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Abstract — In this paper an optimal strategy for electric vehicle deployment of energy storage systems will allow both
(EV) charging is proposed to achieve the best network operating performing balancing services and ensuring energy generation
conditions, with the help of battery energy storage systems during night times.
(BESS), while integrating photovoltaic power plants (PV). The energy supply mode of EVs can be divided into several
The electric vehicles can both participate in demand response
types, that is: plug-in charging mode, battery swapping mode
(DR) and serve as energy storage facilities. They can respond to
DR signals, such as price variations or direct control messages by and wireless charging. The plug-in charging mode is divided
modulating their power consumption, thus providing necessary into two types in terms of coordination: unidirectional charging
flexibility to the grid operator. – grid to vehicle (G2V), and bidirectional charging – vehicle to
The simulations are performed on a test network, and the grid (V2G).
mathematical model has been implemented in Microsoft’s CPLEX Controlled charging and discharge of electric vehicles in
tool. The results have shown that in order to cope with the distribution power systems can reduce the peak demand on the
challenges generated by a large number of EVs, coordination of grid and generate an economic operation of electrical networks.
the EV charging not only reduces the difference between the peak Over the last decade the use of battery energy storage systems
and valley of the load demand, but also generates a number of
on different applications, such as smart grid and electric
favorable factors and improving the network operation.
vehicles, has been increasing rapidly.
To meet the challenge of the electric grid issued by a large consider the battery charging and
number of EV loads, the coordination of EV charging not only discharging of η = 96%.
reduces the difference between the load peak and valley with a t is the time interval index; we consider a
higher load rate, but also decreases system loss and improves time interval of Δt = 0.5 hours , thus
electric power quality (PQ). It is also envisioned to help cut resulting T = 48 time intervals within one
down the system operating cost and charging costs of EV users day.
[8]–[11]. cel(t) is the electricity price at time interval t, in
Electric vehicle charging and discharging management is an €/kWh;
essential component of the smart grids, especially in microgrids j is the index of an electrical vehicle, with
due to the high dependence on the local energy sources [12]– j = 1…m, where m is the number of
[17]. vehicles in a charging station (parking lot);
III. PROBLEM FORMULATION k is the index of a charging station, with
k = 1…n, where n is the number of the
This study aims at identifying the effects of different EV charging stations in the network.
charging strategies on a distribution network, with regard to
network loading, voltage profile, power losses accompanying The equality and inequality constraints are:
integration of renewable energy sources and battery energy
storage systems. In this paper two strategies for optimal A. Charging station constraints
scheduling of EV charging to achieve the best network These constraints refers to the maximum power
operating conditions are proposed, including by considering absorbed/injected by the kth charging station from the electrical
integration of PV plants and BESS. In order to analyze the grid at a specific instant of time:
worst case scenario, we assume that the EVs are scheduled to
start charging mainly during peak hours. This provides the grid
operator with an economical way to balance demand and
k
− Pmax ≤ PEV( j ,k ) (t ) ≤ Pmax
k
, ∀t ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (2)
j
supply, relying on EV batteries as storage facilities or energy
buffers thanks to the vehicle to grid (V2G) technology. k
where Pmax is the maximum absorbed/ injected power by the
Other technical or economic aspects may be taken into kth charging station; this limit can be imposed within the
account, such as reliability, electricity quality of the distribution specific agreements between the consumer and the energy
grid (harmonic, pollution, load balance, voltage drops, three- supplier in terms of the network loading, voltage levels,
phase unbalance), regulation of the distribution grid, the protection settings, etc.
economical operation of the distribution grid (grid loss, For case with unidirectional charging, equation (2) is:
transformer duration).
In this context, the mathematical problem is formulated to
0 ≤ PEV
( j ,k ) k
(t ) ≤ Pmax , ∀t ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (3)
find the best strategy for EV charging in the distribution j
network by considering both charging – grid to vehicle (G2V) –
and discharging (V2G) of the electrical vehicles, depending on
B. Individual EV constraints
the network operating conditions. The optimized strategy will
result in shifting the load mainly because of the electricity price 1) Power constraints, which refers to the maximum power
and the network loading. absorbed/injected by an EV at a specific instant of time:
When real-time electricity prices result in network ( j ,k ) ( j ,k ) ( j ,k )
congestions, the EVs can be considered for load shifting by − PEV ,max ≤ PEV (t ) ≤ PEV ,max , ∀t ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (4)
simply following a cost-minimizing charging program. Real-
time pricing is designed to provide consumers with hourly price ( j ,k )
where PEV ,max is the maximum absorbed/ injected power by
signals throughout and given day. This model allows a utility
the jth EV in the kth charging station.
company to earn a profit by sending proper price signals to the
For case with unidirectional charging, equation (3) is:
customers.
The algorithm performs the management of the EV charging ( j,k ) ( j,k )
stations, considering two scenarios: 1. the connection between
0 ≤ PEV (t ) ≤ PEV ,max , ∀t ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (5)
vehicles and grid is unidirectional: 2. the connection between
vehicles and grid is bidirectional. The EVs parked in the 2) Evolution and limits of the state of charge; this
charging station can be fed by chargers that collect information constraint refers to the variation in time of SOC and its
about the battery, such as state of charge (SOC), and other technical limits, i.e.:
specifications from the battery-management system equipped in
( j ,k )
EVs, based on the impulse response concept before charging. ( j ,k ) ( j ,k )
PEV (t ) ⋅ Δt
SOC (t ) = SOC (t − 1) + ( j,k )
⋅η ,
The objective is minimization of a cost function, i.e.: EEV ,max
( j ,k ) ∀t ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (6)
T n m PEV ( t ) ⋅ Δt
[ MIN ] Cost = ⋅ cel (t ) (1)
t =1 k =1 j =1 η SOCmin ≤ SOC
( j ,k ) ( j,k ) ( j ,k )
(t ) ≤ SOCmax ,
( j ,k ) ∀t ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (7)
where PEV (t ) is the control variable of the objective
function and represents the charging/ where SOC ( j ,k ) (t ) represents the state of charge at the time
discharging power at the time instant t for ( j ,k )
interval t for the jth EV in the kth charging station; EEV ,max is
the jth EV, found in any kth station; we
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the maximum energy of the jth EV in the kth charging station, Pload (t ) − PPV (t ) + PBESS (t ) + PEV
( j ,k ) grid
(t ) ≤ Pmax ⋅ 0.9 ,
( j ,k ) ( j ,k )
whereas SOCmin and SOCmax are the lower and upper limits k j
th th
of SOC for any j EV in any k charging station, respectively. ∀t ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (13)
For t = Tdep , state of charge of an EV battery at the time of
arrival and this is connected to charging station, coincides with where Pload(t) is the initial load of the whole grid at the
initial state of charge, SOCinit( j ,k )
, i.e.: time interval t, thus excluding the demand
from EVs and injected power from PV
power plants;
SOC ( j , k ) (t ) = SOCinit
( j,k )
, t = Tarriv ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (8)
PPV(t) – the power generated from PV power
plants at the time interval t;
3) State of charge for departure time (final SOC), by
PBESS(t) – the power absorbed/ injected from battery
which we ensure that the state of charge of an EV battery at the
( j ,k )
energy storage system at the time interval
time of departure, SOC (t ) , coincides with that desired by t; for a general case, we have
( j,k )
the owner, SOCdesired , i.e.: PBESS (t ) = PBESS
(i )
(t )
i
grid
Pmax – grid capacity, representing the rating of
SOC (final
j ,k ) ( j ,k )
(t ) = SOCdesired , t = Tdep ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (9)
the first feeder, in kW; it is related to the
maximum power that can be delivered
C. BESS constraints from the source. 0.9 has been chosen in
1) Power constraints, which refers to the maximum order to maintain a transmission margin in
power absorbed/injected by each BESS at a specific time the grid.
interval: 2) Power balance, by which we ensure that the power
absorbed from the grid equals the power balance inside the grid,
(i ) (i ) (i )
− PBESS ,max ≤ PBESS (t ) ≤ PBESS ,max (10) i.e.:
Pload (t ) − PPV (t ) + PBESS (t ) + Pch( j/,dsch
k)
(t ) = P grid (t ),
(i )
where PBESS (t ) charging/discharging power of the ith battery k j
Figure 2 shows the aggregated load curve (continuous • each charging station accommodates m = 10 vehicles;
line). Considering also the generation from the two PV plants, • constraints:
the load curve in the dashed line results.
Pmax
( j,k )
= 22 kW
m SOCmin = 20 %
Pmax = 150 kW
( j ,k )
SOCmax = 90 %
j =1
Additionally, the input data for the 10 EVs at the charging
stations CS1 are given in Table I. The characteristics of the
other charging stations are slightly different.
• power capacity
The coordinated charging control of the charging station, and (1)
the optimization is based on electricity price variation. The PBESS ,max = 100 kW ;
electricity price profile is taken from the OPCOM platform (2)
PBESS ,max = 50 kW .
(Romanian electricity market operator) for 26/05/2017 (Fig. 4).
It is easy to see that the electricity price profile is similar to the Using the price profile shown in Figure 4, the behavior of all
load curve, which means that during peak load hours the EVs during the 24 hours interval is achieved. As shown in
electricity price is high, while during load valley the electricity Figure 5, the scheduled charging mode of the EVs in the
price is lower. charging stations can differ very much from one scenario to the
other.
In the case of unidirectional mode of the EVs (Fig. 5a), two
of the charging stations absorb power from the grid during the
night and the few hours immediately after arrival to the home of
the EVs. Charging station CS1 includes cars that arrive to the
office building and need day charging.
When considering bidirectional operation of the charging
stations (Fig. 5b), the EVs are scheduled to charge/discharge in
such way to minimize the total electricity costs. During peak
hours, e.g. between 20:00 and 23:00, the charging stations inject
energy into the grid, while during the night hours, they absorb
power from the grid. During daylight hours the operating mode
Figure 4. Electricity price profile. depend on the EV requirements.
By considering the BESS in the electrical network, it can be
The following general assumptions are considered for the noticed an increase in the electricity consumption during the
electrical vehicles: night hours or when the PV plants injected power in the power
EV2017 www.evshow.ro
V. CONCLUSIONS
This paper proposes a linear programming based
mathematical problem employed for optimizing the EV
charging for two scenarios, G2V charging mode and V2G
charging mode, while considering mainly the electricity price,
a. Unidirectional charging mode (G2V) the technical and operation characteristics of vehicles and
integration of PV power plants and BESS.
As the electricity price is highly dependent on the load
profile at the national level, the proposed optimization strategy
for the total load (reference load, PV power plants, BESS and
EVs load) results in better exploitation of the power grid –
reduced peak load value, minimized operational cost of
electrical grid and maximized utilization of the PV power
plants.
Energy storage is a key technology for the integration of
renewable energy sources to the grid because with increasing
share of intermittent renewable energy generation, new tariffs
b. Bidirectional charging mode (V2G) with economic benefits for energy storage and active
Figure 5. Load curve at each charging station (CS1+CS+CS3) participation in the smart energy system is likely to occur.
The high power cost may be alleviated by a BESS that
The load curve of BESS varies as shown in Figure 6. smooth the grid power demand. Including BESS at the charging
station will in addition to reduced power charge, reduce grid
strain and benefit from low energy prices at off peak hours.
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EV2017 www.evshow.ro
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