Lakshitha Senarathne

BSc (Hons), AMIE(SL)

The earliest large scale road construction is attributed
to Romans who constructed an extensive system of
roads radiating in many directions from Rome
 The next major development in the road construction occurred during
the regime of Napoleon.
 The significant contributions were given by Pierre Tresaguet in 1764.
 He developed a cheaper method of construction than the lavish and
locally unsuccessful revival of Roman practice
 The pavement used 200 mm pieces of quarried stone of a more compact
form and shaped such that they had at least one at side which was placed
on a compact formation. Smaller pieces of broken stones were then
compacted into the spaces between larger stones to provide a level
surface. Finally the running layer was made with a layer of 25 mm sized
broken stone.
 1. John Metcalf (1717 – 1810)
 He was working in England at the time when Tresaquet was
busy in France.
 He experimented road construction with a graded mixture of
earth and gravel.
 His method consisted of laying gravel layer upon a well
drained and dried sub-grade.
 Gravel layer was used to be compacted in due course of time,
by the action of the traffic using road.
 Metcalf constructed about 290 Km of road in northern parts of
England.
2. Thomas Telford (1757 – 1834)

 Thomas Telford was Scottish road engineer

and founder of the institution of civil
engineers.
 He used big size stones in foundation
wearing from 17 – 22 cm to develop a firm
base.
 He also provided cross drains under
foundation layer to keep the sub-grade in
dry condition.
 He proposed provision of cross drains at
intervals of about 90 m.
 Total thickness of road advocated by him
was about 38 cm.
3. John Macadam (1756 – 1838)

 He, for the first time put

forward entirely new concept
of road construction in 1827.
 He was a Scottish engineer
and was surveyor general of
roads in England.
 Important characteristic of his concept are as follows:
 he was the first time recognized the importance of sub-grade
compaction and drainage. To affect speedy surface drainage he
recommended suitable cross slope for the sub-grade.
 he realized that heavy foundation stones are not at all necessary. If
sub-grade is prepared properly and kept well drained it can be very
well bear the traffic load transmitted to it through foundation layer,
having smaller compacted thickness of small size broken stones.
 Size of the aggregate to be used in wearing course was decided
 Development of new road systems.
 Upgrading of existing road systems.
 A highway network having maximum benefit to the community of
the region within the available resources.
 A system capable of expansion and improvements according to
the anticipated economic progress of region in the future.
 A Strategy for carrying out the improvements with the least
inconvenience to the community, and within a specified time.
 Fact finding Survey.
 Interpretation of data of the fact finding survey
 Preparation of a Master plan.
 The preparation of a Phased Program.
1. FACT FINDING SURVEY
 This should be executed using following documents and
details.
 Published Reports
 Survey Maps
 Measurements and observation
 Data gathered by personal interview on a representative
sample of the community.

 This survey should include the following studies.

 FACT FINDING SURVEY
a. Financial Studies

 These studies are carried out to determine the increase in

the income to the investing organization as a result of the
road development scheme. The details to be included are
1. The present sources of income like taxes, vehicle registration fees etc. and the
probable increase in the future.

2. The living standards of the community and their probable improvements in the
future.
 FACT FINDING SURVEY

b. Economic Studies
 These studies are carried out to determine the
serviceability and benefit or to determine the economic
justification of the expenditure to be incurred. The details
should include
1. The classification and distribution of personal incomes.

2. The classification and distribution of population.

3. The classification and distribution of agricultural investments.

4. The classification and distribution of industrial investments.

5. The classification and distribution of existing facilities like communication, health,

education, roads etc.
 FACT FINDING SURVEY

c. Engineering studies
 These studies are carried out to arrive at a planned
programme of development based on the existing
topography and the geology of the region. The study should
include the following details.
1. Topographical survey of the region.

2. Material survey of the region, especially the location and the extent of road making
materials such as aggregate, gravel etc.

3. Natural drainage facilities including rivers, canals etc.

4. Areas that could be developed for housing, agriculture and industry.

 FACT FINDING SURVEY

d. Traffic and Road Use Studies

 This study is carried out to determine the present and the
future needs in motor transport facilities.
1. Traffic volumes including peak hour traffic.

2. Mass transportation facilities such as train services, air bases etc.

3. Origin and destination studies of traffic.

4. Probable future increases in the above aspects.

 2. INTERPRETATION OF DATA
 Details of fact finding survey should be processed and
presented in the form of index maps, and these maps
should indicate the following details.
1. Topography
2. Natural Drainage structures
3. Population centers with densities of population.
4. Agricultural areas; nature and quantities of produce.
5. Industrial areas; nature and quantities of produce.
6. Commercial Areas
7. Existing Highway network with traffic flow statistics.
8. Areas that could be developed for agricultural, Industrial, commercial and
residential purposes
9. Areas that are presently under traffic congestion, and requiring immediate
additional highways.
 INTERPRETATION OF DATA

 In addition to the above the following information is also

necessary for planning a highway network.
1. The performance of the present pavement structure, and any improvements to be
made in the design of new highways, taking into account the probable increases in
load and intensities of traffic in the future.

2. The rates of increase in population, agriculture, industry etc., and the rates of
increase of traffic generated by the development. (Note: - Comparison of similar
regions that are developed will indicate useful indices for projection.)
 3. PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN

 The preparation of master plan for a given location or

region is the process of selection of a single system of roads
which would serve the region best.
 The first step is to lay out several roads patterns or
networks connecting the developed and “the could be
developed “areas, the population settlements and the
production areas.
 PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN

Considerations
1. The use of the existing roads after the development of the
region.
2. The existing and the possible future changes in intensities
of population and the traffic generated by the change.
3. The existing and the possible changes in the future
agricultural and industrial productivity; and the traffic
generated by the change.
4. The topography, material availability and the natural
drainage pattern of the region.
 PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN

Junction

Main road
Central
Business
Area
 PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN

Radial roads

Central
Business Area

Built-up area

Rectangular
pattern
 PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN

Central
Ring road
Business Area

Radial road
PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN
 PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN

Grid

Central
Business Area

Radial road
PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN
 PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN

 The next step is to evaluate the various alternate proposals

of the road networks and arrive at a single system most
suitable to the region.
 The most convenient method that could be adopted is the
U.S. system known as the saturation system or the maximum
utility system.
 This system the optimum road length is obtained for the
region under study based on the maximum utility per unit
length of road.
 PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN

 The factors considered for the comparison of the road

networks
1. Agricultural productivity

2. Industrial productivity

3. Population
 PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN

Method of evaluation for road network

Step 01 - The total agricultural produce/year of the areas that
are adjoining to the proposed network is evaluated and
reduced to a single number, by assigning an arbitrary unit for
each unit weight of agricultural produce.
Example: every 10 tones of agricultural produce may be
assigned the number one. Hence, if the proposed network of
roads passes through agricultural land of the region that
produces 220 tones/ year the agricultural utility factor of the
road network is 22.
 PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN

Step 02 - The total industrial produce that is directly serviced

by the proposed network is similarly reduced to a single
number.
Example: if 150 tones of industrial goods are produced in
factories or industrial centers serviced by the proposed
network per year ; and if the unit assigned for the industrial
produce is two per 10 tones/year, the industrial utility factor
of the road network is 30.
 PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN

Step 03 - The total population that is served by the road is also

similarly reduced to a single number, but in the case of population;
the different population centers in the region under consideration
would have different intensities in population. Hence, similar
arbitrary units are assigned to similar groups of population.
Example
Population group 1 1 - 1000 persons – unit 0.5
Population group 2 1001 – 2500 persons - unit 1.0
Population group 3 2501 – 5000 persons - unit 1.5
Population group 4 5001 – 7500 persons - unit 2.0
 PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN

Step 04 - The total utility factor of the road system is obtained

by summing up agricultural productivity factor, industrial
productivity factor and population productivity factor the
average utility factor is obtained by diving the total utility
factor by the total length of roads in the network. This is
repeated for each proposed road network and the system of
road with the maximum value is chosen for implementation.
 PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN

Example

Number of population
Total Productivity per year
centers with population of
road
Proposal 1001 to
length 0001 to 2501 to
(Km) 2500 Agriculture Industry
1000 5000

A 350 20 10 5 75 30
B 400 23 12 6 85 33
C 475 24 13 7 90 35
 PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN

Consider proposal A
Agricultural utility factor = 75 /10 = 7.5
Industrial utility factor = (30 /10) x 2 = 6.0
Population utility factor = (20 × 0.50) + (10 × 1.0) + (5×1.5)
= 27.5
Total utility factor =41.0
Average utility factor =41.0/350
=0.117
Similarly the average utility factor for
Proposal B =0.119
Proposal C = 0.108
 4. PREPARATION OF A PHASED PROGRAM

 The utility factor of each road link in the network is listed in

the order of priority based on the utility per unit length of
the links.
 A comparison of the rate of availability of fiancés and the
rate of expenditure for road development based on the
priority list would yield the necessary phased program.
 The alignment of a highway is the layout of the center line of a
route on the ground.
 Horizontal plane - Bends & horizontal curves

 Vertical plane - Ascending grades, descending grades and vertical curves.

 There can be a number of alternate routes between two given

points.

A
 Final alignment depend on following requirements.
 The alignment should be of mild gradients and large radius curves to reduce driver
fatigue.

 The alignment should be the shortest possible route under the circumstances to save
travel time, and reduce operational costs.

 The alignment should be such that it is the lowest in cost of construction and
maintenance.

 An approximate comparative study of all possible alignments is

first made in order to reduce the number of alternate possible
routes. This exercise is known as reconnaissance. Then a
preliminary survey is carried out on the few alternate routes
chosen and detailed.
 It is not always possible to be found an alignment that could
satisfy all the conditions as above simultaneously.
 Short route which would be economical in travel time and
operation costs, but it could involve heavy construction and
maintenance cost in cutting, filling and bridging operations
to reduce the excessive gradients and vice versa.
 1. OBLIGATORY POINT

 Controlling points along an alignment that could deviate the

route from a straight path.
Class a
1. An intermediate town or village not lying directly along the route.
2. A suitable bridging point not lying along the direct route.
3. A pas through a valley in mountainous terrain to avoid gradients.
Class b
1. A pass through residential, agriculture or industrial area.
This cause heavy compensation to private land owner as
well as waste developed land.
2. A pass through an area subjected to flood and landslides,
or areas that are water logged and marshy. This would
result in heavy expenses for embankments, cutting and
retaining structures.
3. A pass through place of religious or cultural interest
which would hinder aesthetic activities of the population.
 2. Traffic

 Road alignment should be follow a pattern in traffic flow

considering the future development.
 Type of traffic should also be considered

3. Geometric Stands
 Gradient, Curves, Sight distance, Visibility should be satisfied
according to the alignment.
 4. Economy

 Cost of route
 Cost of initial construction / upgrading

 Cost of maintenance

 Cost of operation
 Cost of vehicle operation

 Cost of travel time

1. Expressways
2. Arterial Roads
3. Collector’s Roads
4. Local Streets
 1. Expressways/ Freeway

 For Speedy and heavy traffic

 Pedestrians not allowed
 Connect main markets, important places
 Complete separation of opposite moving traffic by a divider
or median
 Level crossings, sharp curves, steep gradients avoided
 Telephone facility, Highway Police, Servicing Stations,
Refreshment Facility available at regular intervals
 Connects major points of traffic generation
 Slow moving traffic is not allowed
 No loading unloading and parking allowed
 Full Access control

Southern Expressway
 2. Arterial Roads

 An arterial road or arterial thoroughfare is a high-capacity

urban road.
 Primary function of an arterial road is to deliver traffic from
collector roads to freeways or expressways, and between
urban centres at the highest level of service possible.
 Join central business district with outside residential areas
 Parking, loading, unloading prohibited
 Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at intersections
Melbourne, Australia
Beijing, China
 3. Collector Roads

 A collector road or distributor road is a low-to-moderate-

capacity road which serves to move traffic from local streets
to arterial roads.
 Unlike arterials, collector roads are designed to provide
access to residential properties.
 4. Local Roads

 These roads have the lowest speed limit, and carry low
volumes of traffic.
 In some areas, these roads may be unpaved.
 The Study and field work has to be carried out to obtain a
suitable alignment of a road.
1. Map study

2. reconnaissance
3. Preliminary survey
4. Final location survey
 1. MAP STUDY

 several probable alignments are fixed on the basis of existing

topographical maps and contour plans.
Features should be on map
1. Provincial and district boundaries.

2. Existing highways and railways

3. Rivers, canals, lakes, and marshy areas

4. Contour line

5. Public buildings. Such as Government offices, post offices, police station etc.

6. Place of worship such as temples, churches, kovils, mosques etc.

7. Areas under paddy cultivation, and Chena cultivation, jungle and bare lands.

8. All populated towns and villages.

 MAP STUDY

 Several alignments could be traced, according to the

factors discussed earlier by keeping in mind a suitable
maximum gradient.
 Use of aerial photographic maps is one of best method for
this study.
 In modern day designs, the Google map and aerial views
can be used and so that it is easier to identify all objects,
obstacles in 3D effect and the tracing is easier than the
earlier
 2. RECONNAISSANCE

 A simple field survey of each of the alignments proposed

from the map study.
 The purpose here is to collect a few items of additional
information not indicated in the maps, so that a comparative
study of the proposals could be made.
 RECONNAISSANCE
Details to be collected

1. Location of obligatory points through which the route should not pass, such
as permanent buildings, water, electricity and other service centers,
national monuments, and other similar items.
2. An approximate assessment of cutting, filling, rock blasting etc that would
be required to provide the gradients within limits.
3. Gradients, gradient lengths, radii and lengths of curves.
4. Sources of construction materials such as water, gravel, road metal, and
distances of transport of material.
5. Type of soil along the alignment, and the probable type and thickness of the
bases required for each alignment.
6. Existing land use and the probable developments in the future of the lands
through which the alignment would pass.
7. Number, type, and costs of drainage structures such as culverts minor and
major bridges.
 3. PRELIMINARY SURVEY

 The main objective of the preliminary survey is to subject the

alternate proposals of the reconnaissance and eliminate all
but one alignment that would cost the minimum in
construction, maintenance and vehicle operations.
 PRELIMINARY SURVEY
Procedure

1. Establish accurately the traverse of each alignment on the

ground. Record and plot all features given below that are
within 50m on either side of the center line.
a) Residential, commercial , industrial and other permanent
building with their walls, fences and other boundaries,
b) Roads, foot paths, driveways and railway crossings.
c) Natural water courses, ponds, lakes swamps, wells, irrigation
channels and any existing drainage structures.
d) Industrial and agricultural land

e) Any other feature of the land that would affect the final location
 PRELIMINARY SURVEY
Procedure

2. Carry out leveling work to obtained the center line profile

and establish cross- sections at suitable intervals.
3. Carry out soil survey along the center line to a depth of
about 2m, and visually classify the soil to establish its
Suitability as a road base.
4. Establish the highest ground water level and flood level.
 PRELIMINARY SURVEY
Cost should be calculated from above detail

1. Acquisition and compensation to private land owners.

2. Cutting, filling and leveling.
3. Pavement structures.
4. Retaining, bridging and similar masonry or concrete
structures.
5. Vehicle operation.
 4. FINAL LOCATION SURVEY AND PROJECT
FORMULATION

Purpose of final location survey

1. Establish the center line of the alignment.
2. Establish the road profile and levels of the proposed road.
3. Prepare construction details of the pavement structure.
4. Prepare construction details of structural items, such as culverts
bridges, drains, retaining walls etc.
5. Prepare specifications for all items of works.
6. Take out quantities, prepare a bill of quantities and work out an estimate
of cost.
7. Schedule and list details of land acquisitions and compensations.
 FINAL LOCATION SURVEY

 Alignment
 The final alignment as selected from the preliminary survey is
transferred to the field by driving stakes at about 30m intervals in
straight stretches.
 Stakes are also driven at shorter intervals on tangents to curves, and on
curves.
 Any minor adjustments to the alignments, made necessary by the
ground conditions, should be carried out , detailed and noted.
 FINAL LOCATION SURVEY

 Surveying and leveling

 Leveling and surveying is carried out along the centerline as well as
on cross-sections at intervals of 30m or closer depending on the
change in topography levels. Cross-sections should be carried out to a
distance of 15 to 20 m on either side of the centerline.
 At crossing over waterways, roads, railway lines etc; the surveying and
leveling should be carried out to a considerable distance away from
the centerline.
 All topographical features, buildings, telephone and electricity
installations and other details should be noted
 FINAL LOCATION SURVEY

 Soil Investigation
 Samples of soils should be taken along the trace to depths of about 3m
and subject to laboratory tests. The design of the base wearing coarse
etc should be based on these results.

 Preparation of site plan

 From the above details the field site plans should be prepared showing
the alignment and change including details of boundaries, curves,
drainage, crossings, protective works, permanent buildings and all
other natural and structural features.
 The scale adopted for the detail plans could be one in 2000 or one in
1000 depending on the terrain.
 FINAL LOCATION SURVEY

 Preparation of longitudinal section

 These are prepared on the basis of level line run along the centre of
the alignment and the fixed formation level.
 These should indicate details such as datum line, existing ground
surface, vertical profile of the proposed road and the positions of the
drainage crossings.
 Horizontal scale is kept the same as the site plans but the vertical scale
is enlarged 5 to 10 times the longitudinal scale.
 FINAL LOCATION SURVEY

 Preparation of cross-section
 Cross-sections are numbered on the site plans and detailed in these
sheets.
 These should indicate ground level, formation level, cross fall, and
drainage and pavement details.
 Scale of 1 in 100 or 1 in 200.
 FINAL LOCATION SURVEY

 Details of bridges, culverts and other structures including

drainage
 A highway project is not complete unless the details of the associated
structures such as retaining walls, breast walls, side drains, major
bridges, minor bridges, culverts etc. are included. Hence the designer
should consult the relevant specialists and prepare details plans for all
masonry and concrete structural works.
 FINAL LOCATION SURVEY

 Specifications
 Specifications should be prepared for all items of work involved in the
project.
 Specifications should describe in detail all materials of construction,
methods of construction, plant, machinery, and quality control
standards.
 Most highway authorities have their own general specification, then
only particular specification relevant to the project specially; to be
described.
 FINAL LOCATION SURVEY

 Estimates
 All items of work should be accurately measured and a bill of
quantities should be priced and a reasonable contingency should be
added for supervision, transport, and price fluctuations.
 It is a good practice to prepare bills of quantities for each group of
works, so that, if necessary, several contractors or gangs of workers
could be simultaneously employed to expedite the work.
 A road project could easily be divided into several groups of works
such as road formation paving, minor structural works, major structural
works etc
 FINAL LOCATION SURVEY

 Land acquisition for the project

 In any road development project, it is necessary to acquire private
land; and hence lists of acquisitions have to be made.
 The acquisition width should be about 10m wider than the road width
to enable subsequent changes in alignment to be carried out easily.
 The acquisition details are prepared from the survey drawings and
should include all buildings, details of other structures, extent of land
and produce.
 The acquisitions should be priced and the total compensation to be
paid out should be added as project costs.
 Purpose of realigning

 Improve the alignment and the geometrical elements of a

road to bear with higher speeds and higher traffic volumes.
 Divert the road to avoid flooding, land sliding or similar
impossible conditions in rainy weather.
 Steps

1. Preliminary survey and record all existing features on either

side of the platform. Observations on the center line of the
existing road at suitable intervals should be carried out to
determine the horizontal and the vertical curves. Spot levels
should also be obtained to yield gradients, cross-slopes
super elevations etc.
2. Prepare the plan of the existing road, and re- align to the
required condition. Any widening or strengthening of
bridges, culverts etc. should also be carried out.