Promoting battery energy storage systems to support
Electric Vehicle charging strategies in Smart Grids
Adrian Toni RADU1, Mircea EREMIA2, Lucian TOMA3
1, 2, 3
Department of Electrical Power Systems, University “Politehnica” Bucharest
1
toni.radu18@gmail.com; 2eremia1@yahoo.com; 3lucian.toma@upb.ro
Abstract — In this paper an optimal strategy for electric vehicle
(EV) charging is proposed to achieve the best network operating
conditions, with the help of battery energy storage systems
(BESS), while integrating photovoltaic power plants (PV).
The electric vehicles can both participate in demand response
(DR) and serve as energy storage facilities. They can respond to
DR signals, such as price variations or direct control messages by
modulating their power consumption, thus providing necessary
flexibility to the grid operator.
The simulations are performed on a test network, and the
mathematical model has been implemented in Microsoft’s CPLEX
tool. The results have shown that in order to cope with the
challenges generated by a large number of EVs, coordination of
the EV charging not only reduces the difference between the peak
and valley of the load demand, but also generates a number of
favorable factors and improving the network operation.
I. INTRODUCTION
There is an increased awareness at the society level regarding
the negative impact of using fossil fuel in transportation,
including urban air and noise pollution. The transport sector is a
major contributor to the world’s increasing CO2 emissions, and
clear political goals have been set to improve this situation.
Having more efficient vehicles and alternative fuels are
important advances, but the ultimate solution is electrical
propulsion using electricity generated by renewable sources.
Electricity systems need to ensure both system adequacy and
quality of service. The extent to which higher shares of EVs and
their demand for charging will impact electricity networks will
depend highly on the technologies and charging modes used.
Rising EV penetration is thus likely to have an impact on
low-voltage distribution grids in residential or commercial areas
first. In addition, EVs, in contrast with other loads on
distribution networks, are not stationary. A better understanding
of EV charging patterns and technologies will thus be necessary
to ensure their appropriate integration into distribution grids. A
controlled charging model allows for time-shifting and the
reduction of peak power on the grid.
On the other hand, as the number of the electrical vehicles is
increasing, the load demand will also increase, which needs
increasing the generation capacity. For this reason, there is a
need for increasing the generation capacities installed in
distribution networks, especially the PV systems, while
deployment of energy storage systems will allow both
performing balancing services and ensuring energy generation
during night times.
The energy supply mode of EVs can be divided into several
types, that is: plug-in charging mode, battery swapping mode
and wireless charging. The plug-in charging mode is divided
into two types in terms of coordination: unidirectional charging
– grid to vehicle (G2V), and bidirectional charging – vehicle to
grid (V2G).
Controlled charging and discharge of electric vehicles in
distribution power systems can reduce the peak demand on the
grid and generate an economic operation of electrical networks.
Over the last decade the use of battery energy storage systems
on different applications, such as smart grid and electric
vehicles, has been increasing rapidly.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Various strategies and models are presented in literature,
supporting the development of transportation electrification and
the expansion of renewable generation: managed charging –
evaluating the functionality and value of load management to
reduce charging costs, emergency backup power – exploring
strategies to enable the export of vehicle power to assist in grid
outages and disaster-recovery efforts, local power quality –
monitoring and enhance local power quality and improve grid
stability in scenarios with a high concentration of renewables,
bidirectional power flow – integrating vehicle-to-grid systems
for reducing peak-power demands.
There are two main types of charging and discharging control
strategies that have been proposed in the literature. The first
type includes the centralized methods where there exist a
control center that collects information and schedules EVs for
charging and discharging operations [1]–[3]. The second type
includes the decentralized approaches that allow users to decide
the charging schedules by themselves [4]–[6]. However, these
methods cannot guarantee the grid related constraints and
possibly lead to some critical problems, such as power outage.
In [7] different EV charging strategies to reduce the charging
costs and the peak charging consumption of a charging station
are proposed. These strategies are based on the interruption
(on/off) of EV charging.
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To meet the challenge of the electric grid issued by a large consider the battery charging and
number of EV loads, the coordination of EV charging not only discharging of η = 96%.
reduces the difference between the load peak and valley with a t is the time interval index; we consider a
higher load rate, but also decreases system loss and improves time interval of Δt = 0.5 hours , thus
electric power quality (PQ). It is also envisioned to help cut resulting T = 48 time intervals within one
down the system operating cost and charging costs of EV users day.
[8]–[11]. cel(t) is the electricity price at time interval t, in
Electric vehicle charging and discharging management is an €/kWh;
essential component of the smart grids, especially in microgrids j is the index of an electrical vehicle, with
due to the high dependence on the local energy sources [12]– j = 1…m, where m is the number of
[17]. vehicles in a charging station (parking lot);
III. PROBLEM FORMULATION k is the index of a charging station, with
k = 1…n, where n is the number of the
This study aims at identifying the effects of different EV charging stations in the network.
charging strategies on a distribution network, with regard to
network loading, voltage profile, power losses accompanying The equality and inequality constraints are:
integration of renewable energy sources and battery energy
storage systems. In this paper two strategies for optimal A. Charging station constraints
scheduling of EV charging to achieve the best network These constraints refers to the maximum power
operating conditions are proposed, including by considering absorbed/injected by the kth charging station from the electrical
integration of PV plants and BESS. In order to analyze the grid at a specific instant of time:
worst case scenario, we assume that the EVs are scheduled to
start charging mainly during peak hours. This provides the grid
operator with an economical way to balance demand and
k
− Pmax ≤  PEV( j ,k ) (t ) ≤ Pmax
k
, ∀t ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (2)
j
supply, relying on EV batteries as storage facilities or energy
buffers thanks to the vehicle to grid (V2G) technology. k
where Pmax is the maximum absorbed/ injected power by the
Other technical or economic aspects may be taken into kth charging station; this limit can be imposed within the
account, such as reliability, electricity quality of the distribution specific agreements between the consumer and the energy
grid (harmonic, pollution, load balance, voltage drops, three- supplier in terms of the network loading, voltage levels,
phase unbalance), regulation of the distribution grid, the protection settings, etc.
economical operation of the distribution grid (grid loss, For case with unidirectional charging, equation (2) is:
transformer duration).
In this context, the mathematical problem is formulated to
0 ≤  PEV
( j ,k ) k
(t ) ≤ Pmax , ∀t ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (3)
find the best strategy for EV charging in the distribution j
network by considering both charging – grid to vehicle (G2V) –
and discharging (V2G) of the electrical vehicles, depending on
B. Individual EV constraints
the network operating conditions. The optimized strategy will
result in shifting the load mainly because of the electricity price 1) Power constraints, which refers to the maximum power
and the network loading. absorbed/injected by an EV at a specific instant of time:
When real-time electricity prices result in network ( j ,k ) ( j ,k ) ( j ,k )
congestions, the EVs can be considered for load shifting by − PEV ,max ≤ PEV (t ) ≤ PEV ,max , ∀t ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (4)
simply following a cost-minimizing charging program. Real-
time pricing is designed to provide consumers with hourly price ( j ,k )
where PEV ,max is the maximum absorbed/ injected power by
signals throughout and given day. This model allows a utility
the jth EV in the kth charging station.
company to earn a profit by sending proper price signals to the
For case with unidirectional charging, equation (3) is:
customers.
The algorithm performs the management of the EV charging ( j,k ) ( j,k )
stations, considering two scenarios: 1. the connection between
0 ≤ PEV (t ) ≤ PEV ,max , ∀t ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (5)
vehicles and grid is unidirectional: 2. the connection between
vehicles and grid is bidirectional. The EVs parked in the 2) Evolution and limits of the state of charge; this
charging station can be fed by chargers that collect information constraint refers to the variation in time of SOC and its
about the battery, such as state of charge (SOC), and other technical limits, i.e.:
specifications from the battery-management system equipped in
( j ,k )
EVs, based on the impulse response concept before charging. ( j ,k ) ( j ,k )
PEV (t ) ⋅ Δt
SOC (t ) = SOC (t − 1) + ( j,k )
⋅η ,
The objective is minimization of a cost function, i.e.: EEV ,max

( j ,k ) ∀t ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (6)
T n m PEV ( t ) ⋅ Δt
[ MIN ] Cost =  ⋅ cel (t ) (1)
t =1 k =1 j =1 η SOCmin ≤ SOC
( j ,k ) ( j,k ) ( j ,k )
(t ) ≤ SOCmax ,
( j ,k ) ∀t ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (7)
where PEV (t ) is the control variable of the objective
function and represents the charging/ where SOC ( j ,k ) (t ) represents the state of charge at the time
discharging power at the time instant t for ( j ,k )
interval t for the jth EV in the kth charging station; EEV ,max is
the jth EV, found in any kth station; we
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the maximum energy of the jth EV in the kth charging station, Pload (t ) − PPV (t ) + PBESS (t ) +  PEV
( j ,k ) grid
(t ) ≤ Pmax ⋅ 0.9 ,
( j ,k ) ( j ,k )
whereas SOCmin and SOCmax are the lower and upper limits k j
th th
of SOC for any j EV in any k charging station, respectively. ∀t ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (13)
For t = Tdep , state of charge of an EV battery at the time of
arrival and this is connected to charging station, coincides with where Pload(t) is the initial load of the whole grid at the
initial state of charge, SOCinit( j ,k )
, i.e.: time interval t, thus excluding the demand
from EVs and injected power from PV
power plants;
SOC ( j , k ) (t ) = SOCinit
( j,k )
, t = Tarriv ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (8)
PPV(t) – the power generated from PV power
plants at the time interval t;
3) State of charge for departure time (final SOC), by
PBESS(t) – the power absorbed/ injected from battery
which we ensure that the state of charge of an EV battery at the
( j ,k )
energy storage system at the time interval
time of departure, SOC (t ) , coincides with that desired by t; for a general case, we have
( j,k )
the owner, SOCdesired , i.e.: PBESS (t ) =  PBESS
(i )
(t )
i
grid
Pmax – grid capacity, representing the rating of
SOC (final
j ,k ) ( j ,k )
(t ) = SOCdesired , t = Tdep ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (9)
the first feeder, in kW; it is related to the
maximum power that can be delivered
C. BESS constraints from the source. 0.9 has been chosen in
1) Power constraints, which refers to the maximum order to maintain a transmission margin in
power absorbed/injected by each BESS at a specific time the grid.
interval: 2) Power balance, by which we ensure that the power
absorbed from the grid equals the power balance inside the grid,
(i ) (i ) (i )
− PBESS ,max ≤ PBESS (t ) ≤ PBESS ,max (10) i.e.:
Pload (t ) − PPV (t ) + PBESS (t ) +  Pch( j/,dsch
k)
(t ) = P grid (t ),
(i )
where PBESS (t ) charging/discharging power of the ith battery k j

(positive values indicate that the battery is charging, and ∀t ; ∀j = 1, m ; ∀k = 1, n (14)

negative values indicate that the battery is discharging), and
(i )
PBESS IV. STUDY CASE
,max is the maximum power that can be absorbed/injected
by the ith battery. The simulations are performed on a test electrical distribution
2) Evolution and limits of the state of charge; this network as shown in Figure 1. Two photovoltaic power plants
constraint refers to the variation in time of SOC and its are considered, i.e. PV1 and PV2, are connected at the nodes
ST3 and ST5, and three charging stations (CS1, CS2, CS3) are
technical limits, i.e.:
installed at the nodes ST1, ST2, and ST4. In order to facilitate
(i )
PBESS (t ) ⋅ Δt their integration into the power grid and minimize the power
(i ) (i )
SOC BESS (t ) = SOCBESS (t − 1) + (i )
⋅ η , ∀t (11) fluctuations, installation of two battery energy storage systems,
EBESS ,max BESS1 and BESS2, at the nodes ST3 and ST5, is considered.
The charging of the electrical vehicles is done via a physical
connection with an on-board plug.
(i ) (i ) (i )
SOC BESS ,min ≤ SOC BESS (t ) ≤ SOC BESS ,max , ∀t (12) The scheme from Figure 1 is assumed to supplies 960
subscribers (consumers), including multi-family houses, single
(i ) family houses, schools, kindergartens, a medical clinic, office
where SOC BESS (t ) represents the state of charge of the ith buildings, supermarkets, public lighting which are located in
(i )
battery at the time interval t; E BESS ,max is the maximum energy
the same area.
(i ) (i )
of the ith battery, whereas SOCBESS ,min and SOC BESS ,max are
the lower and upper limits of SOC of the ith battery,
respectively.
We assume in this study that both the EVs and the BESS
are the same type, so that we sent the same
charging/discharging efficiency η.
D. Grid power constraints
1) Power capability, which refers to the maximum power
that can be delivered by the grid. This restriction is imposed to
ensure especially that the sum between the initial load and the
EV load will not exceed the network capacity in terms of
loading at any time interval. The presence of PV plant will
relax this constraint, i.e.:

Figure 1. The test distribution network

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Figure 2 shows the aggregated load curve (continuous • each charging station accommodates m = 10 vehicles;
line). Considering also the generation from the two PV plants, • constraints:
the load curve in the dashed line results.
 Pmax
( j,k )
= 22 kW
m  SOCmin = 20 %
 
 Pmax = 150 kW
( j ,k )
 SOCmax = 90 %
 j =1
Additionally, the input data for the 10 EVs at the charging
stations CS1 are given in Table I. The characteristics of the
other charging stations are slightly different.

Table I. Input data for the charging station CS1

Vehicle
Input Data
EV 1 EV2 EV3 EV4 EV5
Figure 2. Load curve o distribution network SOC init [%] 35 40 25 30 35
SOC final [%] 90 80 90 90 80
The generation curve of the PV plants varies as shown in Battery capacity
50 35 27 40 22
Figure 3. This plays as a barrier for renewable energy to be [kWh]
widely and efficiently used. Indeed, the day-ahead market Arrival Time
15:00 19:00 18:30 12:00 14:00
requires reliable production, and mismatches between [hour]
Departure Time
submitted bid and real-time injection are penalized. The EVs, [hour]
08:00 10:00 07:30 07:00 21:00
with their on-board batteries, can provide storage services Vehicle
through V2G technology, i.e. they absorb the surplus and Input Data
EV6 EV7 EV8 EV9 EV10
provides it back to the grid when necessary, to maintain a
SOC initial [%] 35 45 50 35 40
stable output level.
SOC final [%] 90 90 85 90 80
Battery capacity
35 27 40 50 22
[kWh]
Arrival Time
22:00 20:30 23:00 15:30 10:10
[hour]
Departure Time
10:00 09:00 12:00 10:30 17:50
[hour]

The following general assumptions are considered for the

battery energy storage systems:
• storage capacity:
(1)
E BESS ,max = 150 kWh ;
(2)
Figure 3. Power generated from photovoltaic power plants PV1+PV2. E BESS ,max = 100 kWh ;

The coordinated charging control of the charging station, and
the optimization is based on electricity price variation. The
electricity price profile is taken from the OPCOM platform
(Romanian electricity market operator) for 26/05/2017 (Fig. 4).
It is easy to see that the electricity price profile is similar to the
load curve, which means that during peak load hours the
electricity price is high, while during load valley the electricity
price is lower.
Figure 4. Electricity price profile.
The following general assumptions are considered for the
electrical vehicles:
• power capacity
(1)
PBESS ,max = 100 kW ;
(2)
PBESS ,max = 50 kW .
Using the price profile shown in Figure 4, the behavior of all
EVs during the 24 hours interval is achieved. As shown in
Figure 5, the scheduled charging mode of the EVs in the
charging stations can differ very much from one scenario to the
other.
In the case of unidirectional mode of the EVs (Fig. 5a), two
of the charging stations absorb power from the grid during the
night and the few hours immediately after arrival to the home of
the EVs. Charging station CS1 includes cars that arrive to the
office building and need day charging.
When considering bidirectional operation of the charging
stations (Fig. 5b), the EVs are scheduled to charge/discharge in
such way to minimize the total electricity costs. During peak
hours, e.g. between 20:00 and 23:00, the charging stations inject
energy into the grid, while during the night hours, they absorb
power from the grid. During daylight hours the operating mode
depend on the EV requirements.
By considering the BESS in the electrical network, it can be
noticed an increase in the electricity consumption during the
night hours or when the PV plants injected power in the power
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network, which corresponds to a low electricity price and inject
power back to the grid during peak loads and high price periods.
This means that a more optimal use of energy sources is
achieved, leading to reduced investments in the distribution
network because this systems is used as a buffer to minimize the
impact of fluctuating character of RES and massive number of
EVs.
a. Unidirectional charging mode (G2V)
b. Bidirectional charging mode (V2G)
Figure 5. Load curve at each charging station (CS1+CS+CS3)
The load curve of BESS varies as shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Load curve of each BESS.
Figure 7 illustrates the total load in the grid for three
scenarios: (i) reference (base load with PV power plants); (ii)
reference load with BESS and G2V charging mode; (iii)
reference load with BESS and V2G charging mode.
By inserting charging stations with optimize charging, the
maximum peak load achieved initially at 9 p.m. (2262 kW) was
minimized by 6.32% (2119 kW, at 6 p.m.) for V2G charging
mode and for G2V charging mode the peak load was minimized
with 5.57% (2136 kW, at 9 p.m.). This is a reaction in
accordance with the price profile which is similar to the load
profile.
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Figure 7: The total load curve for three scenarios
V. CONCLUSIONS
This paper proposes a linear programming based
mathematical problem employed for optimizing the EV
charging for two scenarios, G2V charging mode and V2G
charging mode, while considering mainly the electricity price,
the technical and operation characteristics of vehicles and
integration of PV power plants and BESS.
As the electricity price is highly dependent on the load
profile at the national level, the proposed optimization strategy
for the total load (reference load, PV power plants, BESS and
EVs load) results in better exploitation of the power grid –
reduced peak load value, minimized operational cost of
electrical grid and maximized utilization of the PV power
plants.
Energy storage is a key technology for the integration of
renewable energy sources to the grid because with increasing
share of intermittent renewable energy generation, new tariffs
with economic benefits for energy storage and active
participation in the smart energy system is likely to occur.
The high power cost may be alleviated by a BESS that
smooth the grid power demand. Including BESS at the charging
station will in addition to reduced power charge, reduce grid
strain and benefit from low energy prices at off peak hours.
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