METHODS OF RESEARCH

1. Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative Research / Methods of

Research.

According to John W. Creswell (2014), quantitative research is a means for testing

objective theories by examining the relationship among variables. These variables can
be measured, typically on instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed using
statistical procedures. On the other hand, qualitative research is a means for exploring
and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human
problem. The process of research involves emerging questions and procedures;
collecting data in the participants’ setting; analyzing the data inductively, building from
particulars to general themes; and making interpretations of the meaning of the data.

OR

Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating

numerical data or data that can be transformed into usable statistics. It is used to quantify
attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables – and generalize results from
a larger sample population. Quantitative Research uses measurable data to formulate
facts and uncover patterns in research. Quantitative data collection methods are much
more structured than Qualitative data collection methods.
Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and
dive deeper into the problem. Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured
or semi-structured techniques. Some common methods include focus groups (group
discussions), individual interviews, and participation/observations.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH vs. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Purpose To test hypotheses, look at cause
& effect, & make predictions.
Group Studied Larger & randomly selected.
Variables Specific variables studied (eg.
Time, Temperature, Height,
Weight, Sales, Profit, Grades,
Scores)
Type of Data Numbers and statistics
Collected
Form of Data Quantitative data based on
Collected precise measurements using
structured & validated data-
collection instruments
Type of Data Identify statistical relationships
Analysis
Objectivity and Objectivity is critical
Subjectivity
Role of Researcher & their biases are not
Researcher known to participants in the study,
& participant characteristics are
deliberately hidden from the
researcher (double blind studies).
To understand & interpret
social interactions.
Smaller & not randomly
selected.
Study of the whole, not
variables.
Words, images, or objects
Qualitative data such as open-
ended responses, interviews,
participant observations, field
notes, & reflections
Identify patterns, features,
themes
Subjectivity is expected
Researcher & their biases may
be known to participants in the
study, & participant
characteristics may be known
to the researcher.
 Results Generalizable findings that can be Particular or specialized
applied to other populations findings that is less
generalizable

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Research Describe, explain, & predict
Objectives
Focus Narrow-angle lens; tests a
specific hypotheses
Nature of Study behavior under controlled
Observation conditions; isolate causal effects
Nature of Reality Single reality; objective
Final Report Statistical report with correlations,
comparisons of means, &
statistical significance of findings
Explore, discover, &
understand
Wide-angle lens; examines the
breadth & depth of
phenomena
Study behavior in a natural
environment
Multiple realities; subjective
Narrative report with
contextual description & direct
quotations from research
participants

2. Ethics in Research

Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In

addition, it educates and monitors scientists conducting research to ensure a high ethical
standard. The following is a general summary of some ethical principles:

Honesty:
Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do
not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.

Objectivity:
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer
review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of
research.

Integrity:
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of
thought and action.

Carefulness:
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own
ork and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities.

Openness:
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.

Respect for Intellectual Property:

Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use
unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit
is due. Never plagiarize.

Confidentiality:
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for
publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.

Responsible Publication:
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your
own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
Responsible Mentoring:
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow
them to make their own decisions.

Respect for Colleagues:

Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

Social Responsibility:
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through
research, public education, and advocacy.

Non-Discrimination:
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race,
ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and
integrity.

Competence:
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through
lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as
a whole.

Legality:
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

Animal Care:
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not
conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.

Human Subjects Protection:

When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and
maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy.

Research Misconducts
What are research misconducts?

(a) Fabrication - making up data or results and recording or reporting them.

(b) Falsification - manipulating research materials, or changing or omitting data or results

such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record.

(c) Plagiarism - the copying of another person's ideas, processes, results, or words
without giving appropriate credit.
Solution: paraphrase the text and cite the source of information
Paraphrasing means:
- Writing your own rendition of essential information and ideas
expressed by someone else, presented in a new form.
- Writing information or ideas based on what you have understood.

(d) Research misconduct does not include honest error or differences of opinion.

3. Review of Related Literature

Review of Related Literature is ccomposed of discussions of facts and
principles to which the present study is related. These are materials which are
found in books, encyclopedias, professional journals, magazines, newspapers,
websites, and other publications.
 Importance, Purposes, and Functions of Related Literature

1. It helps or guides the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research

problem or topic
2. It helps the investigator understand his topic or research better.
3. It ensures that there will be no duplication of other studies.
4. It provides the conceptual or theoretical framework of the planned research
5. It gives the researcher a feeling of confidence
6. It provides information about the research methods used
7. It provides findings and conclusions of past investigations

Characteristics of Related Literature Materials

1. The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible

2. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased
3. Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study
4. Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts
or data to make them valid and reliable.

4. Research Proposal

What is a research proposal?

A research proposal is a concise and coherent summary of your proposed

research. It sets out the central issues or questions that you intend to address. It outlines
the general area of study within which your research falls, referring to the current state of
knowledge and any recent debates on the topic. It also demonstrates the originality of
your proposed research.

The proposal is the most important document that you submit as part of the
application process. It gives you an opportunity to demonstrate that you have the aptitude
for graduate level research, for example, by demonstrating that you have the ability to
communicate complex ideas clearly, concisely and critically. The proposal also helps us
to match your research interest with an appropriate supervisor.

A research proposal comprises answers to these basic questions:

 What is the purpose of this research? What are we trying to find out?
 How will the proposed research answer these questions?
 Why is this research worth doing? Or, what will we learn, and why is it worth
knowing?

What should you include in the proposal?

Regardless of whether you are applying for the MJur, MPhil or PhD programmes, your
research proposal should normally include the following information:

1. Title
This is just a tentative title for your intended research. You will be able to revise
your title during the course of your research if you are accepted for admission.
Examples of the thesis titles of some of our current and recent research students
can be seen on our Current Projects page.

2. Background or Rationale

You should explain the broad background against which you will conduct your research.
You should include a brief overview of the general area of study within which your
proposed research falls, summarising the current state of knowledge and recent debates
on the topic. This will allow you to demonstrate a familiarity with the relevant field as well
as the ability to communicate clearly and concisely.

3. Research Questions
The proposal should set out the central aims and questions that will guide your
research. Before writing your proposal, you should take time to reflect on the key
questions that you are seeking to answer. Many research proposals are too broad, so
reflecting on your key research questions is a good way to make sure that your project is
sufficiently narrow and feasible (i.e. one that is likely to be completed with the normal
period for a MJur, MPhil or PhD degree).
You might find it helpful to prioritize one or two main questions, from which you
can then derive a number of secondary research questions. The proposal should also
explain your intended approach to answering the questions: will your approach be
empirical, doctrinal or theoretical etc?

4. Significance of Research

The proposal should demonstrate the originality of your intended research. You should
therefore explain why your research is important (for example, by explaining how your
research builds on and adds to the current state of knowledge in the field or by setting
out reasons why it is timely to research your proposed topic).

5. Literature Review

6. Research Methods
The proposal should outline your research methods, explaining how you are going
to conduct your research. Your methods may include visiting particular libraries or
archives, field work or interviews.
Most research is library-based. If your proposed research is library-based, you
should explain where your key resources (e.g. law reports, journal articles) are located
(in the Law School’s library, Westlaw etc). If you plan to conduct field work or collect
empirical data, you should provide details about this (e.g. if you plan interviews, who will
you interview? How many interviews will you conduct? Will there be problems of
access?). This section should also explain how you are going to analyse your research
findings.

7. Bibliography
The proposal should include a short bibliography identifying the most relevant
works for your topic.

When reviewing research proposal, thinks about your answers to these possible
questions:

Introduction:
 What is the central research problem?
 What is the topic of study related to that problem?
 What methods should be used to analyze the research problem?
 Why is this important research, what is its significance, and why should someone
reading the proposal care about the outcomes of the proposed study?

Literature Review:
 What do the authors agree on?
 Who applies similar approaches to analyzing the research problem?
 What are the major areas of disagreement, controversy, or debate?
 Which arguments are more persuasive, and why?
  How does your own work draw upon, depart from, synthesize, or add a new
perspective to what has been said in the literature?

Research Design and Methods

Preliminary Suppositions and Implications

 What might the results mean in regards to the theoretical framework that underpins
the study?
 What suggestions for subsequent research could arise from the potential
outcomes of the study?
 What will the results mean to practitioners in the natural settings of their
workplace?
 Will the results influence programs, methods, and/or forms of intervention?
 How might the results contribute to the solution of social, economic, or other types
of problems?
 Will the results influence policy decisions?
 In what way do individuals or groups benefit should your study be pursued?
 What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research?
 How will the results of the study be implemented, and what innovations will come
about?

Conclusion
The conclusion reiterates the importance or significance of your proposal and
provides a brief summary of the entire study.
Someone reading this section should come away with an understanding of:

 Why the study should be done,

 The specific purpose of the study and the research questions it attempts to answer,
 The decision to why the research design and methods used where chosen over
other options,
 The potential implications emerging from your proposed study of the research
problem, and
 A sense of how your study fits within the broader scholarship about the research
problem.