteristic can be arranged together to spell out MR NIGER.
1. MOVEMENT:
Animals move their whole body from one place to another while plants move only individual
parts, usually as a result of growth.
2. RESPIRATION:
Living organisms usually need oxygen in order to release energy from their food. They obtain this oxygen
by respiration.
3. NUTRITION (Feeding)
In this process living organisms take in food which provide energy for work and materials for growth,
repair and replacement of worn out tissues.
4. IRRITABILITY:
Organisms can respond to stimulus e.g. animal can move toward or away from heat or light.
5. GROWTH
An increase in size and complexity of the organisms due to synthesis of fresh protoplasm from
nutrient materials.
6. EXCRETION
The removal from the body of waste products produced by chemical processes in the cell.
7. REPRODUCTION
The production of new individuals of the same kind for the continuation of life.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Animals Plants
Chlorophyll is absent Chlorophyll is present (exception of fungi and
most bacteria)
Cell wall is absent Cell wall is present
Body usually compact and organs usually Body usually spread / branch
internal
Nutrition is holozoic i.e. they ingest solid ready Nutrition autotrophic (holophytic) i.e. they
made organic make their food simple inorganic substances
taken in liquid or gaseous form.
Food is stored as glycogen and fat Food is stored as starch and oil.
Respond to stimulation immediately Response to stimulation usually takes a long
time.
Growth is limited; it stops at adult stage Growth is unlimited; it continues throughout life

CELL
Cell:- All living things are made up of cells – the cell is the basic unit of life.
They may exist in different forms e.g.
a. single and free living organisms e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena and Chlamydomonas
b. colony e.g. Volvox
c. filamentous e.g. Spirogyra
CHLAMYDOMONAS

SPIRO GYRA

Cell Theory
Robert Hooke in 1965 discovered the cell while examining a thin slice of cork under a microscope. Later
in 1835 Dujardin discovered the protoplasm – the living jelly within the cell.
In 1836 and 1837 Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann discovered that plants and animals were
made up of cells respectively.
CELL THEORY
This theory was proposed by Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann as a result of their discoveries on
plant and animal cells respectively. The theory states that the cell:
i) Is the structural unit of all living things
ii) Is the functional unit of all living things
iii) Originate from a pre-existing cell; and
iv) Contains hereditary materials.

On the basis of cellular structure, cells are divided into PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC cells.
Prokaryotes have very simple structure and do not have membrane bounded organelles e.g. mitochondria,
chloroplast, lysosome etc. examples are Bacteria and Blue-green algae. Eukaryotic cells are those with
definite nucleus. The cells are usually larger, more complex and contain more types of organelle. The
cells of higher plants and animals are eukaryotes

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

No distinct nucleus Distinct nucleus present
No nuclear membrane Nuclear membrane present
No membrane-bounded organelles Membrane-bounded organelles present
Nuclear materials scattered in the cytoplasm Nuclear materials not scattered in the
cytoplasm
Exists only in simple form Exist in complex form
Primitive More advanced
A PLANT CELL

AN ANIMAL CELL

DIFFE
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Plant cell Animal cell

There is cellulose cell wall No cellulose cell wall
Definite shape No definite shape
Chlorophyll is present Chlorophyll is absent
Large and conspicuous vacuoles Small and many vacuoles
Larger than animal cell Smaller than plant cell

FUNCTIONS OF CELL ORGANELLES

Organelle – A specialised structure within the cell that performs some special function e.g. golgi
body, ribosome

Structure Function
Cell Wall Provides rigidity to cell and gives it a definite shape
Cell membrane Allows selective movement of materials into and out of the cell
Cytoplasm The major part of the cell where most essential metabolic activities
occur
Nucleus Control cell function
Nucleolus Consist of Ribonucleic acid (RNA) which dictates the type of
protein the cell will manufacture.
Chromosomes Are the carriers of hereditary material known as genes
Vacuoles Fluid filled spaces in the cytoplasm which help in maintain turgidity
in plant cells.
Mitochondrion Power house of the cell where cellular respiration takes place to
provide energy
Endoplasmic reticulum Responsible for transporting proteins and exchange of substances
between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Ribosome They are sites for protein synthesis
Lysosomes Contains enzymes for breaking down large molecules in food
vacuoles into smaller ones, assists in removal of dead cells
(autolysis)
Golgi body For synthesis of carbohydrates and protein, secretion of enzymes
and hormones and water regulation
Chloroplast They are site for photosynthesis
Centriole Present only in animal cell. Is important in cell reproduction; forms
poles of the spindle during and after mitosis.
Plastids Present only in plant cell. It gives colour to them e.g. chlorophyll
gives green colour.

ANIMAL KINGDOM
Invertebrates Vertebrates
Protozoan Pisces
Coelenterate Amphibians
Platyhelminthes Reptilia
Nematode Aves
Annelida Mammalia
Mollusca
Arthropoda

Invertebrates – they lack vertebral columns or backbones.

They include:
A. Phylum Protozoa
i) They are unicellular microscopic organisms.
ii) Most are free-living in water others live as parasites in animals.
iii) There is no body symmetry
iv) The cell form is usually constant, oval, elongate or spherical but varies in some species.
v) Their endoplasm contains nucleus which is distinct, single or multiple and other structural parts such
as organelles
vi) Locomotion is by any of three organelles: flagella, cilia and pseudopodia or by movement of the cell
itself.
vii) Some species are with protective housing, shells or tests and many species produce resistant cysts or
spores during the unfavourable conditions and for dispersal.
viii) Nutrition can be holozoic , saprophytic and holophytic or combine any two of these methods
ix) Two types of vacuoles are present: food and contractile. Food accumulates inside food vacuole while
contractile vacuoles are mainly for pumping out excess water particularly in freshwater protozoans.
x) Reproduction is by sexual and asexual means. Asexual reproduction is by binary fission, multiple
fission or budding while sexual reproduction is by fusion of gametes or conjugation as in ciliates.
xi) Examples – Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, etc

AMOEBA

C o n t r a c t i le
v a c u o le
P s e u d o p o d ia
N u c le u s
E c t o p la s m

F o o d V a c u o le

E n d o p la s m
PARAMECIUM

P o s te rio r A n t e r io r

F o o d V a c u o le

EUGLENA

Eye S pot
R e s e r v o ir

C o n t r a c t i le
v a c u o le
PHYLUM COELENTERATA
Characteristics:
a) Simple multicellular invertebrates
b) They are aquatic (free living in water)
c) They are cylindrical / saucer shaped
d) They are radially symmetrical
e) Body wall is diploblastic i.e. clearly marked layers of cells – an outer, ECTODERM and inner,
ENDODERM.
f) They have a central gut cavity, which has a mouth surrounded by tentacles.
g) They lack anus
h) They possess stinging cells known as nematocyst
i) Reproduction is asexual by budding

LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF HYDRA

C. Phylum: Platyhelminthes (Flatworm)

a) Body is flat, soft, and thin with definite anterior end and a tail end.
b) They are bilaterally symmetrical
c) Body consists of the three layers (i.e. body wall is triploblastic), ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm
d) The alimentary canal has one opening serving both as mouth and anus. (i.e. incomplete digestive
system)
e) Flame cells present and are concerned with excretion and osmoregulation
f) They have nerves, excretory and reproductive system
g) Flatworms are generally hermaphroditic (i.e. individuals possess reproductive organs of both sexes)
h) They lack respiratory, skeletal and circulatory system
i) Examples – tapeworm (live as parasite in man and other animals), liverfluke (free living aquatic
animal)
TAPEWORM

D. Phylum Nematoda
a) Threadlike unsegmented worm
b) Microscopic
c) Cylindrical in shape
d) Body shape tapering towards the head and tail.
e) Bilaterally symmetrical
f) Body made up of three layers (triploblastic)
g) They lack respiratory and circulatory system
h) Free living in soil and water
i) Parasitic to both plants and animals
j) Females of few can assume pear, lemon or kidney shape as they mature.
k) Example – Ascaris
ASCARIS

E. Phylum Annelida
Characteristics:
1) Consists of segmented worms
2) Body is long and cylindrical
3) Body is divided into many identical segments
4) They are triploblastic
5) Bilaterally symmetrical
6) Body wall is covered with cuticle
7) The alimentary canal has two openings
8) Each segment has locomotory organ known as chaetae
9) Excretory system is made up of a pair of nephridia per segment
Examples – Earthworm (Lumbricus), Ragworm (Nereis)
EARTHWORM

F. Phylum Mollusca
1) Consists of soft bodied animals
2) Most have a protective outer shell
3) Body is differentiated into a head, a ventral muscular foot, a dorsal visceral hump and posses a
mantle, which secrete the shell
4) The shell protects them from predators
5) Head bears tentacles which help the snail. Sense changes in the environment
6) Tongue-like organ called radula is modified by rasping or scraping vegetation and feeding.
7) Respiration is by means of gills or gills or lung-like organ.
8) Most molluscs occur in marine, freshwater and terrestrial habitats
9) Examples – Clams, Oysters, Snail
SNAIL
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G. Phylum Arthropod
Members of this phylum are called joint-legged animals because they have jointed appendages which are
used for locomotion, feeding and sensation.
1) The body is divided into a head, thorax and abdomen.
2) Rigid outer body layer, the exoskeleton made mostly of chitinuous cuticle
3) They are bilaterally symmetrical
4) Triploblastic
5) Periodic moults (ecdysis) which make body growth possible
6) They have specialised digestive system with two openings – mouth and anus.
The following are the major classes of the phylum:
Class 1:Crustacea including crayfish, Crabs, Prawns
Class 2:Myriapoda including Centipede and Millipedes
Class 3:Insecta including six-legged insects such as Cockroach, Locust, Butterfly
Class 4:Arachnida including Spiders, Scorpions, Mites, Ticks.

CRAYFISH
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MILLIPEDE
COCKROACH

VERTEBRATES
1) These are animals with backbones inside which is a nerve cord.
2) They have a definite head
3) They have a well-developed brain and sense organs
4) Usually have two pair of limbs or appendages i.e. pectoral or hind limb.
5) They constitute the most advanced group of animals
6) Triploblastic
7) Bilaterally symmetrical
8) Brain is enclosed in skeleton case, the skull / cranium
9) The skin of most vertebrates bear scales, feathers or hairs
10) Closed circulatory system
The five classes of the group are:
a) Pisces (Fishes)
b) Amphibia (Amphibians)
c) Reptilian (Reptiles)
d) Aves (Birds)
e) Mammalia (Mammals)
PISCES
1) All fishes are aquatic i.e. they live in marine / fresh water
2) Cold-blooded (Poikilothermic)
3) They are covered with scale (placoidand cycloid) which protect them against injury
4) Possession of fins enables the fish to balance itself in water. Also, for swimming and steering.
5) Well-developed lateral line enables fish to perceive vibration and changes of pressure waves in water.
6) Paired limbs are the pectoral and pelvic fins
7) Swim bladder present in bony fish to keep them a float (buoyancy)
8) Stream-lined body which enables them to cut through water easily.
9) Long and flexible tail propels the fish through water when it is swimming.
10) Processing of gills and gill-cover (operculum) provides an efficient means of respiration in water.
11) Middle or external ear absent.
12) Heart divided into two chambers.
13) Possession of homodont dentition.
14) Reproduction is by means of external fertilization .
15) Eggs laid hatch as young (oviparous).
16) Examples are tilapia (bony fish) Shark (Cartilaginous fish) Hag fish (jawless fish)

BONY FISH

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Amphibia
- Possess naked, soft moist skin, usually without scales.
- Live partly on land and in water.
- They have poison glands on their skin for defence i.e. to keep predators away.
- Poikilothermic, i.e. cold-blooded.
- Heart divided into three chambers (one ventricle and two auricles).
- Gills are present in tadpole larva, lungs in adult and are used for gaseous exchange.
- Pendactyl limbs and in five digits.
- Middle ear and inner ear are present, but no external ear.
- Long sticky tongue for capturing flying insects (prey).
- Tadpoles are herbivorous, feeding on plants, but adults are carnivorous, feeding on insect and worms.
- Fertilization is external; eggs hatch out as young (oviparous).
- Examples include Frogs, Toads, Newts and Salamander).

TOAD

Reptilia
1. The body is covered with dry, horny, waterproof scales.
2. Presence of long tails.
3. Pentadactyl limbs, digits ending in claws.
4. Homodont dentition – Teeth all the same shape.
5. Jaws with teeth set in socket.
6. Two pairs of limbs except snake.
7. Sticky tongue for catching prey.
8. They are cold-blooded (poikilothermic).
9. 4 - chambered heart was incompletely developed.
10. Lungs are present and are used for gaseous exchange.
11. Feeding habits vary according to the group, lizard feeds on insects, while snakes feed on large living
mammals and further eat vegetation.
12. Mostly live and reproduce entirely on land, some are aquatic.
13. Fertilization is internal and reproduction is ovoviparous, i.e. young hatch out and is released from the
female’s body.
14. Examples include: Lizards, Snakes, Crocodiles and Tortoise.

AGAMA LIZARD

H ead N eck T ru n k

Eye
N u c h a l c re s t
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N o s t r il

M o u th

G u lo r f o ld

H i n d li m b
F o r e li m b
T a il
S c a le

C la w
D i g it

AVES
1. The body is differentiated into a small head, compact trunk and a tail.
2. The skin bears feathers except on the leg with horny scales.
3. Pentadactyl limbs.
4. Each toe or digit in a horny claw.
5. Homoiothermic (warm blooded).
6. Heart divided into four chambers.
7. Many of the bones are hollow and light and hence facilitate flight.
8. Forelimbs are modified into wings for flying e.g. sparrow, pigeon, eagle, weaverbird etc.
9. Air stored in air sacs serves to lighten the weight and hence facilitate flight.
10. Respiration is by means of lungs and air sacs.
11. Large yolky eggs in calcareous shells are laid in nest.
12. Mouth is modified into beak and used for feeding and killing their prey e.g. herons eat fish, wood
peckers eat insects.
13. Fertilization is internal they lay hard-shelled eggs with large yolks (Oviparous).
BIRD

E y e w i t h e y e l id N o s tril

P o s it i o n o f e a r B e ck

W in g c o n v e r ts B re a s t

S e co nd ary
fe a th e rs
W in g
P rim a ry
fe a th e rs F eet

To e
C la w
T o il
fe a th e rs

MAMMALIA
1. The body is covered with hair or fur.
2. Warm blooded (homoiothermic), aquatic or terrestrial.
3. The skin has many glands – sebaceous, sweat and mammary.
4. Eyes have movable eyelids.
5. Ears have external pinnae
6. The teeth are set in sockets and are of different types (heterodont).
7. Respiration is only by lungs.
8. The body cavity is divided into the chest and the abdomen by a muscular sheet – the diaphragm.
9. Heart is divided into four chambers and a double circulation.
10. Well-developed brain.
11. Females have mammary glands which provide milk for feeding their young.
12. Reproduction is viviparous i.e young develop inside females body and are given birth to alive.
13. Mammals are divided into orders e.g.
i) Monotremes – the egg laying mammals spiny anteaters, platypus.
ii) Marsupials – the pouched mammals e.g. kangaroo.
iii) Placental – to which most mammals belongs.
14. Examples – Homosapiens, rat, cow, goat, sheep whale, bat.
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A NAMED MAMMAL
e.g. a rabbit.

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nose

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The body is covered with four and consist of the HEAD, the NECK, the TRUNK and the TAIL.

THE HEAD
The head is pear-shaped; the posterior end is blunt while the interior end tapers towards the tip of the
snout.
The head bears a terminal mouth which is bordered by a pair of lips. The upper lip has a slit, or cleft, in
the center, so exposing the incisor teeth in front. It is therefore, referred to as the cleft lip, or hare lip.
Above the mouth lies a pair of nostrils. At the sides of these situated slightly higher, are the eyes. Each
eye has an upper and a lower eyelid and a nictitating membrane. In a rabbit, the senses of smell and sight
are well-developed. At the sides of the mouth on the upper lip are the whiskers or vibrissae (singular –
vibrissa), which are sensitive to touch. These help the rabbit to move in its dark burrow.
The rabbit has a pair of external ears. Each external ear consists of a funnel-like pinna from which a tube,
the external auditory meatus, leads into a highly complicated and sensitive structure, the inner ear. In the
rabbit, each pinna can move freely and this feature allows it to receive sound wavers from all directions
and also detect the directions and also detect the direction from which the sound is coming. A rabbit’s
sense of hearing is also well-developed.
THE NECK
The neck of the rabbit is a narrow structure connecting the head to the trunk. It is flexible but firm.

THE TRUNK
The trunk is made up of two regions – the thorax and the abdomen which are not separated externally.
However, they are separated internally by a muscular sheet or septum, the diaphragm. Within these two
regions lie the internal organs, or viscera.
On the ventral side of the abdomen, the adult female rabbit has three to five pairs of teats, which bear the
openings to mammary glands. In the rabbit, the anus lies under tail while the urinogenital opening is just
ventral to it. On either side of the tail is a bare patch of skin into which opens the perineal gland. The
secretion from this gland gives the rabbit its characteristic smell.
The limbs of the rabbit are known as the fore limbs and the hind limbs. Each fore limb consists of the
upper arm, the fore arm and the fore foot which has five digits. The junction between the upper arm and
the fore arm is the elbow, while that between the fore arm and the fore foot is the wrist. The forelimbs are
short and are capable of taking the shock on landing at the end of a jump.
Each hind limb consists of the thigh, the shank and the hind foot which has four digits. The junction
between the thigh and the shank is the knee, while that between the shanks and the hind foot is the ankle.
The hind limbs are longer than he fore limbs and are much more powerful. Their straightening results in
the forward thrust necessary for jumping.
In the resting position, the upper arms are directed backwards and the fore arms forwards. The hands are
also directed forwards. The thighs are directed forwards, the shanks backwards and the ankles and feet
forwards.
THE TAIL
The trunk of the rabbit bears two pair of limbs and ends in a short tail.
RESPIRATION
Respiration is the process by which food is broken down to release energy. The commonest oxidizable
foods are simple sugars.
Respiration is divided into two phases:
1. External respiration (gaseous exchange) – the process in which atmospheric oxygen enters the living
organism and carbon-dioxide and water vapour are expelled. In some organisms this can take place
over the whole body surface and in many others in special organs e.g. trachea, lungs, gills.
2. Internal respiration (cell or tissue) – the process in which sugar is broken down by a series of
enzymes-controlled reactions to release energy. The energy released is stored in a compound called
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) which is the form in which energy is used in all living cells for
metabolic processes.
Internal Respiration
Internal respiration may be aerobic or anaerobic.
Aerobic respiration is one which requires oxygen; it occurs commonly in all plant and animal cells. The
overall process can be represented thus:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 2888kJ
Glucose oxygen carbon-dioxide water (690kcals)
Energy
Anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen; it occurs in yeast and some bacteria. The common end
product is alcohol.
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH+ 2CO2 + 218kJ
Glucose ethanol carbon-dioxide (690kcals) Energy
Anaerobic respiration, in which lactic acid is the end product, occurs in some bacteria and also in actively
exercising animal muscles when oxygen is in short supply:
C6H12O6 2C2H5OCOOH + 218kJ
Glucose lactic acid (690kcals) Energy
The process of respiration is similar in both plants and animals. The difference among all the organisms is
the mechanism for gaseous exchange, i.e. external respiration.
MUSCLE FATIGUE

During strenuous exercise enough oxygen is not available to the muscles to oxidize the glucose to CO 2

and H2O, hence lactic acid is produced anaerobically. Cramp and muscle fatigue are caused by the
accumulation of lactic acid and the resulting increase in acidity in the muscles.

The exercise is followed by rapid breathing to inspire enough extra oxygen to oxidize part of the lactic
acid to CO2 and water. The energy released in this oxidation is used to convert the rest back to glucose.

EXTERNAL RESPIRATION

THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY ORGAN

In man, as in other mammals, the respiratory organs are the lungs located in air-tight thoracic cavity, they
are ventilated by the action known as breathing

Atmospheric air entering through the nares in the nose is warmed in the nasal passages and passes across
the pharynx to the larynx and trachea. The trachea is a long tube with rings of cartilage. It branches into
two bronchi which enter the lungs. Each lung is a spongy and elastic sac; in it the bronchus branches
profusely into bronchioles and their finest branches terminate in tiny thin-walled cup-shaped air sacs or
alveoli. Each alveolus is surrounded by a dense network of capillaries. Gaseous exchange takes place
here.

Pulmonary artery carrying deoxygenated blood enters the lungs and divides into the capillaries that
surround the alveoli. The blood is rich in CO2 and poor in O2 whereas the air inside the alveoli is rich in O2

and poor in CO2. Oxygen from the alveoli diffuses through the walls of the alveoli and capillaries into the
blood while carbon-dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli. The oxygenated blood is then carried
to the heart while the CO2 rich in air in the alveoli is exhaled.

MECHANISMS OF THE BREATHING PROCESS

There are two phases in the breathing process;
Inspiration (inhalation): when atmospheric air is breathed in, and Expiration exhalation): when CO2
rich air from the lungs, rich in carbon-dioxide, is breathed out.
Inspiration occurs in the following sequences:
i) Diaphragm contracts and flattens out,
ii) Intercostals muscles (those between the ribs) contracts,
iii) Ribs are thus raised,
iv) Sternum moves forward,
v) Volume of thoracic cavity therefore increases.
vi) Pressure in the lungs is lowered,
vii) Air from outside rushes in through the nose and fills the alveoli
Expiration occurs in the following sequences:
i) Diaphragm relaxes and returns to its dome shape,
ii) Intercostals muscles relax
iii) Ribs are lowered,
iv) Sternum moves backwards,
v) Volume of thorax therefore decreases
vi) Pressure in the lungs is increased,
vii) Air is expelled from the lungs through the nose.

RESPIRATORY ORGAN OF RABBIT

L a ry n x

P le u r a l c a v it y T ra c h e a

R ib s B ro n c h u s

Lung
H e a rt B r o n c h i o le

O u te r A lv e o lu s
p le u r a In te r c o s ta l
m u s c le s
In n e r P le u ra l m e m b ra n e
p le u r a
D ia p h r a g m

FEATURES OF EFFICIENT GAS EXCHANGE SURFACES IN ANIMALS

1) Large surface efficient gas exchange surfaces in animals
2) Moist surface permitting gases exchange.
3) Thin cell covering, usually one-cell thick, permeable to dissolved gases.
4) Rich supply of blood (in higher animals only)
FEATURES OF GILLS FOR EFFICIENT GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN WATER
1) Gill filaments have large surface area exposed to aqueous medium
2) Gills have thin epithelium cover
3) There is a rich supply of blood from afferent vessels.
4) Blood flows in a direction opposite to the flow of water thereby maximizing gaseous exchange.
5) The gill rakers prevent food or dirt from getting into the filaments.

FEATURES THAT MAKE THE LUNGS EFFICIENT FOR GASEOUS EXCHANGE

i) The alveoli have a large surface area for gaseous exchange.
ii) The bronchi divide profusely to ensure efficient distribution of air into the alveoli.
iii) Walls of alveoli are thin and permeable.
iv) Pulmonary artery divides profusely in the lungs and its capillaries cover each alveoli density.
v) Surface of the alveoli is moist allowing air to dissolve.
vi) Tracheal surface is lined with mucous cells to trap dirt thus preventing dirt from blocking the narrow
air passages.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS

As plants are less active than animals, they have less oxygen demand. There are no special respiratory
organs. Sufficient atmospheric gas enters the plant through special openings, viz:
1 Stomata on leaves and young stems,
2 Lenticels, gaps in the bark of woody stems,
And in young roots, by diffusion from soil water through the root hairs.
The sequence of gas exchange is as follows:
1. Oxygen diffuses in through stomata or lenticel into intercellular spaces.
2. Oxygen is conducted through the plant in the numerous tunnels of air spaces in the parenchyma.
3. Oxygen dissolves in moisture around cells and diffuses into cytoplasm where O 2 concentration is
lowest as it is constantly used for respiration.
4. carbon(iv)oxide produced from respiration makes the concentration in the cell high and hence the
CO2 diffuses across the cell membrane and cell wall into the intercellular spaces and out through the
stomata and lenticels.
In submerged aquatic plants and lower green plants, gaseous exchange is by diffusion across the cell walls
and cell membranes.
In plants all major gas exchange surfaces are:
1. thin-walled
2. moist
3. of large surface area
4. permeable to gases
ORGANS OF GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN OTHER ORGANISMS
Micro-organisms and coelenterates – by diffusion through the cell membranes.
Flatworms and earthworms – by diffusion through the skin epidermis.
Insects – trachea (air tubes) which open out as spiracles.
Fish – gills
Toad and Frogs – gills at tadpole stage; skin, mouth and lungs at adult.
Lizards and Birds – lungs
EXCRETION
Excretion is the removal from the body of waste products of chemical processes (metabolism) taking
place in the body. The substances are of no further use in the body. If the waste is not removed they may
be toxic to the cells or the blood or may inhabit the cell functions.
Excretion is to be distinguished from the following:
a) Defaecation – elimination of undigested food collectively called faeces from the anus. Undigested
food has never entered any of the cells and has not taken part in cell chemical process. Defaecation
does not involve the use of energy.as in excretory process.
b) Secretion – the releasing from the cells of some substance that is utilised elsewhere in some body
process. The process involves cell activity and the use of energy.
EXCRETION IN PLANTS
The main excretory products in plants are: water and oxygen (from photosynthesis), carbon-dioxide and
water (from respiration). They are excreted through the stomata and lenticels. Others are tannins, resins,
gums, mucilage and alkaloids. These are simply withdrawn from metabolism and excreted as follows:
1 Transferred to cell vacuoles,
2 Stored in the bark or the nonliving heartwood in insoluble forms,
3 Stored as crystals in leaves which are later shed.
EXCRETION IN ANIMALS
In the protozoans and coelenterates each cell in the body is in direct contact with the aqueous medium
thereby allowing diffusion of wastes outside. In other higher animals, the metabolising cells are far
removed from the external aqueous medium hence the wastes diffuse or are transported to special cells,
tissues or organs whose function is to excrete the wastes.
The most important wastes in animals are nitrogenous wastes principally ammonia, uric acid and urea.
The waste products of mammals are excreted through special organs, viz:
1 Kidney – excreting urea, some uric acid, water and mineral salts (principally sodium, potassium and
chloride ions),
2 Skin – water and mineral salts,
3 Lungs – water and carbon-dioxide,
4 Liver – bile pigments,
5 Large intestine – iron and calcium.
KIDNEY OF MAMMAL

D ia p h r a g m

M e d u ll a
( p y r a m id )
Vena A o rta
R e n a l a r te r y
cava
L e ft k id n e y

2
C o r te x
R e n a l v e in
P e lv i s
U re te r
F ib r o u s
c a p s u le U re te r
B la d d e r

S p h in c te r
m u s c le
U re th ra

1
M e d u l la - c o n t a i n s s t r a i g h t p o r t i o n s o f t u b u le s
2
C o r t e x - c o n t a i n s B o w m a n ’ s c a p s u l e s a n d c o d e d p o r t i o n s o f t u b u le s
STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY TUBULE

OSMOREGULATORY FUNCTION
Osmoregulation is the regulation of osmotic pressure in the body by controlling the amount of water and
or salts in the body; it occurs in animals.
Re-absorption of water is done along the whole length of the kidney tubule. The amount of water re-
absorption is such as to keep its level in the blood constant. When the blood level drops, e.g. after
excessive sweating on a hot day, the pituitary secretes a hormone (vasopressin) into the blood; this
stimulates the kidney to increase water re-absorption in the collecting ducts thereby producing a
concentrated urine. However, after excessive drinking the kidney re-absorbs less water, and dilute urine is
produced. By adjusting the water level the osmotic pressure in the body is kept constant.
KEEPING THE PH CONSTANT
The kidney excretes hydrogen ions as carbonic acid when the body fluids are too acidic and excretes
sodium and bicarbonate ions when the fluid is too alkaline.
LOCOMOTION
Animals are capable of moving from place to place i.e.locomotion.This movement is with the aid of
skeleton (a hard rigid frame) and the muscle, attached to the skeleton while most plants can only
move part of their bodies
Organ of locomotion in animals include the following:
1. Pseudopodia
2. Cilia
3. Flagella
4. Chaetae
5. Joint limbs
PARTS OF THE SKELETON
A. Skull – houses and protects the brain and the main sense organs – eyes, ears and nose. It consists of a
number of fused bones.
B. Vertebral column – composed of vertebrae arranged end to end to form a tube inside which the
spinal cord runs. The vertebrae are separated from one another by cartilaginous intervertebral discs.
In mammals the vertebrae are typically seven in number.
A typical vertebra has a body or centrum, a dorsal ring called the neural arch which forms the neutral
canal enclosing the spinal cord and seven processes (extensions from the central part of the vertebra).
These processes are:

Articular facets may also be present on the vertebra; these are surfaces for articulation with other bones.
C. Pectoral girdle – consists of two halves. Each half is made up of a scapula (shoulder blade) and a
clavicle (collar bone).
D. Pelvic girdle – also consists of two halves. Each half is made up of three bones fused together.
E. Fore limbs – each consists of an upper arm (humerus), the fore arm (radius and ulna), eight wrist
bones and the bones of the hand and fingers, phalanges. The head of the humerus articulates with the
scapula at the glenoid cavity.
F. Hind limbs – Each consists of the thigh (femur), lower leg, (tibia and fibula), six ankle bones and
bones of the feet and toes (phalanges). The head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum of the
pelvis.

HUMAN SKELETON FRAMEWORK

S k u ll

L o w e r ja w
C e rv ic a l v e rte b ra n e
C la v ic le F irs t rib

S c a p u la
S te r n u m ( B re a s t h o n e )

H u m e ru s

L u m b a r v e r te b ra e

R a d iu s
S a cru m
C occyx
U ln a P e lv ic g ir d le
C a r p a ls
M e t a c a r p a ls
P h a la n g e s

Fem ur
( T h ig h b o n e )
P a t e lla ( k n e e c a p )

T ib ia

F i b u la

T a r s a ls
M e ta ta r s a l
P h a la n g e s
FUNCTIONS OF MAMMALIAN SKELETON
1) It gives support to the soft parts and thus gives shape to the individual.
2) It provides attachments to many of the skeletal muscles, tendons and connective tissue which produce
movements and locomotion.
3) It gives protection to delicate vital organs such as the brain and spinal cord and the heart, lungs and
sense organs.
4) It serves as a reserve storehouse for certain minerals.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF MOVEMENTS IN PLANTS
In living things the most obvious response to environment stimuli is movement. In plants this movement
nearly always involves growth.
Tropisms are movements in non-mobile plants brought about by changing the direction of their growth in
response to stimuli. A response may be towards the stimulus i.e. positive, or away from the stimulus i.e.
negative. The response to light is phototropism, to water, hydrotropism and to gravity, geotropism.
Tropisms are easily demonstrated in actively growing structures.
Nastic movements : Movements by plants in response to an external stimulus, but this response may not
involve growth and is not related to the direction of the stimulus. Examples: (1) petals of sunflower which
open in light and close in the dark; (2) leaves of plants (e.g. Oxalis) which spread out in light but fold up
in the dark; this is also referred to as ‘sleep movement’.
Tactic movement: When a whole organism moves from one place to another in response to external
stimuli such as light, gravity, water and certain chemicals, it is said to exhibit a tactic movement, or taxis.
Chlamydomonas and Euglena show tactic movements.

REPRODUCTION
For life to continue, new generations of life must be produced to replace the dead and dying generations.
The process of producing new independent individuals by older individuals is reproduction. The process
may be sexual or asexual.
Sexual reproduction: is a process by which a new independent organism is produced by fusion of two
specialized cells, known as gametes, produced by two parents. The product of the union is a single cell
known as a zygote. The zygote divides and gives rise to a new individual.
Examples: zygospore production in spirogyra and rhizopus, seed production in flowering plants.
In most organisms the female gamete (egg) is large and non mobile with a store of nutrients. The male
gamete (sperm) is usually small and mobile.
Fertilization is the fusion of the gametes to form the zygote. It may occur outside the body of the two
parents i.e. external, as in most aquatic organisms, or occur inside a parent, the female, i.e. internal, as in
most terrestrial organisms.

Self-fertilisationoccurs when gametes from the same parent fuse.

Cross-fertilisationoccurs when gametes from different parents fuse.
Asexual Reproduction: is the process by which a new individual organism is formed from one parent
without fusion of gametes. The different types of asexual reproduction are
I) Fission e.g. many protozoans, bacteria, yeast
2) Budding, a portion of the parent’s body forms an outgrowth that eventually grows and detaches
forming a new independent individual e.g yeasts, hydra.
3) Fragmentation e.g. Spirogyra
4) Spore formation e.g. Rhizopus
5) Vegetative reproduction e.g. gemmae of liverworts, underground stems, runners, suckers in flowering
plants.
Some examples of asexual reproduction in plants and animals include:
1 Binary fission in bacterial
2 Budding in yeast
3 Fragmentation in spirogyra
4 Grafting in plants.

REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Flower structure
The part of the shoot modified for reproduction is the flower. It is borne on a specialized branch called the
pedicel, the tip of which is the receptacle on which whorls of floral leaves are borne in succession.

S tig m a s
A n th e r
S ta m e n
F i la m e n t

T u b e o f fu s e d fila m e n t s

P e ta l

Sepal

E p is e p a l

R e c e p t a c le
P e d ic e l
 S t ig m a

S ty le

O v u le
 F i v e u n f u s e d s t ig m a s

The floral leaves are:

1. calyx – the outermost whorl, made up of sepals. It protects the flower at the bud stage. It is usually
green but may have same colour as the petals (i.e. petaloid). The sepals may be free or fused.
2. Corolla – made up of petals. It attracts insect for pollution being usually brightly coloured and
scented. It may be free or fused. When the calyx and corolla are fused together, or indistinguished
from each other, the resulting whorl is called a perianth.
3. Androecium – the male part of the flower consisting of stamens. A stamen has a filament (stalk) and
an anther containing the pollen grains. In the pollen grains are the male gametes.
4. Gynoecium – the female part of the flower, consisting of one or more carpels. A carpel is made up of
the ovary containing the ovules, the stigma which receives the pollen grains and the style which
connects the stigma to the ovary. The carpels of a flower may be free (apocarpous) e.g. rose flower, or
fused (syncarpous) e.g. Hibiscus.
REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS
GAMETE PRODUCTION
The sperm is produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. A sperm cell is very small and is able to
propel itself with the aid of a long tail; a large number is expelled during ejaculation. The ovum, produced
in the ovary is large, contains yolky food reserves and only one is usually produced at monthly intervals.
FERTILIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO
During copulation, sperm of the male is introduced into the vagina of the female through the penis. The
sperm swim up through the uterus to the oviducts. Here they meet a down-coming ovum. Numerous
sperm are attracted towards the ovum by the chemical substances it produces. However only one of these
sperm cells eventually fuses with the ovum. This is fertilization.
The resulting zygote divides repeatedly to form a ball of cells called the blastocyst. When the blastocyst
reaches the uterus it attaches itself to the uterus wall which consequently becomes thickened and highly
vascularised (i.e. richly supplied with blood vessels). Hormones are produced in the ovary which increase
blood supply to the uterus and halt further egg production.
Soluble food diffuses from the uterine wall to the blastocyst. The inner cells of the blastocyst gradually
differentiate into embryo called foetus. The outer cells form a covering of two membranes, an outer
chorion and an inner amnion containing amniotic fluid which protects the embryo from shock and
desiccation. The embryo develops its own circulatory system and later forms finger-like projections into
the tissue of the uterus. These projections and the uterus tissue contain numerous capillaries and they
make up the placenta. The placenta is joined to the embryo by an umbilical cord; this cord enclosed an
artery and a vein and connects the placenta with the abdomen of the foetus.
In the placenta, blood capillaries of the mother and the foetus are in close contact without actually joining.
The blood of the mother and the foetus do not mix at all. Oxygen, water, soluble food, salts and vitamins
diffuse from the maternal blood vessels to those of the foetus. carbon-dioxide, urea and other waste
products pass in the reverse direction. As the foetus grows, the wall of the uterus is further thickened and
forms a mass of spongy tissue filled with maternal blood.

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

F E M A L E
K id n e y

U r e te r
O v id u c t - p a s s a g e o f e g g s ,
s it e o f f e r t i li s a t io n

O v a ry - p ro d u c e s e g g s
fu n n e l U t e r u s - w h e r e f e r t i lis e d e g g s d e v e l o p
o f o v id u c t c e r v ix - m a s c u la r r i n g c lo s in g
lo w e r e n d o f u te r u s
v a g in a - w h e r e s p e r m is d e p o s i te d
u re th r a
BIRTH
After the gestation period (280 days in man), the embryo is mature and ready to be born. The membrane
ruptures. The cord is tied and cut manually. The placenta and the membranes are expelled later, these are
called afterbirth.
COMPARISON OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS AND MAMMALS
DIFFERENCES

Flowering Plants Mammals

i. Individual plants may be Individuals are normally

hermaphrodite or unisex. unisexual.

ii. Reproductive organs, Reproductive organs are

the flowers are present only present at birth and are

at maturity and are permanent structure.

temporary structure

iii. Male cells are brought to Male cells are introduction into

female organ by external female organs directly during

agents during pollination. Copulation.

iv. Male gametes are non-motile. Male gametes are motile

v. Many offsprings are produced Fewer offsprings are produced.

Similarities
1) Both involve fusion of unlike gametes.
2) Fertilization is internal; it occurs inside the female reproductive organ.
3) The zygote starts development in the body of the parent forming an embryo (and foetus in mammals)
4) The embryo is nourished by the parent.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
The height or weight of an organism measured at suitable intervals over a known period of time gives the
growth rate. If an organism’s measurements are plotted against time, a growth curve is obtained. The
general pattern is that growth tends to be slow at first, then it speeds up and finally it slows down as adult
size is reached. At full adult stage growth remains nearly constant.

Experiments
1) Measure growth of a guinea pig
Measure the length and weight of a two-week old guinea pig and repeat at weekly intervals until growth
ceases. The guinea pig may be put in a bag and weighed on a spring balance. The results are plotted
on a graph. An S-shaped curve will be obtained+
2) To demonstrate the region of growth in a root.
Take a two-day old cowpea seedling and mark every 2mm of the radicle with lines in black ink. Place the
seeding on a moist filter paper. The amount of growth will be shown by the distance between the
marks; it will be seen that lines are farthest apart in the region near the tip

E v e n ly
m a rk e d
s t r ip e s S t r ip e s w id e s t

ORGANISM AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY
Ecology is the study of inter-relationships between living organisms with one another and with their
environment. The environment is the surrounding of any organism and consist of the influence of the
climate, soil, water and other living organisms.

BASIC CONCEPTS IN ECOLOGY.

Any natural unity where interaction occur among the living organisms themselves and with their non-
living component is referred to as an ecosystem. An ecosystem may be large (e.g. lake, savanna) or small
(e.g. decaying wood in the soil).all the living organisms in an ecosystem form the community e.g. fungal
population, insect population.
The places where organisms live are habitats. The habitat may be located on land (terrestrial),on a tree
(arboreal) or in water (aquatic).
Aquatic habitats may further described as marine (oceans and seas), fresh water (river, ponds and lakes)
and estuarine (river estuaries and lagoons).
Factor which affect the life of an organism in an ecosystem are:
1. Physical factors - these are climatic factors such as temperature, water, rainfall, humidity, wind and
light, and edaphic factors, that is, those related to the influence of the soil or the parent rock.
2. Biotic factors – this refers to the influence of other living organisms in the community including man
himself. The influence may be by competitions such as predation, symbiosis or saprophytism.
The food relation in an ecosystem
The most important basis of relationship between organisms in a community is food. Food is produced by
plants through photosynthesis , hence plants are called producers. Animals subsequently obtain their
energy by feeding on the plants; they are called consumers. Animals that fed directly on the plants are
termed primary consumers; they are herbivores. Secondary consumers feed on herbivores or each other
and thus are carnivores or predators. When both plants and animals die, their bodies are broken down by
other organisms called decomposers; these are mainly saprophytic fungi and bacteria.
Since producers provide the food base that directly or indirectly support all other forms of life in a
community, they are quite abundant. In an aquatic community algae are the principal producers while
other plants are more important in terrestrial communities.
The food relationship among a set of members of a community is referred to as a food chain. It can be set
out in this generalized form:
Producer primary consumer secondary consumer
(green plant) (herbivorous animals) (carnivorous animal)
Examples of food chain are:
1. grass grasshopper toad snake hawk
2. diatoms water flea small fish large fish man
3. palm fruit squirrel man
In many communities, however, the food relationship is more complicated because one organism is
consumed by many organisms. The complex interconnecting food relationship is called a food web.
Interactions in an ecosystem
Many organisms interact with each other to obtain food or to survive in an environment. Examples of
such interactions are:
1) Predation: when a carnivorous animal (the predator) kills and feeds on another animal referred to as
its prey, the interaction is called predation, e.g cat feeding on rats.
2) Saprophytism: refers to an interaction in which micro-organisms feed on the dead bodies of other
plants and animals, e.g. bacteria on decaying rat. Enzymes are secreted to digest the dead matter
extracellularly before absorption.
3) Symbiosis: broadly refers to a natural association between two dissimilar organisms living together.
Examples of such associations are:
i) mutualism(formerly symbiosis) – an association between two organisms which both partners derive
benefits from the relationship. Example are:
Root nodule - legume symbiosis: the root nodule bacteria (Rhizobium) obtain water and habitation from
the legume while the legume obtains fixed nitrogen from the bacteria.
Lichen symbiosis: an alga and a fungus live together. The spongy tissue of the fungus holds moisture for
the use of both symbionts, while the alga supplies photosynthetic products and a few vitamins to the
fungus.
Mycorrhiza: an association between plant roots and fungi. The fungus lives in or on the roots and its
hyphae extending into the soil. The hyphae serve like root hairs to absorb water and nutrients from
the soil into the plant, while the tree
ii) Commensalisms – an association between two organisms in which only one partner derives some
benefit, but the other partner is not harmed. Example: numerous bacteria in the intestine of a man and
the vertebrates feed on undigested food. Also numerous plants live epiphytically on other plants
deriving support but not nourishment from the host.
iii) Parasitism – an association between two organisms in which one, called the parasite, obtains food
and / or support from another, usually a larger, living organism called the host. The host derives no
benefit and may suffer some damage or deprivation from the association, e.g. tapeworm in the
intestine of man.
FOOD CHAINS
In a fallow farmland, there are various plants and animals, all which find their food for survival there. The
grasshopper feeds on plants, such as guinea-grass. A toad eats the grasshopper. A snake eats the toad and a
hawk eats the snake. The guinea-grass, grasshopper, toad, snake and hawk thus form a relationship of
organisms in which one eats the other, in turn. A linear feeding relationship among organisms feeds on the
one before it in the sequence, is called a food chain. The food chain described above can be represented
as follows:
Guinea-grass Grasshopper Toad Snake Hawk
In freshwater stream, a paramecium may eat a diatom, a water-flea may eat the paramecium, a small fish
may eat the water-flea and a big fish may eat the small fish. This food chain can be represented as
follows:
Diatom Paramecium water-flea small fish Big fish
Each of the two food chains described above starts with a green plant, the producer. This is nearly always
the case. However, some food chains begin with dead plants and animals. An example is as follows:
Humus Earthworm Domestic Fowl Man
FOOD WEB
A food chain is a single line relationship and gives the impression that one organism feeds on the other.
For instance, our first example may suggest that only the toad eats grasshopper, etc. In fact, the guinea-
grass may be eaten by any of several insects or other animals. A grasshopper, on its part, may be eaten by
a toad, an agama lizard, a chicken or a chameleon. A toad may be eaten by a snake or a hawk, while a
snake may be eaten by a hawk or some other animal. In nature, therefore, there are more complex feeding
relationships consisting of interrelated food chains is called a food web.
TROPHIC LEVEL
In a food chain or web, each stage in the chain or web is called a trophic (feeding) level. In the food
chain:
Guinea-grass Grasshopper Toad Snake Hawk
There are five trophic levels.
Guinea-grass is the first trophic level, grasshopper the secnd, toad the third, snake the forth and hawk the
fifth trophic level. Some food chains are short, having only a few trophic levels:
e.g. Maize Goat Man
PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
One of the relationships observed in a food chain or web is that of the relative members of individuals at
the different trophic levels. Normally, the number of individuals decreases progressively from the first to
the last trophic level. Look at this food chain:
Diatom Paramecium Water-flea Small fish Big fish
The number of diatoms eaten by paramecia is greater than the number of paramecia, while the number of
paramecia eaten by water-flea is greater than the number of water-fleas. Similarly, the number of small
fish is greater than that of the big fish which eat them. The relationship among the numbers of individuals
at various trophic levels in a food chain can be represented diagrammatically below:
“Pyramid of numbers is the graphic representation of number of individuals per unit area of various
trophic levels stepwise with producers forming the base and top carnivores the tip”.

Pyramid of Numbers in a Grassland Ecosystem

The diagram which represents the decreasing number of individuals from one trophic level to another in a
food chain is called a pyramid of numbers.
PYRAMID OF ENERGY
POLLUTION
Pollution is the contamination of the air, land or water environment resulting in a change that may or will
harmfully affect human life. It is brought about as a result of human activities.
Air Pollution may be caused by:
1) solid, e.g. dust and soot from industrial machines and coal industries,
2) mists or drops e.g. sulphuric acid mist or other chemical fumes from industrial processes,
3) gases e.g. sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxide from industries and carbon monoxide from motor vehicle
exhausts.
Some of the effects of air pollution are:
1) Impaired health: polluted air may cause irritation of the eye and lungs, and may aggravate diseases
of the heart. Asthma, bronchitis and lung cancer .
2) Spoilage of minerals: metals are corroded, buildings become discoloured and clothes and paper
become brittle.
3) Damage to plant life: many fruits and flowers react adversely to air pollution e.g. fluorides affect
yield of citrus plants adversely, ozone causes yellow specks on leaves. Also rain in NO 2 and SO2
polluted air becomes acidic and will harmfully affect the soil and plant life.
Soil and water pollution may be caused by:
1) biological agents – pathogenic micro-organisms, parasitic worms and protozoans from domestic
sewage and treatment effluent.
2) Agricultural chemicals including pesticides and herbicides applied to soil and plants; these may be
washed by rain to the rivers and streams,
3) Plant and animal wastes from farmlands, such as poultry litter.
4) Crude oil from blow-out of wells, leaking pipe lines and wreck oil tankers.
5) Industrial wastes from chemical, paper and food processing industries.
Soil pollution leads to an insanitary environment. The pesticides affect microbial life in the soil thereby
lowering the soil productivity. Some pesticides accumulate in food crops; these are toxic and some may
induce cancer. Some effects of oil spills on land are the destruction of crops, the contamination of
drinking water and barrenness of soil. In water, an oil spill causes death of most aquatic life and coastal
organisms, especially shore-birds.
The control includes:
i) burial of urban wastes in land-fill and conversion of solid wastes to compost,
ii) proper disposal of sewage,
iii) legislation by governments permitting the use of only the detergents and pesticides which can be
broken down by soil and water micro-organisms (i.e. biodegradable) to harmless substances.

SEWAGE
Sewage is the liquid waste of a community arising from household sinks, baths and toilets and from
factories. About 99% of it is water and the rest contains micro-organisms (including pathogens),
undigested food matter, soap and other impurities.
In order to maintain the good health of a community, sewage must be properly disposed.
Methods of sewage disposal:
i) Septic tank – water is used to flush faeces and urine into a tank dug in the ground.
ii) Pit latrines –faeces and urine are passed into deep pits.
This prevents bad odour escaping and flies from entering.
In (i) and (ii) pathogenic microbes are not eliminated. The tanks and the pits must therefore be far from
the source of drinking water supply.
vi) Municipal treatment processes – the sewage from various dwelling is collected and treated. In the
treatment, harmless aerobic bacteria break down the organic matter in the sewage into simple
substances. The solids which settle (the sludge) are removed to the fields to dry out while the
supernatant liquid (the effluent) is chlorinated before it is discharged into the river or on to farmlands.
Dangers of dumping raw sewage into water
1) Pathogenic micro-organisms are spread in the water and may contaminate oysters and shellfish or
enter drinking water supplies.
2) Oxygen in the water is rapidly reduced as aerobic bacteria break down the organic matter in the
sewage.
3) Foul-smelling gases are produced by anaerobic bacteria which multiply rapidly in the oxygen
depleted water.
4) Fish and other forms of aquatic life are destroyed.
Dangers of improperly disposed sewage on land
1. Flies and mosquitoes breed abundantly, thereby posing health danger.
2. Flies spread pathogenic microbes in the sewage to man.
3. Offensive odours are produced.
Refuses
Refuse is the solid waste from homes and factories. The refuse from the factories has a somewhat uniform
composition. Domestic refuse is more variable and contains food wastes, paper, leaves, cans, etc. open
refuse dumps around dwellings provide breeding places for insects and rodents and these spread disease.
Also odour from the decomposing refuses becoming a nuisance.
Refuse can be disposed of by:
i) burning in an incinerator;
ii) dumping in a sanitary land fill;
iii) dumping in isolated areas far from human habitation.