Lakshitha Senarathne

BSc (Hons), AMIE(SL)

 Road Cross-Section Elements are those features
of a roadway which forms its effective width.
ROAD CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS

4
Roadway: The portion of a
highway, including shoulders,
for vehicular use. A divided
highway has two or more Traveled Way: The portion of
roadways. the roadway for the movement
of vehicles, exclusive of
shoulders.
 ROAD CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS

Two types:
 Basic elements  Ancillary elements
◦ Width of carriageway
◦ Safety fences
(including no. of lanes)
◦ Central reservation (or median ◦ Crash attenuation devices

strip) ◦ Anti-dazzle screen

◦ Shoulders ◦ Noise barriers
◦ Bus bays
◦ Camber of the carriageway
◦ Side-slopes of cuttings and
embankments
 The pavement or carriageway width depends on the

width of traffic lane and number of lanes. The carriageway

intended for one line of traffic movement may be called a

traffic lane. The lane width is determined on the basis of

the width of vehicle and the minimum side clearance

which may be provided for the safety.

 When the side clearance is increased (upto a certain limit)
there is an increase in operating speed of vehicles and hence
increase in capacity of the traffic lane.
 Dual carriageways are normally divided by a central
reservation of median strip.
 Central reservation has a number of uses:
 Separating
 Vehicles to recover
 Safe waiting place
 Left turning
 Space for road furniture
 Storage lanes
 A surfaced clear portion of the roadway cross-section
immediately adjacent to the carriageway edge.
 Space for vehicles with problems to park
 Space for drivers to stop and check maps, etc
 Space for evasive maneuvers to avoid collisions
 The sense of openness
 Help providing required sight distance
 Increased aesthetics
 Improved capacity
 Space for maintenance operations (snow & storage)
 Lateral clearance for signs and guardrails
 Discharge storm water away from the edge of pavement (reduce pavement
breakup)
 Structural support for the pavement
 Space for pedestrians and bicycles
 Cross slope or camber is the slope provided to the road
surface in the transverse direction to drain off the rain water
from the road surface.
 Usually the camber is provided on the straight roads by
raising the centre of the carriageway with respect to the
edges, forming a crown or highest point on the centre line.
The rate of camber usually designated by 1 in n or X% of
cross slope.
Recommended values of camber

Range of camber in areas

Type of Road Surface of rainfall range
Heavy Light

Cement Concrete or High type 1 in 50 1 in 60

1
bituminous surface (2.0%) (1.7%)

1 in 40 1 in 50
2 The bituminous surface
(2.5%) (2.0%)

Water bound macadam or gravel 1 in 33 1 in 40

3
pavement (3.0%) (2.5%)

1 in 25 1 in 33
4 Earth
(4.0%) (3.0%)
 Soil mechanics is used to determine the max. slope
 Slope 1 in 2 is used
 Slope 1 in 3 is preferred
 See Figure 19.11
 Necessary for traffic planning
 Necessary for design of road facilities
 Necessary for assessment of impact of traffic on the
environment (e.g. pollution control, accident
prevention and analysis)
Two – Lane Highway Four Lane Single Carriageway

Freeways =
Uninterrupted Flow
Dual Carriageways
 1. UN-INTERUPPTED TRAFFIC FLOW

 This is a condition, where vehicles are not required to stop by

any cause external to the traffic stream .
 Un-interrupted flow is classified according to the number of
lanes of traffic flow and the number of directions.

1. One lane-one way

This type of traffic flow is experienced in a single lane road
accommodating only a single file of vehicles moving in a one
direction.
2. Two lane –One way
This type of traffic flow is experienced in a two lane road,
where the traffic in both lanes move in the same directions

3. Two- lane-two way

This traffic flow situation arises in a two lane road, where traffic flow
permitted in opposite directions
4. Multi lane - one way
This traffic flow situation is experienced on a road with three
or more traffic lanes but allows traffic to move in one direction
only.
5. Multi lane - two way
This traffic is experienced on a road with three or more lanes and
allows traffic flow in opposite directions.
 2. INTERUPPTED TRAFFIC FLOW

 This a condition where vehicles are required to stop due to

causes outside the traffic stream such as road signs, traffic
signals usually at grade intersections.
1. Crossing movements
These movements occur, when two traffic streams cross each
other

2. Turning movements
These movements occur, when vehicles from one road turn on
to intersecting road.
1. Car following
This movement represents a vehicle following another vehicle ahead of it.
2. Lane changing
This movement represents a vehicle
crossing to travel faster or to go ahead
of the vehicle in front by transferring to
adjacent lane.

3. Overtaking
This movement takes place in a two
lane, two-way stream similar to lane
changing, but the vehicle overtakes the
one in front by transferring to the other
lane meant for vehicles moving in the
opposite directions and returns to the
original lane after over taking.
4. Merging
This movement occurs, when a vehicle
in one stream merges with another
stream

5. Diverging
This movement occurs, when a vehicle
departs from one stream towards
another
6. Weaving
This movement takes place when two
streams of vehicle merge and after
mutual

7. Queuing
This is a situation, where a group of
stopped vehicles waits due to an
interruption
 MEASUREMENT OF TRAFFIC FLOW

 The number of vehicles (n) passing some designated

roadway point in a given time interval (t)
n
q
t
 Units typically vehicles/hour
 Volume typically refers to flow in an hour
 MEASUREMENT OF TRAFFIC FLOW

The total volume of traffic during a given period of time

(in whole days, greater than one but less than 365 days)
divided by the number of days in that time period.

The total yearly traffic volume divided by the number of

days in the year.
 MEASUREMENT OF TRAFFIC FLOW

This is defined as the number of vehicles passing a

given section of road during a specified hour.

The peak hour volume is the maximum number of

vehicle passing in an hour during a 24 hour a day.
 MEASUREMENT OF TRAFFIC FLOW

 It is the rate of change of distance, dx /dt, usually

expressed in miles per hour or kilometers per hour .
 The term traffic speed is used very loosely in describing
the rate of movement of traffic.
 But in traffic engineering, there are many different types
of speeds defined to describe the rate of movement of
traffic under specific conditions and for specific purpose.
 MEASUREMENT OF TRAFFIC FLOW

The instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a particular location.

The average speed maintained by a vehicle over a given

section of road, while the vehicle is in motion.

The effective speed, with which a vehicle travels a given

section of road, and is equal to the distance travelled
divided by the total time taken (running time +delay time)
 MEASUREMENT OF TRAFFIC FLOW

The average speed of all vehicles in a given length of a

lane at a particular instant of time.

The average of all vehicles passing a particular point of

a road over a given period of time.
 MEASUREMENT OF TRAFFIC FLOW

 Distance headway Dn t   Ln 1  g n t 

gn(t)
Ln-1
Dn(t)

 Time headway is the time between two successive

vehicles passing a point on the roadway.

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 MEASUREMENT OF TRAFFIC FLOW

 The number of vehicles occupying a specified length of

road lane at a given instant. Usually expressed in vehicles
per kilometer per lane.

K (Density) =N/L
=No. of vehicles /Length of lane
 CHARACTERISTICS OF TRAFFIC FLOW

1. Time
Variation of traffic flow with the time (Ex: month to month, week to week,
day to day, hour to hour)
2. Composition of traffic
Traffic (vehicle) mix in a stream of traffic .The composition of traffic
varies from one road to another
3. Classification or type of road

Classified as urban or rural

4. Type of service
type of service identifies the road as commuter, recreational or seasonal
travel road facility.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF TRAFFIC FLOW

1. Do not have well defined peak hour traffic flows, however on market
days or morning, hourly traffic volumes could be high during
certain hours.
2. Peak periods may occur during harvesting season.
3. On rural roads buses and Lorries constitute a high proportion of the
traffic stream.
4. In certain areas slow traffic (bicycles and carts) volume exceeds the
fast traffic (motor vehicles) volume.
5. Hourly percent of traffic during the day time hours generally varies
between five and nine percent.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF TRAFFIC FLOW

1. Morning and evening peak hour volumes are highly affected on

roads within the central business area. But these peak hour flows
may less affect due to by-pass roads or ring roads. The peak hour
volume can be as high as 10-12 per cent of the ADT on certain
urban roads.
2. Durations of peak hour flows may vary and a sustained peak hour
volume may be more critical than a high peak, which is sharp but of
short durations
 CHARACTERISTICS OF TRAFFIC FLOW

 Vehicles do not always run at the same speed. The spot speeds measured
at a particular location will vary considerably, due to the number and
type of vehicles and the condition of the roadway.
 The average speed vary according to the time of the day.
 Minimum speeds occur during the morning peak and increases as the
traffic flow decreases.
 The average speeds during the evening peak hour is slightly higher than
the morning peak hour.
 The highest travel speeds in the night and in the early hours of the
morning, where the traffic volumes are very low.
 The average speeds also vary according to the day of the week. The
average speeds recorded on Sundays will be the highest, since traffic
flow is very low on Sundays.
SPEED-DENSITY RELATIONSHIP

uf

uf = free flow speed

u (km/h)

kj = jam density

k (veh/km) kj
VOLUME –SPEED RELATIONSHIP

qmax
qmax = maximum flow
uopt = optimum speed
q (veh/h)

uopt
u (km/h)
45
VOLUME-DENSITY RELATIONSHIP

qmax qmax = maximum flow

kopt = optimum density
q (veh/h)

kopt
k (veh/km)
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 uf

u (km/h)
k (veh/km) kj
qmax qmax

q (veh/h)
q (veh/h)

uopt kopt
u (km/h) k (veh/km)
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 B
x
Spacing

1 Slope=dx/dt=speed
Distance

2
3
Headway
4
A A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6
7
8
9
10
11
Time t

B
48
Distance (x m)

Reduced
Speed
Zone

Time (t s)
Wave fronts formed by speed change at a speed
reduction zone

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 Simultaneous
reduction of speed
Distance (x m)

Simultaneous
increase of speed

Time (t s)

Wave front due to simultaneous increase

and decrease of speed

50
 c k
rt u
g
o vi n
m
w
A sl o
Distance (x m)

a
t of Wave front due to the
n y
o or
fr je
c t
introduction of a slow
a ve Tr
a
moving truck into the
W
A traffic stream
B Wave
front
B

Time (t s)

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 Wave fronts at the beginning and end of the red phase
of a traffic signal

Red phase
Distance (x m)

Time (t s)

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 Trafficstream conditions are governed by levels of q,
u and k.
 The conditions can be classified as A, B, C, D, E and F.
 These traffic stream conditions are called Levels of
Service.

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 LOS represented as
Level of regions in a speed Vs
Service A
(LOS A)
volume to capacity (v.c)
ratio diagram
Level of Service B
Operating speed (u)

(LOS B)

Level of Service C
(LOS C)

Level of Service D
(LOS D)

Level of Service E (LOS E)

Level of Service F
(LOS F)

Volume/Capacity (v.c)Ratio 1.0

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 Free flow condition.
 Presence of other vehicles not felt.
 High freedom to manoeuvre and to select speed.
 Best level of comfort to the driver.

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 Stable flow.
 Presence of other vehicles noticeable.

 Freedom to select speed is unaffected but freedom to

manoeuvre is declined.
 Lower level of comfort than in LOS A to the driver and rider.

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 Stable flow.
 Begins to be affected by presence of other vehicles.
 Vigilance (alertness) required in manoeuvring.
 Declined level of comfort than in LOS B to the driver and
rider.

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 Stable but high density flow.
 Freedom to select speed and manoeuvre is restricted.
 Poor level of comfort to drivers and to the pedestrians.
 A small increase in flow causes operational problems.

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 Low but uniform speed and flow at capacity level.
 Freedom to select speed and manoeuvre is extremely
difficult and needs forcing vehicles.
 Extremely poor level of comfort to drivers and pedestrians
and increases frustration.
 A small increase in flow causes pertubation and breakdown.

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 Forced or breakdown flow.
 Queues forming at points where the volume approaches
capacity and reaches stop and go situations.
 However, operating conditions of drivers and pedestrians are
good.

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 USES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME DATA

This data is used for,

a) Establishing trends in traffic volume
b) Determining annual travel in vehicle-km as economic justification for
proposed expenditure.
c) Computing accident rates
 USES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME DATA

This data is used for,

a) High way planning activities-developing major road systems, selecting
through roads route location
b) Highway improvement programmes -determining the need for and
priority of road improvements, road rehabilitation programmes.
c) Measuring the present demand for service by the road systems.
d) Evaluating the present traffic flow with respect to the capacity of the
existing road system.
e) Economic evaluation of road improvements, road rehabilitation
programmes
 USES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME DATA

These are used for,

a) Geometric design-determining the number and width of lanes,
channelization, and intersection design.
b) Determining deficiencies in capacity of urban roads
c) Traffic management schemes-designations of through roads one –way
roads
d) Justification of traffic management measures such as parking and
turning restrictions.
 USES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME DATA

These are used for,

a) Geometric design with respect to turning paths grades, cycle lanes etc.
b) Structural design of road pavements
c) Adjusting machine counts
 USES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME DATA

These are used for,

a) Design of small diameter roundabouts.
b) Channelization of traffic at an intersection.
c) Design of traffic signal settings.
 USES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME DATA

Example
In a traffic stream, the clear spacing between any two adjacent vehicles is
30m and the length of each vehicle is 6 m. The speed measurements
made at a particular instant of time gave following vehicle speed:
5 vehicle at 40km/hr
20 vehicle at 45km/hr
3 vehicle at 50km/hr
For this stream of vehicles find
(a) Density
(b) Space mean speed and
(c) Traffic volume.
 USES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME DATA

Distance between the front of one vehicle and the front of the adjacent
vehicle =30m+6m
=36m

Density is the number of vehicle per km (i.e.1000m)

Density (K) =1000/36
=27.7
i.e. 28 vehicles per km. (i.e. for 1000m)
 USES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME DATA

Space mean speed (V) = ((5x40) + (20x45) + (3x50))/28

=44.64km/hr
Traffic volume Q=K.V
27.7x 44.64 = 1236 Vehicles / hr