Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880
DOI 10.1007/s00445-009-0271-0
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Eruptive style of the young high-Mg basaltic-andesite
Pelagatos scoria cone, southeast of México City
Marie-Noëlle Guilbaud & Claus Siebe &
Javier Agustín-Flores
Received: 5 March 2008 / Accepted: 2 March 2009 / Published online: 31 March 2009
# Springer-Verlag 2009
Abstract The eruption of the Pelagatos scoria cone in the
Sierra Chichinautzin monogenetic field near the southern
suburbs of Mexico City occurred less than 14,000 years
ago. The eruption initiated at a fissure with an effusive
phase that formed a 7-km-long lava flow, and continued
with a phase of alternating and/or simultaneous explosive
and effusive activity that built a 50-m-high scoria cone on
the western end of the fissure and formed a compound lava
flow-field near the vent. The eruption ended with the
emplacement of a short lava flow that breached the cone
and was accompanied by weak explosions at the crater.
Products consist of a microlite-rich high-Mg basaltic
andesite. Samples were analyzed to determine the magma’s
initial properties as well as the effects of degassing-induced
crystallization on eruptive style. Although distal ash fallout
deposits from this eruption are not preserved, a recent
quarry exposes a large section of the scoria cone. Detailed
study of exposed layers allows us to elucidate the mode of
cone-building activity. Petrological and textural data,
combined with models calibrated by experimental work
and melt-inclusion analyses of similar magmas elsewhere,
indicate that the magma was initially hot (>1,200°C), gas-
rich (up to 5 wt.% H2O), crystal-poor (~10 vol.% Fo90
olivine phenocrysts) and thus poorly viscous (40–80 Pa s).
During the early phase, low magma ascent velocity at the
fissure vent allowed low-viscosity magma to degas and
crystallize during ascent, producing lava flows with
Editorial responsibility: J. White
M.-N. Guilbaud (*) : C. Siebe : J. Agustín-Flores
Departamento de Vulcanología, Instituto de Geofísica,
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,
Ciudad Universitaria,
Coyoacán, México D.F., México
e-mail: m.guilbaud@geofisica.unam.mx
elevated crystal contents at T < 1,100°C, and blocky
surfaces. Later, the closure of the fissure by cooling dikes
focused the magma flow at a narrow section of the fissure.
This led to an increased magma ascent velocity. Rapid and
shallow degassing (<3 km deep) triggered ~40 vol.%
microlite crystallization. Limited times for gas-escape and
higher magma viscosity (6×105–4×106 Pa s) drove strong
explosions of highly (60–80 vol.%) and finely vesicular
magma. Coarse clasts broke on landing, which implies
brittle behavior due to complete solidification. This requires
sufficient time to cool and in turn implies ejection heights
of over 1 km, which is much higher than “normal”
Strombolian activity. Hence, magma viscosity significantly
impacts eruption style at monogenetic volcanoes because
it affects the kinetics of shallow degassing. The long-
lasting eruptions of Jorullo and Paricutin, which produced
similar magmas in western México, were more explosive.
This can be related to higher magma fluxes and total
erupted volumes. Implications of this study are important
because basaltic andesites are commonly erupted to form
monogenetic scoria cones of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic
Belt.
Keywords Monogenetic volcanism . Basaltic andesite .
Sierra Chichinautzin . Strombolian activity . Scoria cone .
Pelagatos . Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt
Introduction
Because of their small size, simple morphology (e.g., Porter
1972; Wood 1980), and mafic to intermediate composition,
it is often not recognized that scoria cones can display a
wide variety of eruptive styles. These styles can range from
relatively harmless Hawaiian lava fountaining (Head and
860
Wilson 1989) to short-reaching ballistic Strombolian bursts
(McGetchin et al. 1974), up to violent-Strombolian or sub-
Plinian explosions with high eruptive columns and consid-
erable ash-and-gas emissions (Valentine et al. 2005;
Valentine et al. 2007; Valentine and Gregg 2008; Pioli et
al. 2008). Such variations are thought to arise from the
sharp changes that rapidly-decompressed gas-rich magmas
experience at shallow levels. Of these, degassing-induced
crystallization is believed to strongly affect magma viscos-
ity, which may ultimately control the intensity of magma
fragmentation (e.g., Taddeucci et al. 2004; Polacci et al.
2006; Sable et al. 2006; Lautze and Houghton 2007; Pioli
et al. 2008). Other factors that intervene in the eruptive
style are the inevitable evolution of the feeding system and
vent geometry during the eruption. For example, in long-
lasting eruptions, a conduit may develop within the cone
(e.g. Keating et al. 2008), promoting efficient magma–gas
segregation (Pioli et al. 2008), or a shallow reservoir may
form underneath it (Valentine and Krogh 2006), favoring
some degree of crustal contamination and enhanced
shallow degassing (McBirney et al. 1987; Johnson et al.
2008). Many variables are involved in the system, which
makes these processes still not well understood.
This paper focuses on a recent (<14,000 years B.P.)
monogenetic volcano that formed within the potentially
active Sierra Chichinautzin volcanic field (SCVF) border-
ing Mexico City. The eruption featured a main, fissure-fed
effusive phase and a later explosive phase that formed a
small scoria cone at one end of the fissure. Products consist
of a phenocryst-poor and microlite-rich basaltic andesite,
which allows study of the effects of magma viscosity and
shallow crystallization on the eruptive style of a small
monogenetic volcano. Although distal ash fallout deposits
from this eruption are not preserved, a recent quarry
exposes a large stratigraphic section of the scoria cone.
Easy access to the interior beds of the cone allowed study
of the mode of cone-building activity.
After a brief review of potential hazards from monoge-
netic activity in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, the
products from the Pelagatos are described, and field,
grain-size, grain-shape, and density data of clasts in scoria
beds exposed throughout the main cone are presented. In
addition, compositional, petrographical, and textural data
are considered in order to reconstruct the eruption chronol-
ogy, interpret the mode of cone-building activity, and
discuss the changes that the magma experienced during
the course of the eruption and how these changes
influenced eruptive style. This eruption is then compared
with the historically documented eruptions of Jorullo and
Paricutin in western México, both of which involved
similar magma types. Peculiarities of the eruptive style of
magmas of intermediate composition (basaltic andesite) are
highlighted. This is of particular importance because scoria
Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880
cones of such composition are common in the Trans-
Mexican Volcanic Belt.
Background and hazards
The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB) is a volcanic
arc that is related to the subduction of the Cocos Plate
underneath the North American Plate (insert in Fig. 1a).
Besides stratovolcanoes, calderas and domes, the TMVB
includes more than 3,000 scoria cones of Quaternary age.
Scoria cones are not distributed evenly in the TMVB but
form clusters or “fields”. The most prominent of these
fields is the ~40,000 km2 Michoacán-Guanajuato volcanic
field that consists of ~900 Quaternary edifices including
the historical Paricutin (1943–1952) and Jorullo (1759–
1774) cones for which eyewitnesses accounts exist (e.g.,
Foshag and Gonzalez 1956; Hasenaka and Carmichael
1985; Luhr and Simkin 1993). The Sierra Chichinautzin
Volcanic Field (SCVF) borders the south of México City,
one of the largest cities in the world and the economic and
political capital of Mexico. It consists of more than 220
monogenetic vents, most of which are scoria cones
(Bloomfield 1975; Martin Del Pozzo 1982; Márquez et
al. 1999). Radiocarbon dating of young volcanic products
indicates that a minimum of eight scoria cone eruptions
occurred within the SCVF during the last 10,000 years
(Siebe et al. 2005). The last eruption occurred at Xitle
~1,670 years B.P. (Siebe 2000). This indicates that the
SCVF should be considered potentially active. Future
monogenetic activity in this area would pose important
hazards (Siebe et al. 2004a, 2005). The compositional
range of eruptive products and the distribution of volcanic
centers within the SCVF are roughly known (see: Mooser
et al. 1974; Bloomfield 1975; Martin Del Pozzo 1982;
Márquez et al. 1999; Wallace and Carmichael 1999;
Cervantes and Wallace 2003; Siebe et al. 2004a, 2004b,
2005; Schaaf et al. 2005). Yet, much more needs to be
understood about the age of the volcanoes and their
eruptive behavior. To partly fill this gap, this study
analyzed in detail the well-preserved and well-exposed
products of the young Pelagatos scoria cone eruption in
the eastern part of the SCVF. Products of the Pelagatos are
among the most primitive of the SCVF (see sample CHI-
70 of Márquez and de Ignacio 2002, sample 96365 of
Schaaf et al. 2005; this study). They share the singular
characteristics of high-Mg andesites, which are high
contents of compatible elements (MgO, Ni, Cr, low FeO/
MgO) and the occurrence of Mg-rich olivine phenocrysts
with Cr-spinel inclusions (e.g. Tatsumi and Ishizaka
1982). Results of this study shed light on the processes
that govern monogenetic eruptions of phenocryst-poor
basaltic andesite magmas.
Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880 861

Location, distribution, morphology, and age
of Pelagatos products
Pelagatos is located 30 km west-northwest from Popocatépetl
stratovolcano and 20 km southeast from Mexico City
(Fig. 1a). The area includes several young cones and
associated lavas that are forested by pine trees, and older
cones and lavas that are overlain by cultivated soils
developed on tephra layers (Fig. 2). The Pelagatos eruption
formed a main scoria cone, two scoria ridges, and an
elongated lava flow-field which filled a depression between
cones and lavas pre-dating the eruption (Figs. 1b and 2).
The main cone and the two scoria ridges are aligned
roughly in an E–W direction (Fig. 1b). The main cone is
slightly asymmetric with an irregular crater rim. It is ~50 m
high, 300–350 m in diameter at its base, and its south side
is breached. With this data a geometric ratio (cone height/
basal width) of 0.14–0.17 was calculated for the cone. This
is close to the typical ratio of 0.18 reported by Porter (1972)
for young cones. A section through the south-western flank
of the cone is exposed by a quarry at location N19°08′33.0″
W98°58′17.1″. A blocky lava flow issued from a high level
on the cone and now covers part of the eastern cone flank.
It may be a crater overflow or a rootless flow formed by
coalescence of pyroclasts landing hot on the cone flank
(e.g. Head and Wilson 1989). Direct evidence for the latter
is however missing and welding is a rare feature within the
deposits. The easternmost scoria ridge (600 m from the
main cone) is ~180 m long and <40 m high, and is curved
on the eastern end, displaying a half-moon shape. Scoria
mounds <1 m in height and several meters in length were
found at the base of the eastern margin of the ridge on the
downflow side. These mounds are aligned parallel to flow
direction. The scoria ridge located 400 m east from the

Fig. 1 a Location of Pelagatos

(<14,000 years B.P.) and Xitle North American Plate MEXICO CITY
(~1670 years B.P.) scoria cones
in the SCVF. Note the growth of
Mexico City to the south, in- TMVB
Xitle 19˚15'
vading the volcanic field. Inset:
map showing the location of the
Sierra Chichinauzin Volcanic
Field (SCVF) in the subduction- SCVF Pelagatos Popocatépetl
related Trans-Mexican Volcanic Cocos
Plate 19˚00'
Belt (TMVB). Major stratovol-
500 km
canoes are shown by filled tri-
angular symbols in the inset. b
Detailed map of the Pelagatos SCVF
cone, scoria ridges, and lava
flow-field. Dots indicate lava 18˚45'
sampling locations. The location 30 km
and name of older cones that
diverted the Pelagatos lava flow a 99˚20' 99˚00' 98˚40'
are also indicated
exic lta
ity

inferred fissure
oC
To M ilpa A

2900 m altitude above sea level

To M

m
00
29
main PG18 m
scoria 00
cone 27
hitepe
c
2800 m

ridges to Juc
quarry shea
P67 r zon PG16
PG10 EARLY es
P59
LATER FLOW
PG17
FLOWS
P61 PG15
PG13
Volcán
ec

Cohuazalo
tep
Oax

Volcán
Ahuazatepetl

Volcán Huehuel Volcán Huehuelcon 1 km

b
862
Cerro Del Agua cone Cilcuayo cone Tláloc cone
Pelagatos main cone
Cilcuayo lava shield
Pelagatos
lava field
Volcán
Ahuazatepetl Volcán
Cohuazalo
Volcán Tlapexcua
Fig. 2 Photograph towards the west taken by C.S. during a helicopter
flight on Dec. 29, 1994. The forested Pelagatos lava flow-field and
adjacent older farmed scoria cones are clearly discernible
main cone is ~60 m long, ~10 m high, and slightly curved.
The top of the ridge is made of locally exposed layers of
partly-welded reddish scoria.
The lava flow field is ~7 km long and 0.5 to 1 km wide
(Figs. 1b and 2). It comprises a main flow with lateral shear
zones and lobate margins. The proximal 1.5 km of the flow
is covered by a superposition of smaller flows that form a
distinct platform banking against the scoria ridges to the
north (“later flows” in Fig. 1b). Spatial relationships
suggest that the main flow came early from a fissure vent
stretching from the main cone to the easternmost scoria
ridge. Late flows were apparently emitted from the western
end of the fissure, and post-dated the formation of the
scoria ridges. Some may pre-date the formation of the
scoria cone. The last flow emerges from the cone’s breach
and its source is covered by bombs.
The area covered by the flows was measured at 4.9 km2
(estimated by importing a contour of the flow field drawn
on the computer into Scion Image processing software),
and 5.2 km2, using a digital planimeter and a 1/50,000
topographic map. Flows are 7.5 m-thick on average, giving
a bulk lava volume of 3.7–3.9×107 m3 and 3.1–3.5×107 m3
DRE (average vesicularity of 10 vol.%). The bulk volume
of the main cone is 1.7×106 m3 (Márquez et al. 1999) and
0.68×106 m3 DRE (average vesicularity of 60 vol.%). The
cone scoria thus represents only ~0.02 vol.% of the total
erupted DRE volume (neglecting the scoria ridges). It is
worth mentioning that no ash blanket related to this
eruption was found extending beyond the vent area. A
>1 m-thick ash layer cropping out at nearby exposures is
Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880
rich in plagioclase phenocrysts and therefore quite different
from the olivine-bearing Pelagatos products. It seems that
ash fallout deposits from Pelagatos were relatively thin (few
cm?) and easy to erode, given that older ash deposits
belonging to other nearby cones are tens of cm thick and
well-preserved.
The Tutti Frutti plinian pumice from Popocatépetl dated
at ~14,000 years B.P. (Siebe et al. 1999) forms an important
marker horizon in the area. Its absence over the products
from Pelagatos indicates that the Pelagatos eruption is
younger than 14,000 years B.P. The base of the Pelagatos
lava and its contact with the underlying paleosol is not
exposed. This makes it difficult to obtain a conclusive
radiocarbon age for the eruption. Carbon found in reworked
products ponding against the margin of the lava flows
(sample P60, Fig. 1b) was dated at 2,520±105 years B.P. at
the Radiocarbon Laboratory, Department of Geosciences,
Tucson, Arizona. This date represents only a minimum age
for this eruption. Hence, a satisfactory radiocarbon age is
still pending.
Physical characteristics of scoria cone deposits
A recent quarry cuts an oblique section through the SW
flank of the main cone, exposing its uppermost layers
(Fig. 3). The NW–SE oriented face of the quarry displays
the outer-wall facies of the cone and a small outer part of
the crater fill overlying the crater wall unconformity
(Fig. 3; the terms used here are defined in figure 5 of
Houghton and Schmincke 1989). Note that it does not cut
down to the base of the cone which lies about 20 m farther
down. The crater fill consists of coarse beds (clasts >1 cm
in diameter, little ash) of (1) small (<10 cm), loose, dark-
grey to bluish clasts and (2) larger, viscously-deformed,
often weakly welded (partly sintered), pink oxidized clasts
up to 30 cm in length. By contrast, the outer-wall facies is
entirely composed of loose scoria clasts which are fresh,
dark, glassy, and often have an iridescent sheen, except in
the upper 2 m of the section where clasts are yellow, due to
surface weathering. Locally, they are partly covered by a
white coating (mostly amorphous silica) that was apparent-
ly precipitated by fumarolic steam from rainwater percolat-
ing through the still hot cone. Some clasts (<1 vol.%)
contain white, round to rectangular quartz aggregates of
metamorphic origin, which often display a thin reaction rim
of vesicular glass and clinopyroxene microlites.
The following paragraphs describe the outerwall facies.
Terminologies used are those by White and Houghton
(2006) and Houghton and Wilson (1989) and describe the
ranges in grain-size and vesicularity, respectively.
Fine-grained layers (coarse to very coarse ash) form
distinct horizons in the cone section. Most of these layers
Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880 863

define the base of the inversely-graded part of distinct beds collapses contribute to the rapid growth of an important
(see below). They were traced on a mosaic of photographs basal talus (Fig. 3).
of the quarry wall to image the structure of the cone. The
resulting representation (Fig. 3) reveals the slight asymme-
Clast morphologies and textures
try of the cone expressed by the location of the crater
unconformity 1–2 m below and a few meters to the east of
Clast morphologies and textures can reveal diagnostic
the point of highest elevation. Also, south-dipping beds are
features indicative of eruptive conditions. Microscopic
generally thicker than north-dipping beds and show clear
characteristics were observed under the scanning electron
downslope thickening. These two features can be explained
microscope (SEM) operated at the Laboratorio Universi-
by the construction of the cone on the older lava field of
tario de Petrología at UNAM, México.
nearby Cilcuayo volcano that slopes to the east (Fig. 2).
The different clast types found in the deposit are the
This situation promoted instability and avalanching of
following:
scoria forming beds deposited on the south side of the
cone. The paucity of faults deforming the beds seems to be 1. Large bombs (>10 cm in diameter; largest bomb: 80 cm
typical of deposits from outer-wall cone facies (Houghton long and 30 cm thick). These bombs are often broken,
and Schmincke 1989) and can be attributed to the granular exposing interiors with a coarsely-vesicular microcrystal-
nature of the material. Note that here the loose nature of the line core cut by curvi-planar fracture surfaces covered by
deposit makes the quarry face highly unstable. Frequent a rough, irregular, 0.2 to 0.5 cm-thick finely-vesicular

crater wall
NW unconformity crater fill
coarse deposit consisting of blue SE
highest point
to reddish, loose to partly-welded,
angular to contorded scoria clasts layers are continuous
obscured by rainwashed soil across vegetated area
Fig. 9b
weathered top

faults
fault
~7 m thick high concentration Fig. 9c
of bombs

led
mp
10 m

sa
nd
coarse layers
TALUS

da
thickening downslope

ge
log
on
5m
cti
se
Fig. 9a
Fig. 8

Fig. 3 Internal structure of the main Pelagatos cone as exposed in a
large quarry. The quarry wall runs at ca. N140° (~NW–SE) and cuts
across the SW flank of the cone. It does not expose the interior of the
central part of the cone nor its base but its outer and uppermost layers.
The sketch was constructed by outlining preferentially eroded fine-
grained horizons on a mosaic of high-resolution photographs of the
quarry wall shown below. These horizons are shown as fine dark lines
on the sketch. Field observations indicate that they correspond to the
base of each bed. Areas contoured with a broken line denote zones
where the quarry wall is hidden behind bushes and small trees, or
coated with mud. Note that distances are not to scale but distorted
because the drawing is based on a photo mosaic and photos were
taken from a point located closer to the right side of the quarry
864 Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880

Fig. 4 Photographs of different

clast types. a Large bomb in
coarse bed. Note broken interior
and coarsely-vesicular core. b
Composite bomb in finer-
grained bed. Bomb consists of
distinct clasts welded together.
Outer crust is thin, convoluted,
and coated by lapilli-size scoria.
c Angular vesicular clast with
thin crust on two sides and
coarsely-vesicular core bounded
by curvi-planar surfaces. d An-
gular vesicular clast with rough, a b
glassy, highly-stretched light-
brown outer crust on one side.
Note vesicle coarsening from
crust to core. e Rough vesicular
clast with ragged, highly-
stretched outer crust surround-
ing the clast. f Dense broken
clast with rounded smoothed
shape, and finely-vesicular core.
Note small size (<1 mm) and
deformation of vesicles, in
comparison to highly-vesicular
clasts

c d

5 cm
e f

glassy crust (Fig. 4a). Some are composite, i.e.,
composed of distinct clasts welded together (Fig. 4b).
Large, single bombs have dense cores that were
completely degassed before solidification. Most bombs
are elongate and parallel to bedding surfaces, but a few
are in an oblique position. Their abundance and size
decrease laterally from the cone summit downslope,
which can be related to their progressive break-up upon
rolling down, and the shorter flight distances of large
bombs. Young cones sometimes display a basal ring
made of large bombs that rolled down the slope without
breaking (e.g. McGetchin et al. 1974; Heiken 1978), a
feature not observable at Pelagatos.
2. Coarse clasts (16 mm–10 cm):
2.1. Coarse, angular vesicular clasts (~80–90 vol.% of
coarse clasts) are moderately-vesicular (60–
70 vol.%) clasts that have a coarsely-vesicular
core bounded on one to three sides by a ragged
viscously-stretched crust (Figs. 4c and d). They
are similar to broken-up parts of bombs (i.e.,
Fig. 4a). In thin-sections of glassy crust, vesicles
occur in a bimodal distribution. The first popula-
tion is <40 µm-across and consists of small
isolated vesicles. The second consists of larger
interconnected coalesced vesicles (Fig. 5a). The
proportion of each population ranges from 40 to
60% on back-scattered electron (BSE) micro-
scope images. Vesicles are notably coarser in the
core, where they form a tight network of round to
slightly deformed mm-sized vesicles with larger
cm-sized coalesced vesicles (Fig. 5b).
2.2. Rough vesicular clasts (~10–20%) are irregularly-
shaped vesicular clasts (70–80 vol.% vesicle
Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880 865

glassy crust core

500 mm 1 mm

Fig. 5 Textures of vesicular angular clasts. a Back-scattered electron lites are abundant in groundmass. b Scanning electron microscope
(BSE) microscope image of thin-section of fragment of glassy outer (SEM) image of fragment of coarsely-vesicular scoria core (sample
crust (sample P13). Note long coalesced vesicles and smaller, isolated P01). Note larger size of vesicles compared to crust samples. Large
vesicles. Vesicles are round to slightly elongated. Plagioclase micro- coalesced vesicles are surrounded by smaller, isolated vesicles

content) with extremely rough-jagged surficial to abundant <10-µm-size crystallites exposed by

glassy crusts that are highly-stretched at a mm-to- fracture surfaces (Fig. 7f). Note that there is a
cm scale and micro-vesicular (Fig. 4e). continuous gradation between sideromelane and
2.3. Angular dense clasts (<5%) are randomly- tachylite types (e.g. Heiken 1978).
distributed, poorly-vesicular (5–20 vol.%) clasts 3.3. Olivine phenocrysts with thin glass veneers (1–3%).
with smooth, rounded surfaces sometimes cut by
5–10 cm-spaced linear fractures. They are often
Clasts between 1 and 16 mm have characteristics
broken into very angular fragments that form
intermediate between coarse clasts and fines. They consist
jigsaw pieces of fusiform bombs or are randomly
of (1) angular crystalline tachylite-type clasts (Fig. 7d), (2)
dispersed in the beds. Cores often display <1 mm
irregular, rough, glassy sideromelane-type clasts (Fig. 7a),
vesicles stretched parallel to the outer clast
and (3) composites with both groundmass types. A few
surface (Fig. 4f).
dense clasts observed in the −4Φ fraction of sample P46
3. Fines (<1 mm):
display finely-vesicular mm-scale cauliflower-shaped sur-
3.1. Sideromelane clasts (65–95% of fines, see below) faces. Only two samples of platy clasts with fine-ash
are light-brown, delicate, irregularly shaped, coatings were found. These were 5 cm-long, 0.5 cm-thick,
translucent and frothy (70–90 vol.%). In thin-
section, they display a glassy matrix and dense,
small, round to elongated smoothly-shaped
vesicles, some of which are coalesced (A in
Fig. 6). On SEM images, they display smooth B
curved glass surfaces (Fig. 7b), tubular textures Ol Ol
(Fig. 7c), thin (<10 µm-across) highly stretched
Ol
glass filaments, and vesicles up to 2 mm in
diameter exposed by fracture surfaces (Fig. 7b).
C
3.2. Tachylite clasts (5–35%) comprise dark-brown to
black, angular, opaque clasts generally less vesicu-
lar than sideromelane (60–70 vol.%). In thin-
section, they show a devitrified to cryptocrystalline A
500 µm
matrix, and fewer but larger, coalesced vesicles than
in sideromelane clasts (B and C in Figs. 6, and 7e). Fig. 6 Photograph of ash fragments under the polarizing microscope.
On SEM images, they display slightly-irregular a Glassy sideromelane type with delicate outer surface and microlites.
b, c Tachylite fragments showing devitrified glass texture, large
glass surfaces with sparse to abundant µm-to-mm coalesced vesicles, and cluster of olivine microphenocrysts and laths
scale fractures arranged in parallel sets, and sparse of plagioclase microlites
866
Fig. 7 Scanning electron microscope images of scoria particles. Side-
romelane type: a Highly-vesicular glassy clast 8 mm-across; note
irregular, delicate surface and small size and dense packing of vesicles.
b Highly-vesicular 1 mm-across droplet broken on one side. c Close-up
of viscously-stretched flexible glassy skin formed on contact with
atmosphere (Heiken 1972). Tachylite type: d Coarsely-vesicular clast,
8 mm-across; note angular outer surface and larger size and higher
finely-vesicular, and had surface fractures resembling mud
cracks.
It is worth noting that all clasts were solid when
deposited. Only one bomb showed signs of having
deformed plastically upon impact. This bomb had a pink
(Fe-oxidized) crust on which small clasts were adhered by
sintering.
Grain-size, vesicularity, and componentry variations
The sequence of beds forming the SE side of the quarry
(Fig. 3) was studied in detail in the field. Samples from the
lower side of the section were accessible by standing on the
upper part of the talus and analyzed in the laboratory
(Fig. 8, analytical methods applied and results are included
in Appendix 1). An arbitrary distinction was made between
thick (>60 cm) and thin (<60 cm) beds. Individual beds
present a distinct inversely-graded fine-grained base that
grades from coarse ash to fine-to-medium lapilli upwards,
and is overlain by the main part of the bed (medium to
coarse lapilli and few bombs). The main part of the beds
often displays normal grading at the top (see below). The
fine base is best developed at thick beds. In three cases, the
main part and fine base of the bed were sampled and
Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880
degree of coalescence of vesicles compared to (a). e Moderately-
vesicular droplet broken on one side; fracture surface marked by µm-
size striae; note low amount and size of vesicles compared to (b). f
Close-up of microcrystalline surface of clast shown in (d); angular
equant crystals are probably olivines, and tiny laths are plagioclases;
surface draped by flexible glassy skin
processed separately (sample pairs: P33 and P34, P31 and
P32, and P47 and P48).
The sequence may be subdivided into three main units
on the basis of bed thickness and coarseness (Fig. 8).
Transitions between units are gradual.
Unit A consists of laterally-discontinuous, often inter-
nally heterogeneous, thin to moderately thick (<70 cm),
poorly-sorted (σΦ 1.75–1.93), medium lapilli (Md −2.2 to
−5.1Φ) beds (Figs. 8 and 9a) that often have a lenticular
shape with lateral pinching edges and undulating bound-
aries (Fig. 9a). Coarse clasts are concentrated in the middle
part of the beds, while the base and top of the beds are
distinctly finer-grained (Fig. 9a).
Beds of Unit B are generally thicker (60–300 cm) and
have better-sorted (σΦ 0.9–1.7), coarser interiors (Md −4.8
to −5.5Φ) (Figs. 8 and 9b). They are laterally continuous
over the entire cone’s slope, with the exception of the
uppermost bed of the unit, which transforms laterally into a
sequence of discontinuous thin beds (Fig. 3). Beds have
bases consisting of thin (<10 cm) reversely-graded fine-to-
medium lapilli (samples P47, P31, and P33) and main parts
composed of coarse lapilli sometimes fining to medium
lapilli toward the top (Fig. 9c). Internal heterogeneities
include fine-lapilli horizons that pinch out laterally, and
Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880 867

compositional
samples for

analysis
KEY

Weathered top
1800
medium to coarse lapilli scoria coarse interior of thick bed
fine lapilli scoria fine-grained base of thick bed
truncated lapilli horizons
thin bed (<60 cm)

1600 30 P36
40
P36
P23 30
20
20
10

crude
internal
C 0

30 P35
10

0
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
P36 bedding P36 20
10
0
P21

average of all
individual 50 P51
P35 40
1400 P35 thin bed 30
20
10
P19 crude P51 0
P51 internal

25 vol.%
40 P50
bedding 30
P50 P50 20
10
0 40
50 P34 P34
30
40
P17 30
1200 P34 P34 20
20
10 10
P42 P33 0
P33 P33 0
20 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

10

0
P15 P49 P49 50 P49
Level in section (cm from base)

40

LAVA
highly vesicular
30
20 40

coarse lapilli

Medium lapilli
10 P32
1000 0 30
well sorted

40 P32 20
poorly sorted

30
20 10
P13 10 0
0 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
30 P31
20

P32
B P32
10
0
40

P48
800 50 P48
30

40 20
30

Fine lapilli
20 10

P31 10
0 0
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
P31 30
P47
20
10
30
0
P48 P30
600 P11 P48 40
30
P30 20

20
10
P47 10
0
0
P47 30
P29 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

P09 P30 P30 20

10 30
0
P29 P29 P46
30 P46 20

400 P07 P46 P46 20

10
10

0 0
P45 P45
20 P45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

P05 P44 P44 10

0
P03 50
P44
20 40 P27
faint lamination
200 P27 A P27
10

0
30
20
10
30 P27
0
P26 P26 20
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
10 60
0 50 P26
30
P26 40
30
20
20
10
10
P01 0
0 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 >4 0
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

1 2 3 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 220 240 260 280

Stratigraphic log Units Sorting Median Average vesicularity Tachylite/ Bulk Ni (ppm) Proportion (wt.%) Proportion of clasts (%)
(see text) coefficient diameter (φ) (vol.%) sideromelane vs clast size range (φ) vs vesicularity range
(%) (vol.%)*

Fig. 8 Section studied at main cone quarry (see also Fig. 3). From left ity of clasts 16–32 mm, tachylite/sideromelane proportions in the 1Φ
to right: Stratigraphic log showing internal grading of beds and size fraction, and bulk Ni contents in samples across section. Grain-
location of samples studied by bulk analysis (left side of log) and size and vesicularity distribution histograms organized according to
sieving (right side). Section subdivided in three units (A, B and C). stratigraphic height. Vesicularity values recalculated from density
Variation of sorting, coarseness (median diameter), average vesicular- using DRE=2.6 g/cm3. See text for description

trains, lenses, or clusters of well-sorted, clast-supported, with a peak at grain-sizes −4 or −5Φ and a tail at grain-sizes
angular, coarse lapilli. smaller than −3Φ. The distributions of thin beds are less
Beds in Unit C are thinner than in Unit B, finer-grained, skewed, have a main mode at lower grain-sizes (−3 to
less-well sorted and laterally discontinuous (Figs. 8 and −2Φ), broader peaks, and higher relative proportions of
9b). Beds show crude vertical internal stratification over clasts smaller than −3Φ. The inversely-graded fine-grained
10–20 cm. The uppermost beds are strongly altered. bases of thick beds (samples P47, P31, and P33) have
The average vesicularity of clasts in the 16–32 mm poorly skewed to symmetrical distributions with broad
(−4Φ) size-range changes slightly, but not significantly peaks at small grain sizes (1 to −3Φ). Samples from the
through the sequence (Fig. 8). Clasts are highly vesicular latter are better sorted than samples from thin beds with
(average vesicularity=73±6 vol.%, average density: 0.76± similar Md. Note that the fine-grained base (P47) and
0.16, DRE=2.6 g/cm3). coarse interior (P48) of a thick bed spread the whole range
Histograms of grain-size and vesicularity distributions in coarseness and sorting measured in the samples.
provide additional insight into the nature of the deposits Vesicularity distributions of clasts in the 16–32 mm size
(Fig. 8). Grain-size distributions are different for (1) thick range are essentially unimodal (Fig. 8), and their shape or
beds, (2) thin beds, and (3) the fine base of thick beds. range does not vary with bed coarseness. They have a main
Thick beds have strongly coarsely-skewed distributions peak at 65–80 vol.%, with few clasts in the range 85–
868
broken bomb
1m
c c
b
Fig. 9 Photographs of bed sequences indicated on Fig. 3. a Base of
sequence (unit A). Broken bomb is the same as in Fig. 4b. Note lateral
discontinuity of fine-grained (coarse ash) horizons (broken white
lines). b Top of sequence (units B and C). From bottom to top:
laterally-continuous thick beds interleaved with thinner beds that
disappear laterally, changing into thinner, laterally discontinuous beds.
Trains of well-sorted coarse material are observable. Note fine-grained
90 vol.% (one sample) and in the range 50–60 vol.% (three
samples). One sample (P46) covers the entire Pelagatos
vesicularity range (51–87 vol.%, 0.34–1.29 g/cm3). The
densest fragments in this sample (50–60 vol.% vesicles)
have cauliflower-type surface textures (see above).
The proportions of sideromelane and tachylite clasts
were determined in the 1Φ size fraction of nine samples
covering the total range in bed coarseness. The plot of
tachylite/sideromelane versus bed coarseness reveals a
positive relationship (Fig. 10): tachylite proportions in-
crease with increasing proportions of coarse clasts (or
decreasing proportions of fines) in the deposit. In this
graph, the fine base of thick beds (samples P31 and P47)
Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880
Unit B
light-colored horizons marking the base of beds. Rectangular outline
on lower right marks left side of (c). c Close-up of a single coarse bed.
Note fine-grained material of variable thickness at the base and top of
each bed. At base of bed, on left side, fine-grained material
corresponds to pinching edge of thin lenticular bed (see b) whose
upper limit is delineated by broken white line
has tachylite proportions that correlate with the coarseness
of the main part of the corresponding beds (samples P32
and P48). This suggests that the fine base is the product of
the segregation of particles from the main part of the bed. In
other words, particles forming the fine base are the same as
small particles in the main part (see ‘Evidence for
avalanching processes’). This can also explain the better
sorting of fine bases in comparison to individual beds with
similar Md. The data collected do not support a linear
variation of tachylite proportions in the samples with
increasing stratigraphic height (Fig. 8). Samples from units
B and C tend to be richer in tachylite (>25 vol.%, Fig. 8)
because they were obtained from coarser beds.
Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880
35
Proportion of tachylite (%)
30
25
20
15
P35
10 P29 P26
P27 P45
P32 P47
5
P36 P31A
0 the vesicular bomb and dense angular clast samples, in
-6 -5 -4 -3
Median diameter (φ)
Fig. 10 Proportion of tachylite over sideromelane clasts versus
median diameter. Results were obtained by separating and counting
particles (>300 per sample) using a binocular microscope. Symbols
inside squares indicate samples from the fine-grained base of thick
coarse beds. Such a linear correlation is interpreted to be the result of
magma ascent rates that control the degree of magma cooling and
fragmentation (see text)
Composition and petrography of lava and scoria
Fresh scoria, bomb, and lava samples were collected for
chemical and petrographical analyses in order to constrain
the cooling, degassing, and crystallization of the magma
before and during eruption. Scoria samples from different
levels of the quarry section were studied to track variations
during cone-growth (see Fig. 8). All samples are angular
vesicular clasts belonging to the dominant type 2.1 (i.e.
‘Clast morphologies and textures’), with the exception of a
dense and angular clast that belongs to type 2.3 (sample
P42 on Fig. 8). Quenched glassy parts of the outer crust of
three vesicular samples from the base, middle, and top of
the section were analyzed for glass and crystal composi-
tions. They preserve the texture and composition of the
liquid magma when erupted explosively at the vent. For
comparison, the dense interior of a vesicular bomb sampled
from the base of the talus was also analyzed. Fresh vesicle-
poor lava samples were collected at proximal, medial, and
distal locations of the flow-field (Fig. 1b), to detect
variations in the composition and texture of lava emitted
during the eruption.
Whole rock analyses are reported in Table 1 and results
are plotted with the average scoria glass composition in
Fig. 11. All samples cover a relatively small range in bulk
rock compositions (52.94–54.81 SiO2 wt.%; 9.27–10.24
MgO wt.%, compositions normalized to 100%). MgO,
CaO, and FeO decrease with increasing SiO2 wt.%
(Fig. 11a–c). Low amounts of olivine±clinopyroxene±
plagioclase fractionation can explain such a trend. The
vesicular bomb and the dense angular clast plot at the less
evolved end of the trend (Fig. 11a–c), vesicular scoria
samples at the most evolved end, and lavas in an
869
intermediate position. Lavas define a smooth trend of
decreasing SiO2 content with increasing distance from the
vent (Fig. 11d). Proximal samples from the “later-flows”
field (see Fig. 1b) are distinctly more evolved than more
distal lavas erupted earlier (“early flow” field on Fig. 1b).
This trend and the more evolved composition of scoria
samples from the late-formed cone suggest an increasing
degree of evolution of the magma produced during the
eruptive activity. The distinctly less evolved composition of
-2 -1
comparison to vesicular scoria samples (Fig. 11), is
intriguing, given that they were also deposited during cone
growth. Their composition is also not matched by any of
the lava samples. They may possibly be: (1) recycled pieces
of a magma which was originally erupted at a different
stage of the eruption and is not included in the sample set,
e.g., from early flows that are now covered, (2) eruptive
products of a magma batch that has undergone a different
ascent path from that of the main magma body, or (3)
fragments of older lavas which were incorporated by the
ascending magma. All vesicular scoria samples cover a
narrow range in bulk composition (Table 1, Fig. 11a–c) and
most elements display only minor unsystematic variations
throughout the entire sequence. However, Ni contents in
scoria show large variations with the highest values (234–
269 ppm) in basal units and lowest values (226–248 ppm)
in the upper units. This strong variation contrasts with the
narrow range of Ni in lava samples (246–251 ppm) (Figs. 8
and 11e). However, it is interesting to note that the average
Ni-content in scoria samples (246±13 ppm) is similar to the
average Ni-content in lava samples (249±2 ppm). The three
analyzed scoria samples have a similar glass composition
(Table 2), that is andesitic (~59 wt.% SiO2) with higher
FeO, TiO2, and P2O5, and lower CaO and MgO contents
than bulk rock scoria (Table 2, Fig. 11a–c).
Samples contain olivine phenocrysts±plagioclase and
quartz xenocrysts (<3 vol.%), and plagioclase, olivine,
clinopyroxene, ±Fe-oxides as groundmass crystals. Modal
crystal abundances and compositional ranges are reported
in Tables 3 and 4. Olivine phenocrysts are 50–600 µm in
size and occur in clusters. They commonly have Fo-and-Ni
rich euhedral cores and Fo-and-Ni poor skeletal rims
(Table 4), and contain euhedral <50 µm Cr-rich spinel
inclusions. They may enclose irregular, generally <20 µm-
sized, glass inclusions, and rarely display arrow-like
hopper-shapes. Xenocrysts form >100 µm-sized plagio-
clases with resorbed cores intergrown with olivines and
clinopyroxenes. Groundmass crystals are distinctly more
abundant (Table 3) and more evolved (Table 4) in the lava
than in the scoria. Plagioclase is the dominant groundmass
phase (34–39 vol.% in lava, 33 vol.% in scoria). Crystals
are distributed with equal density in the two sample types,
having slightly larger sizes in the lava. They are lath-
870 Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880

Table 1 Whole rock chemical analyses of Pelagatos lava, bomb, and scoria samples

Sample Scoriaa Scoriaa Scoriab Vesicular Dense Medial Distal Distal Medial Prox. Cone
type bomb clast lava lava lava lava Lava overflow
Sample Average Stdev P53 PG0510 P42 PG0515 PG0516 PG0517 PG0518 P61-1 P67-1
no.
Long. 19°05′ 19°05′ 19°05′ 19°05′ 19°05′ 19°05′ 19°07′ 19°06′ 19°06′ 19°05′ 19°05′
30.06″ 30.06″ 33.32″ 34.60″ 30.06″ 59.41″ 23.42″ 47.77″ 29.08″ 06.7″ 35.6″
Lat. 98°57′ 98°57′ 98°57′ 98°57′ 98°57′ 98°55′ 98°54′ 98°54′ 98°56′ 98°57′ 98°57′
44.65″ 44.65″ 47.73″ 44.94″ 44.65″ 53.64″ 30.92″ 26.84″ 23.2″ 34.7″ 35.5″
Alt. (m) 2,973 2,973 2,980 2,998 2,973 2,819 2,688 2,671 2,838 2,950 2,982

wt.%
SiO2 54.21 0.17 54.23 52.53 52.51 53.40 53.12 53.19 53.26 53.62 54.68
TiO2 0.82 0.01 0.79 0.82 0.87 0.82 0.79 0.79 0.85 0.83 0.81
Al2O3 15.51 0.11 15.20 15.64 16.31 15.57 15.21 15.28 15.43 15.47 15.50
Fe2O3(t) 7.76 0.04 7.88 8.20 8.15 7.83 7.95 7.91 7.86 7.60 7.50
FeO(t)c 6.98 0.04 7.09 7.38 7.33 7.05 7.15 7.12 7.07 6.84 6.75
MnO 0.12 0.00 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
MgO 9.49 0.12 9.65 10.16 9.67 9.84 10.09 9.98 9.78 9.50 9.79
CaO 7.66 0.10 7.77 8.09 7.55 7.92 7.95 7.98 7.64 7.55 7.70
Na2O 3.44 0.05 3.22 3.41 3.52 3.45 3.32 3.34 3.41 3.42 3.53
K2O 0.92 0.03 0.93 0.91 1.05 0.89 0.91 0.86 0.92 0.94 1.02
P2O5 0.17 0.00 0.17 0.16 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.17 0.17 0.17
LOI <0.01 0.00 < 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.14 0.03 < 0.01 0.00 0.00
Total 99.32 0.32 99.18 99.22 99.12 99.22 98.82 98.81 98.66 98.46 100.07
Ni (ppm) 226–269 236 241 222 250 250 250 251 247 246

For analytical procedures see Appendix 2

a
Average and standard deviation (Stdev) of bulk rock scoria analyses (samples P01 to P23, see Fig. 8)
b
Sample from medium distance of section to NE side of quarry. Long. longitude, Lat. latitude, Alt. altitude (GPS data). Prox. proximal. Fe2O3(t)=
total Fe as Fe2O3
c
FeO(t)=total Fe recalculated as FeO (=0.8998×Fe2O3(t)); Total calculated using FeO(t)

shaped, often in parallel-branching arrangements, and with
skeletal outgrowths. Groundmass olivines and clinopyrox-
enes are rare and small in scoria but more numerous and
larger in lava (Table 3). Olivines are oval to rectangular in
shape and most often isolated. Clinopyroxenes form
<10 µm-size isolated laths in scoria, but aggregates of
granular crystals up to 50 µm across in bomb and lava
samples. Fe-oxides (titanomagnetite) are only present in
lava and bomb samples. They are surprisingly abundant in
the former (4–11 vol.%) where they form granular crystals.
Discussion
Cooling, degassing and crystallization history of the magma
Models and experimental data from the literature were
compared with results obtained during this study in order to
constrain the conditions of the evolving magma prior to and
during the Pelagatos eruption. The bulk magma composi-
tion was considered homogeneous in the modeling, and an
average composition was used. Olivines with Fo87–91
cores are the only phenocrysts in the Pelagatos products.
The model “PELE” developed by Boudreau (1999) esti-
mates that ~Fo90 olivine is the first phase to crystallize in a
magma with the bulk composition of the Pelagatos products
at 1,260–1,270°C. This estimated temperature range also
agrees with temperatures calculated using several theoret-
ical and empirical models (Beattie 1993; figure 2 in
Putirka et al. 2007; Montierth et al. 1995; Sugawara
2000) and experimental data on high-Mg andesites similar
in composition to Pelagatos (Tatsumi 1982; Pichavant and
MacDonald 2007). The occurrence of chromium spinels as
inclusions in the olivine crystals implies that they formed
slightly before or during olivine crystallization.
Melt inclusion data from compositionally similar mag-
mas can help constrain the pressure of crystallization of the
olivines (and Cr-spinels) and the melt water content.
Primitive olivines in other high-Mg magmas from the
SCVF (Xitle, Jumiltepec, Las Tetillas, Tuxtepec, Tepetlapa)
contain glass inclusions that represent captured melt with
1.3–5.2 wt.% H2O at 100–600 MPa (Cervantes and Wallace
Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880 871

Fig. 11 Compositional varia- 12 55.0

tion in bulk rock samples and
scoria glasses. Symbol key on 10
a
54.5
(a) applies to all plots. See
8 Bulk rock

MgO (wt.%)
Table 1 for chemical data and

SiO2 wt.%
sample locations. Broken line= Vs bomb 54.0
6 Later
Dense clast
trends in plots. In symbol key: flows
Lava
Vs=vesicular, Vs scoria1 = 4 53.5
Vs scoria1 Early flow
average composition and
2 Vs scoria2 Scoria
standard deviation of vesicular 53.0
Lava (Schaaf et al. 2005) glass
scoria samples from section 0 d
shown in Fig. 8, Vs scoria2 = 50 55 60 52.5
composition of vesicular scoria 0 2 4 6 8
sample from opposite side of 8.5
approx. distance from source (km)
quarry (all vesicular scoria sam- b
ples have similar composition). 8.0 280
FeO (wt.%)

For plots (d) and (e), only bulk Scoria

270
rock data is plotted. For plot (e), 7.5 260 Unit A
two additional symbol types are

Ni (ppm)
used to distinguish between 250
scoria samples from basal layers 7.0
240 Units
(Unit A) and upper layers B&C
(Units B and C) 230
6.5
50 55 60 220 e
210
8.5 50 52 54 56 58
8.0 SiO2 wt.%
CaO (wt.%)

7.5

7.0

6.5 c
6.0
50 55 60
SiO2 wt.%

2003). Olivines in lavas erupted at Jorullo and Paricutin mid-crustal levels (100–600 MPa) from a melt that
trapped inclusions under a similar range of pressure and contained ≤5 wt.% H2O. Such pressures are in agreement
melt water content (Johnson et al. 2008; Pioli et al. 2008). with the narrow bulk compositional range of the Pelagatos
Thus, olivines in the Pelagatos magma probably formed at magma. The low abundance of phenocrysts implies that the
magma was not stored at depth and that olivines mainly
Table 2 Scoria glass composi- crystallized during rapid ascent.
tions obtained by electron mi- Wt.% Average Stdev
A melt with 5 wt.% H2O reaches saturation levels at
croprobe analysis
SiO2 58.63 0.315 ~6 km depth or 200 MPa (Pineau et al. 1998). It is probable
TiO2 1.26 0.045 that the microlites formed above this depth, under con-
Al2O3 15.49 0.218 ditions of melt undercooling induced by gas-loss during
FeO 7.73 0.298 rapid magma rise. This effect has been widely observed and
MnO 0.13 0.037 is well expressed by the high proportion, dense distribution,
MgO 3.92 0.130 small size, and skeletal shape of plagioclases, which is the
CaO 7.01 0.165 phase that is most affected by undercooling (e.g. Hammer
Na2O 3.82 0.207 and Rutherford 2002). The maximum temperature of the
For analytical procedures see
Appendix 2 K2O 1.40 0.072
erupted magma can be estimated at 1,100°C taking into
Average and standard deviation P2O5 0.26 0.037
account evidence for co-crystallization of olivine, clinopyr-
(Stdev) of 59 electron microprobe NiO 0.02 0.025
oxene, and plagioclase microlites in the products (PELE
point analyses (26 analyses model). Scoria clasts contain minor amounts of olivine and
of sample P13, 24 analyses of Cr2O3 0.00 0.005
clinopyroxene microlites, suggesting magma temperatures
sample P21, 9 analyses of sample Total 99.67 0.494
P01); Mg#=MgO/(MgO+FeO), close to 1,100°C, which is confirmed by models applied to
Mg# 33.64 0.011
FeO total microlite and scoria–glass compositional pairs (Beattie
872 Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880

Table 3 Modal mineralogical abundances in representative lava, bomb, and scoria samples

Oliv pheno Gd oliv Gd plag Gd cpx Gd Fe-ox Gd glass Total cryst.

Bomb and lavaa

PG0510A Bomb 10.1 3.4 32.2 14.2 0.9 39.2 60.8
PG0513 proximal lava 7.0 2.3 51.6 14.9 3.9 20.4 79.6
PG0518 medial lava 12.9 1.3 34.2 20.6 10.9 20.1 79.9
PG0515 medial lava 11.0 2.4 41.8 22.2 6.2 16.4 83.6
PG0516 distal lava 10.8 1.4 39.1 25.8 8.6 14.3 85.7
PG0517 distal lava 12.8 1.0 39.0 25.5 6.3 15.5 84.5
Scoriab 12.7 33.3 3.2 0 50.8 49.2

Oliv olivine, pheno phenocryst, Gd groundmass, cpx clinopyroxene, plag plagioclase, Fe-ox iron-oxides, cryst. crystallinity
a
Samples analyzed using point counter (total counts ~800, vesicles subtracted from total count to calculate modal %). Modal abundance of olivine
phenocrysts includes <0.3 vol.% of Cr-spinel enclosed in the crystals. Samples are classified in table according to their distance from source. Note
absence of correlation. Most variations are thought to correlate with rate of post-emplacement cooling
b
Calculated using average scoria matrix glass and bulk rock compositions, end-member crystal compositions, and program using least-square
method (MINSQ, Herrmann and Berry 2002). Fits are very good (sum of squared residuals=0.03), showing that assumption of in-situ crystal
fractionation is valid. Note that most (in terms of vol.) olivine crystals in scoria are phenocrysts. Values were recalculated to 100%

1993; Putirka 2005) and scoria–glass composition alone
(Sugawara 2000; Montierth et al. 1995). The coarser lava
texture implies larger amounts of cooling. Such cooling
may have taken place either within the conduit, because the
degassed nature of the lava suggests relatively low magma
ascent rates, or during lava flowage, because the blocky
surface of the lava provides poor insulation to the interior
of the flow. The former process might have been less
important judging by evidence that supports strong under-
cooling during ascent (high density of plagioclases) which
can be best explained by rapid magma rise. The abundance
of Fe-oxides in the lava implies temperatures well below
1,040°C (PELE model). However, most of these crystals
may have formed during final solidification within the
interior of the flow (lava solidifies at ~700°C). The lava
emplacement temperature could thus have been similar to
that measured at Paricutin (1,020–1,100°C, Luhr and
Simkin 1993, and references therein).
In summary, the P–T path followed by the Pelagatos
must have been similar to that of the early Jorullo magma
as calculated by Johnson et al. (2008). Olivine and Cr-
spinels grew from a high-temperature (T>1,200°C) H2O-
supersaturated (<5 wt.% H2O) melt, possibly over a wide
range of pressure (depth <10 km). Shallow degassing
(<6 km depth) triggered intense microlite crystallization.
During explosive events at the vent, the magma ascended
rapidly and was quenched as scoria at ~1,110°C. During
effusive phases, the magma cooled more slowly and to
larger degrees before final solidification.
Chronology of the eruption
The alignment of the main cone with the spatter ridges
strongly suggests that the eruption was structurally con-
trolled by a fissure. The fissure is oriented E–W, parallel to
normal faults that affect the local basement, and other
extensional tectonic lineaments within the volcanic field
(Márquez et al. 1999; Siebe et al. 2004b). This suggests that
the feeder dike was either “captured” by a pre-existing
normal fault (e.g. Valentine et al. 2006; Gaffney et al. 2007;
Valentine and Keating 2007), or rose parallel to the
direction of least principal stress determined by the active
regional extensional regime (e.g. Nakamura 1977; Márquez
et al. 1999).

Table 4 Crystal compositional ranges in representative scoria and lava samples obtained by electron microprobe analysis

Samples Oliv pheno Cr-spinels Gd oliv Gd plag Gd cpx

Scoria (P01, P13, P21) Cores: Fo 87–91 NiO 0.141–0.492, Cr# 57–68 Fe2# 35.2–56.2 =pheno rims An54–69 Wo40–42
Rims: Fo 83–87 NiO<0.214 En48–50a
Lava (P59–1) =scoria =scoria Fo60–80 An48–65 Wo38–46
En46–52

For analytical procedures see Appendix 2. Same abbreviations as in Table 3. Fo=100×Mg/(Mg+Fe); Cr#=Cr/(Cr+Al), Fe2#=Fe2 /(Fe2 +Mg);
An=100×Ca/(Ca+Na+K); Wo=Ca/(Ca+Fe+Mg); En=Mg/(Ca+Fe+Mg). NiO in wt.%
a
Two microlites only. A plagioclase xenocryst analyzed was distinctly more evolved (An64–70)
Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880
Early eruptive products include the main lava flow and
the scoria ridges exposed at the eastern end of the fissure (it
is likely that scoria ridges also formed on the western part
of the fissure and were later covered by flows from the
main cone). The first eruptive phase was thus dominantly
effusive. Flow morphology suggests that the lava issued
from the entire length of the fissure. The magma discharge
rate was probably relatively high and sufficiently continu-
ous to enable the formation of a single flow, and not a
sequence of overlapping flows. The length and narrowness
of the flow were promoted by the flow of the lava into a
depression delineated by the margins of flows from older
nearby cones. The presence of truncated scoria ridges on
the eastern end of the fissure indicates that some mildly-
explosive activity was taking place while the lavas were
emitted. Such activity may have corresponded to a
Hawaiian-style lava fountaining episode that created
simultaneously rheomorphic flows and a scoria cone (e.g.,
Head and Wilson 1989). Such a scenario is however
considered unlikely in this case because diagnostic features
indicative of fountaining (spatter, agglutinates, and fluidal
clasts) are not observed at Pelagatos. This might be due to
the relatively high magma viscosity (see below). Instead,
explosive and effusive activity might have alternated.
Evidence for this is the scoria mounds observed at the base
of the easternmost scoria ridge. These mounds represent
pyroclastic material deposited on the down-flow side of the
fissure during a pause in lava effusion, that were later rafted
by the flows when effusive activity resumed. Such unsteady
eruptive behavior may have coincided with closing stages
of activity at that section of the fissure.
The second phase focused on the western end of the
fissure. It featured more sporadic lava output, forming a
compound lava field (“later flows” in Fig. 1b), and more
intense explosive activity that built a 50-m-high scoria
cone. The transition from phase 1 to phase 2 may have been
gradual: the main scoria cone may have started to form as
the main lava flow was being emplaced. Final activity was
concentrated at the main cone, featuring weak explosions
and a final small lava flow. There is evidence for at least
one cone-breaching event, although there might have been
several, based on the unstable nature of the cone that is
small, consists of loose material, and was built on an older
sloping lava flow fan. The last flow apparently erupted
from the crater of the cone, although earlier flows (or some
of them) originated from the base of the cone. All effusive
phases may have been associated with cone collapse,
whether lava was issuing from the crater or the base of
the cone. Cone breaches might have healed rapidly, leaving
little evidence for their occurrence, as observed at active
cones (e.g., Foshag and González 1956; Luhr and Simkin
1993). Remnants of rafted parts of the scoria cone (e.g.
Riggs and Duffield 2008; Valentine et al. 2006) were not
873
observed within the flow-field. They may have been
dispersed by the lava flow, or if they exist, be hidden by
vegetation.
Note that the eruption of Pelagatos is considered
monogenetic because of the lack of evidence for a
significant time interval between the two eruptive phases.
Its duration can be crudely estimated using data collected at
active volcanoes. The small size of the cone (50 m) implies
that it formed in less than a day to about a month (Fig. 7 in
Wood 1980). The total volume of lava erupted (~4×107 m3)
would have required from 5 days to 15 months to
accumulate at average effusion rates of 1 to 100 m3/s
(range for a final lava flow length of 7 km, see figure 4 in
Walker 1973). Accordingly, the eruption may have lasted
from 6 days to 16 months.
Mode of growth of the main scoria cone
Evidence for avalanching processes
When a growing scoria cone built of loose material exceeds
a given size and its slopes reach the angle of repose for
loose scoria (32°), deposits are redistributed by avalanching
(McGetchin et al. 1974). Evidence for avalanching is
widespread at the Pelagatos quarry and includes: the
lenticular shape of thin beds, the downslope thickening of
coarse beds, and the irregular shape of the base of thick
beds. The systematic basal reverse grading of the beds is
best accounted for by self-sieving of the very loose material
upon sliding (Fisher and Schmincke 1984). This process
can still be observed to occur at present day, since small
avalanches detach frequently from the unstable base of the
quarry face and add material to talus. Sedimentary
structures originated by avalanching are particularly well
developed at Pelagatos due to the loose and friable nature
of the deposits, and the asymmetry of the cone built on a
sloping lava field.
Evidence for eruptive style: a case for strong Strombolian
activity
The geometry of fallout deposits is generally used to assign
a particular style to an eruption because it reflects the
characteristics of the eruptive column. However, medial and
distal fallout deposits are not preserved at Pelagatos:
pyroclastic deposits are only observed on the steep-sided
cone, where they were partly redistributed by avalanching.
Yet, clast morphologies and clast vesicularity, and certain
sedimentary features of the proximal cone deposits provide
constraints on the eruptive style.
In a broad sense, the deposits are comparable to products
from magmatic (=dry) Strombolian activity. They are well-
bedded, loose, have low proportions of lithics and poorly-
874
vesicular dense clasts, and lack the fluidal shape of clasts so
typical for Hawaiian-style eruptions (e.g., Valentine and
Gregg 2008). Furthermore, the deposits are coarse, poorly
sorted, and have strongly skewed grain-size distributions
similar to other studied Strombolian deposits (Houghton
and Hackett 1984; Houghton and Schmincke 1989).
The large amount of angular vesicular clasts derived
from solidified bombs 5–10 cm across (−5 to −7Φ) in the
Pelagatos deposits is however somewhat atypical for
Strombolian products. Indeed, during regular activity at
Stromboli, flight times of bombs of this size (5–10 cm) are
not long enough (~10 s to slightly longer, McGetchin et al.
1974) for the clasts to cool completely and degas
significantly (to produce the coarsely-vesicular cores) prior
to landing. Low magma temperatures could allow in-flight
solidification, but this does not apply to Pelagatos where
the magma was erupted at ~1,110°C.
One process that increases total clast transport times and
thus time for cooling is clast recycling at the vent. This process
has been observed directly in scoria cone eruptions (e.g.,
Foshag and González 1956; Blackburn et al. 1976). Failing to
reach the upper cone rim, large bombs fall back into the vent,
are re-ejected into the air, and so on, until they finally land on
the cone’s outer slope. This process generally produces clasts
covering a wide range in vesicularity, including dense round
clasts (Fig. 4f), and composite bombs (Fig. 4b) formed by
welding of recycled clasts rolling back into the crater. The
proportion of such clasts is however small in the Pelagatos
deposits. Hence, the recycling process must have played a
subordinate role at Pelagatos, and thus cannot be held
responsible for the formation of the bulk of the deposits.
On the other hand, the minor occurrence of recycled deposits
implies that the vent must have stayed open (un-chocked by
debris) during the largest part of the activity at the cone.
Long flight times and bomb breakup upon final impact
(in contrast to breakup by the recycling process) seems to
be the only other process that can account for the high
abundance of angular, but vesicular clasts in the Pelagatos
products. Such clasts mainly cool during fall (e.g. Thomas
and Sparks 1992). Fall heights required for cooling the
largest clasts present in the Pelagatos scoria beds were
estimated using figure 5a from Thomas and Sparks (1992).
Accordingly, fall heights of 1 km would be sufficient to
cool 32–64 mm-size clasts (−5Φ) from 1,110 to 700°C and
thus allow for solidification before landing. For the same
temperature range, complete cooling of larger clasts (64–
128 mm in diameter; −6Φ) would require heights of fall
between 2 and 3 km. When falling from a height of only
1 km, the cores of clasts of this size would only reach
~800°C upon landing. But this might be cool enough for
them to break. In conclusion, angular vesicular clasts in the
Pelagatos deposits could have formed by strong explosions
ejecting bombs to heights >1 km.
Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880
The products also show sedimentary features that are
diagnostic of deposition from elevated and sustained
eruptive columns. For instance, the normal grading dis-
played at the upper part of many beds is best explained by
segregation processes of particles falling from an eruptive
cloud according to their size. Some of the laterally-
discontinuous fine lapilli horizons that occur within single
beds may also result from weak density currents associated
with heavy ash fallout, as observed at Etna (e.g., Taddeucci
et al. 2004). Finally, many beds are internally stratified,
which is another feature typical of fallout deposits (e.g.,
Valentine et al. 2005, 2007; Valentine and Keating 2007).
Ejection heights estimated for the explosions at Pelagatos
are high compared to those regularly observed at Stromboli
(e.g., scoria ejection heights <300 m, Lautze and Houghton
2007), but they are not uncommon. Cone-forming activity
during the eruption of Heimaey (Iceland) in 1973 involved
significantly stronger explosions than those characterizing
Stromboli (Blackburn et al. 1976). At Heimaey, bombs
were ejected up to 500 m above the crater rim, fragments
2–10 mm in size fell from up to 1 km high, and little spatter
was produced (Self et al. 1974). Curiously, this type of
activity seems to be more common than that observed at
Stromboli (Blackburn et al. 1976). However, this latter is
more commonly used as a reference. Even stronger activity
was observed at Paricutin where eruptive columns reached
6 km high (Ordoñez 1947), and such eruptive style was
defined as “violent Strombolian” (e.g., Pioli et al. 2008,
Valentine and Gregg 2008). Violent Strombolian activity,
however, typically produces thick ash fallout deposits (e.g.,
Pioli et al. 2008, Valentine and Gregg 2008) which are
absent at Pelagatos. Because the explosive activity at
Pelagatos was of lower magnitude, the term “strong
Strombolian” is preferred.
Origin of “strong Strombolian” activity at Pelagatos
Many factors can promote “dry” highly-explosive activity
at scoria cones (e.g., Pioli et al. 2008, Valentine and Gregg
2008). At Pelagatos, it seems that a matching combination
of relatively high magma viscosities and high magma
ascent rates caused the “strong Strombolian” eruptive style.
The viscosity of the Pelagatos magma was calculated using
procedures proposed by Giordano et al. (2008) and Vetere
et al. (2006) for deriving melt viscosity, and the Einstein–
Roscoe equation to take crystal content into account
(Pinkerton and Stevenson 1992). Magma viscosity was
initially low (40–80 Pa s) but increased sharply during the
latest stages of ascent (6×105–4×106 Pa s) due to cooling,
intense degassing, and associated microlite crystallization.
Accordingly, magma yield-and-tensile strength increased,
promoting efficient magma fragmentation and high ejection
velocities, as well as brittle behavior of the clasts upon
Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880
landing. The vesicular texture of the scoria glasses at
Pelagatos implies intense degassing (high vesicularity) but
limited bubble coalescence (large amounts of isolated small
vesicles). High magma ascent rates combined with rela-
tively high magma viscosity can cause such features. Low
magma permeability can in turn lead to rising gas
overpressure, which can be sustained by rapid crystalliza-
tion enriching the melt in volatiles (Taddeucci et al. 2004).
In this context, it is worth mentioning that at Heimaey (see
above), the fragmentation of some bombs during flight was
related to rapid vesiculation of an apparently-viscous
magma (Self et al. 1974). Such a process may also have
occurred at Pelagatos.
Variations of eruptive intensity during cone growth
Changes in bed thickness and coarseness through the upper
cone section (Fig. 8) express variations in eruptive intensity
during the final stages of cone growth. Causes for such
variations can be several. A change in bulk magma viscosity
can be discarded in this case due to the lack of variation in
bulk rock composition, or in crystal or vesicle contents
through the sequence. There is, however, a systematic
relation between bed coarseness and the proportion of
degassed and cooled ash particles (tachylite) relative to the
amount of highly-vesicular glassy particles (sideromelane)
(Fig. 10). Different processes have been invoked to explain
variations in the abundance of such fragments within
Strombolian fallout deposits (Heiken 1978; Taddeucci et
al. 2004; Valentine et al. 2005; Polacci et al. 2006; Sable et
al. 2006; Lautze and Houghton 2007). In this case, such
variations are best explained by a correlation with
magma ascent rates. High magma ascent rates will limit
magma residence times in the conduit and thus the extent
of magma cooling and degassing prior to quenching (low
tachylite proportions), and promote high degrees of
fragmentation due to high rates of magma vesiculation.
Resulting deposits will be less coarse. Conversely, low
magma ascent rates will produce coarser deposits rich in
tachylite clasts. Alternatively, coarser beds at a given
location might be related to higher eruption intensity
(higher eruption column) because high amounts of
tachylite suggest high magma viscosity and yield strength
(e.g., Taddeucci et al. 2004). However, tachylite-rich
deposits produced by strong explosions at Etna are fine-
grained and associated with large amounts of dense bombs
(Taddeucci et al. 2004), a feature not observed at Pelagatos.
Hence an inverse correlation between bed coarseness and
tachylite content, and magma ascent velocities and explo-
sion intensity is preferred for the case of the Pelagatos
eruption. The sequence observed through Unit A and B of
the section (i.e., thickening and coarsening of beds, Fig. 8)
could therefore be interpreted as the result of overall
875
decreasing magma ascent rates. The thinner and more
discontinuous, yet relatively coarse deposits at the top of
the sequence (Unit C) may represent conditions of
sharply fluctuating magma ascent rates towards the end
of the cone building phase. It should be noted, however,
that the eruption sequence may have been more complex
and hours to days may have elapsed between individual
explosions.
Conduit processes and bulk Ni variations
The wide range in bulk Ni contents of scoria and bomb
samples is in strong contrast with the narrow range
displayed by lava samples (see Table 1), and suggests a
process that was segregating olivine phenocrysts during
the explosive activity. The total range of variation detected
(47 ppm) can be accounted for by only <3 vol.% crystals,
because Ni partitions strongly into olivine phenocryst
cores (Table 4). Although part of the variation might be
an artifact of insufficiently large sample sizes for the
vesicular scoria samples submitted for analysis, this
effect cannot be the only explanation because the dense
bomb sample (P42) has a low Ni content (Fig. 11). At
shallow levels, rapid magma rise, high bubble content,
and elevated melt viscosity might create heterogeneities
within the flow that segregate dense olivine phenocryst
clusters. This segregation process seems to be weak
during effusive activity but important during explosive
activity, perhaps promoted by high magma ascent rates.
It is not clear why basal scoria layers in the cone tend
to be relatively enriched and upper layers relatively
depleted in olivine phenocrysts, but this might be linked
to evolving conditions of magma ascent during the
course of the activity. In particular, the magma may
have resided for a short time in shallow small sills
branching off the main conduit (e.g. Valentine and
Krogh 2006), and crystals may have settled during this
time. The drawing of these magma batches into the main
conduit at late stages of the eruption could explain the
variations observed.
The shallow plumbing system and the evolution
of the activity during the eruption
The Pelagatos activity changed from effusive to explosive
during the course of the eruption. Lava fountaining during
the first phase seems unlikely (see ‘Chronology of the
eruption’). Assuming that the first phase featured the
effusion of degassed magma, then the transition to
explosive activity could express (1) increasing gas contents,
(2) increasing magma ascent velocity, or (3) increasing
magma viscosity. The second and third hypotheses seem
more likely, although more data would be needed to test the
876
first. Closure of the fissure to form a single conduit
provides a process by which magma ascent rates can
increase, leading to higher explosivity, because of insuffi-
cient time for the gas to escape passively from the magma
(Klug and Cashman 1996). Moreover, the ~40 vol.%
microlites formed in the rapidly-decompressed magma, as
well as its higher bulk SiO2 contents (Fig. 11) compared to
magma delivered during phase 1, would have increased its
viscosity, thus promoting higher explosivity. Fluctuations in
the intensity of the explosions during phase 2 and
alternating and/or simultaneous effusive phases indicate
that magma-and-gas fluxes in the conduit were variable.
These variations can be partly explained by the formation
of shallow sills and dikes branching off from the conduit
walls where parts of the magma could have fractionated and
gas segregated (e.g. Valentine and Krogh 2006; Keating et
al. 2008). The rise of degassed magma batches within the
cone, and/or their extrusion at the base of the cone, would
have fed the lava flows.
Summary and implications
The Pelagatos eruption was mainly effusive, with a late
short-lived (<1 month) explosive phase forming a small
cone. The magma ascended relatively rapidly through the
crust (low phenocryst contents, primitive bulk composi-
tion), facilitated by high temperatures (>1,200°C), elevated
volatile contents (<5 wt.% H2O), and pre-existing fractures.
Depressurization triggered degassing at shallow levels
(<6 km) and microlite crystallization. During the first
phase, low magma ascent rates allowed magma to degas
at shallow levels, producing fissure-fed lava flows with
elevated crystal contents, T<1,100°C, and blocky surfaces.
Later, increasing closure of the dike focused the magma
flow and increased magma ascent velocity. The combina-
tion of sharply increasing magma viscosity due to ~40 vol.
% microlite crystallization driven by rapid gas exsolution,
higher bulk SiO2 content, and limited time for gas escape,
resulted in strong explosions (>1 km high eruptive
columns) of relatively hot (1,100°C) and highly vesicular
magma. Unsteady magma-and-gas flow rates modulated the
intensity of the explosions. As a result, a scoria cone
formed, while the rise of degassed magma batches within
the cone and their extrusion at the base of the cone fed
occasional lava flows. These flows breached the unstable
cone and formed a proximal compound flow-field.
High-Mg phenocryst-poor basaltic andesite magmas,
such as the Pelagatos magma, are thought to originate
from partial melting of a peridotite enriched in slab-
derived volatiles (Tatsumi and Ishizaka 1982; Carmichael
2002; Cervantes and Wallace 2003). Their high initial
water contents and thus low density facilitate rapid ascent
Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880
through the crust (figure 16 in Carmichael 2002). This
allows such magmas to reach shallow levels with elevated
temperature, high H2O contents, and low crystallinity.
Their eruptive style will therefore be controlled by
shallow degassing processes that increase dramatically
the magma’s viscosity, reduce the time for passive magma
degassing, and thus induce more highly explosive activity
than is generally expected at scoria cones. The Jorullo and
Paricutin eruptions in western Mexico, which were fed by
magmas similar to the Pelagatos eruption, differed
markedly from the latter by their long-lasting highly-
explosive phases that produced considerable amounts of
ash. At Paricutin, this has been related to high magma-
and-gas flux rates and efficient magma–gas segregation
within the large cone formed early during the eruption
(Pioli et al. 2008). Ongoing work at Jorullo also suggests
that the highly-explosive dry phase coincided with the
construction of the main cone. The localization of magma
flow, and concomitant increase in magma ascent velocity,
and subsequent construction of a cone permitted by the
long duration of the eruption and/or the tectonic setting (at
Paricutin), may then be the main factors determining the
higher explosivity of those magmas. At Pelagatos, the
explosive phase of the eruption was relatively short,
building only a small cone, but we propose that it would
have developed into a more explosive eruption forming a
large cone and thick distal fallout deposits if magma
supplies had continued.
Conclusions and hazards
Recent radiocarbon dating of scoria cones in the TMVB
(e.g. Siebe et al. 2005; Siebert and Carrasco-Núñez 2002;
Sieron and Siebe 2008) have revealed that monogenetic
eruptions seem to be more frequent in Mexico than
generally recognized before. For this reason the evalua-
tion of risks for surrounding populations and infrastruc-
ture from this type of eruption has been neglected until
recently. Many of the young monogenetic vents of the
TMVB, including those from historic eruptions of Jorullo
and Paricutin, are composed of olivine-bearing basaltic
andesite (Jorullo) to andesite (e.g. Paricutin) magmas.
This study provides insights into the processes that
control the explosive intensity and eruptive style of such
magmas, which may be of use for making hazard
assessments and designing geophysical monitoring strat-
egies. In particular, the localization of the magma flow
during the course of a fissure eruption and resulting
increase in magma ascent rates can lead to explosive
eruptive phases producing high amounts of vesicular,
microlite-rich scoria and ash. The duration and explosiv-
ity of such phases will be dictated by magma flux rates
Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880 877

Tachyl.
and the total erupted magma volume. In the case of a

22.7

33.1

27.4

20.0
25.4
11.0
6.0
new eruption of this type in the future, close petrological

Crystal-types (%)
monitoring of the emitted products would be recommen-

Siderom.
ded to trace shallow degassing and crystallization

77.3
93.3
89.0

66.9

72.6

80.0
74.6
processes, and possibly detect precursors of dangerous
explosive phases.

1132
435
758

709

756

456
611
N
Acknowledgements Institutional and logistic support was provided

Stdev
Vesicularity
by Instituto de Geofísica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.

3.8
4.5

6.1

5.0

5.6

6.6
The first author wishes to thank Agnes Mazot for providing pleasant

(vol.%)
and useful assistance in the field, Carlos Linares López and Adela

74.8
75.1

71.3

72.5

72.3

75.0
Avg
Margarita Reyes Salas for technical assistance with the microprobe
and the SEM, Julie Roberge for insightful discussions, and Lilia Arana
and Renato Castro-Govea for their general help. The present work was

0.51
0.35
0.32
0.52
0.17
0.14
0.38
0.27
0.33
0.37
0.50
0.33
αΦ
carried out with the aid of a postdoctoral fellowship from Coordina-
ción de la Investigación Científica (UNAM) to M.-N. Guilbaud and a

2.33
2.08
1.93
1.98
1.45
1.28
1.53
1.93
1.05
2.23
2.40
2.30
stipend from UNAM-Posgrado to J.A. Flores. Analytical costs were

σΦ
Statistics
defrayed by projects CONACyT-50677-F and DGAPA-UNAM-

−3.75
−2.25
−2.25
−5.15
−3.30
−3.40
−5.30
−3.00
−5.25
−3.10
−4.45
−3.35
IN101006-3 assigned to Claus Siebe. Two anonymous journal

MdΦ
reviewers, Greg Valentine, and editor James White made useful
suggestions for improving this article.

0.9
1.4
1.2
0.4
1.3
0.9
0.4
1.1
0.3
0.9
0.6
1.4
>4

2.1
2.6
2.2
0.9
1.6
1.3
1.1
1.6
0.7
2.0
1.4
2.5
4
Appendixes

3.3
3.9
3.4
1.7
2.2
1.9
1.8
2.5
1.4
3.5
2.5
4.2
3

4.1
5.2
4.4
2.5
2.7
2.4
2.4
3.4
2.1
4.4
3.5
5.8
Appendix 1: Analysis of cone scoria

4.6
7.4
8.0
3.0
2.8
2.4
2.5
4.5
2.2
5.1
4.4
8.0
Representative samples of scoria were taken from nearly 1
each bed in the sequence. Sample size was chosen in

13.7
4.9
9.0

3.0
2.9
2.6
2.2
6.3
1.9
6.4
4.8
9.2
accordance with the coarseness of the sampled bed.
0

Samples were first processed in the field for large clast- 14.0
10.9

12.3
11.4
% Weight per grain-size fraction in Φ

6.6

3.9
6.0
4.9
2.1

1.9
9.3
5.4
−1

sizes (−5 and −6Φ), using large specially-built sieves. The

remaining sample (clasts smaller than −5Φ) was divided
30.0
29.1

21.4
20.0

20.0

17.2

22.5
9.9

6.4

3.0

2.4

8.1
−2

into smaller fractions in the laboratory using a mechan-

ical divider, and a sub-sample was then processed. All
19.8
17.6
21.0

34.0
37.1

25.1

25.4

22.1
11.4
6.1

6.8

4.4
−3

samples were hand-sieved for the grain-size fractions −4

to −2Φ. An automatic machine was used for a few
33.4

17.0
18.3
19.7
17.8
20.2
22.2
20.3
23.1
11.9
7.0
5.1
−4

minutes to sieve smaller grain-size fractions. Two sub-

10.3

39.6

40.5

51.2

31.2
samples of sample P31 (sub-samples P31A and P32B)
1.9
1.0

6.7
6.7

3.8

5.6

0.0
−5

were processed separately, in order to check the

15.6

19.5

representativity of the samples and the reproducibility

0.0
0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0

0.0
9.3
0.0
3.7
0.0
−6

of the measurements. Results obtained are similar (see

Lab sieved

Fig. 8 and Appendix 1). The median diameter (Md),

Total sample weight (g)

(Φ ≥−4)

sorting coefficient (σΦ) and skewness (αΦ) were calcu-

738
628
425
785
477
509
760
591
797
366
632
403

lated applying the formulas of Inman (1952) using the

Sequential Fragmentation/Transport software (©KWARE,
Field sieved
(Φ −6, −5)

University of California 2000).

10125

For vesicularity measurements, 25–26 clasts of the

3630
1335
2035
7960
2250
2250

1315
8105
1425
7735

sieved −4Φ size-fraction for samples from distinct

0

stratigraphic levels were analyzed using the method of

Bed-type
Appendix 1

Houghton and Wilson (1989). To measure water displace-

ment, clasts were coated with a paraffin wax film and
A1

A1
A2
A2
A1
A2
A1

A1
B
B

loaded with a steel ballast. No direct relation between

Sample

particle weight (≈size) and vesicularity was found. This

P31A
P31B
P26
P27
P29
P30

P32
P33
P34
P35
P36
P44

verifies the representativity of the sample size (Houghton

878 Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880

Tachyl.

Grain size, vesicularity, and componentry data collected on scoria beds from the main cone. Grain-sizes and statistical parameters are reported in Φ units. Bed type: A= thick (>60 cm-
thick) beds. A1 =sample from main part. A2 =sample from fine-grained base; B= thin (<60 cm-thick) individual beds (sample from interior). MdΦ= median diameter, σΦ = sorting coefficient,
and Wilson 1989). The density of three dense bomb

17.6

28.4
Crystal-types (%) samples was measured with the same method and used as
a reference to calculate the vesicularity of scoria clasts

Siderom.
(density DRE=2.6 g/cm3). The vesicularity of four large

82.4

71.6
angular clasts ranging in size from 6 to 8 cm (−6Φ) was
also measured for comparison.
494

292
N

Appendix 2: Chemical analyses

Stdev
Vesicularity

αΦ=skewness (calculated using Inman 1952). Avg average, Stdev standard deviation, N number of particles counted, Siderom. sideromelane, Tachyl. tachylite
8.6

6.3
(vol.%)

Whole rock compositional data was measured using

68.7

70.3
Avg

Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission Spectrometry

(ICPES) and Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis
−0.02

(INAA) at Activation Laboratories, Ancaster, Canada.

0.29
0.46

0.17
0.50
0.51
0.56
αΦ

Crystals and scoria glasses were analyzed by a JEOL

2.45
1.75
1.88
0.90
1.70
2.07
1.58

JXA-8900R electron microprobe at the Laboratorio

σΦ
Statistics

Universitario de Petrología (LUP), Instituto de Geo-

−2.45
−4.60
−1.04
−5.50
−4.85
−4.56
−5.10

física, UNAM, México City. Measuring conditions were

MdΦ

a beam current of 10 nA, an accelerating potential of

20 kV, and a beam diameter of 15 µm for glass and 1–
1.3
0.6
1.5
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.3
>4

5 µm for crystal analysis. During glass analysis, Na and

2.5
1.1
2.4
0.5
0.8
1.0
0.6

K were analyzed first and using short counting times

4

(10 s) to avoid loss by volatilization. Counting times

4.2
1.8
3.9
0.8
1.6
2.0
1.3
3

were 60 s for minor elements (P, Ti, Cr, Ni) and 40 s

5.9
2.4
5.9
1.2
2.4
2.9
1.9

for the other elements. Only analyses with totals

2

>99 wt.% were considered, assuming that the glass

11.5
8.0
2.9

1.3
3.1
3.9
2.6

contained minor amounts of H2O. Basaltic glass standard

1

USNM 111240 VG-2 was mounted on a block and used

24.1
9.3
3.2

1.1
3.2
4.0
3.1

to calibrate Na, Al, Ti, and Fe before each run. This

0

standard was also analyzed at the beginning and end of

12.3

18.4
% Weight per grain-size fraction in Φ

4.1

1.2
3.5
4.1
3.4
−1

each run to monitor the stability of the instrument during

a given run and between different runs, and to check the
18.4

17.1
6.6

1.8
4.5
5.4
5.8
−2

consistency of the data with respect to accepted values. In

19.9
10.8
12.2

general, the standard compositional data obtained was

3.2
7.4
9.5
7.9
−3

consistent with published data (Jarosewich et al. 1980),

18.0
32.5

16.4
30.5
29.8
18.9

although minor elements showed relatively large uncer-

3.0
−4

tainties (average of all analyses with standard deviations:

33.8

51.4
42.4
36.8
54.3

50.41± 0.26 SiO2, 1.87± 0.06 TiO2, 14.08± 0.12 Al2O3,

0.0

0.0
−5

12.28 ± 0.15 FeO, 0.20 ± 0.05 MnO, 6.70 ± 0.16 MgO,

20.9

10.78 ± 0.11 CaO, 2.67 ± 0.10 Na2O, 0.18 ± 0.02 K2O,

0.0
0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0
0.0
−6

0.22± 0.04 P2O5, 99.42 ±0.54 total wt.%). Crystals were

Lab sieved

analyzed using adequate mineral standards. For analyzing

Total sample weight (g)

(Φ ≥−4)

chromium spinel, a chromium oxide (100% Cr2O3) was

438
556
289
680
976
830
405

used.
Field sieved
(Φ −6, −5)

4300

5910
8075
3705
3240

References
0

0
Bed-type
Table (continued)

Beattie P (1993) Olivine–melt and orthopyroxene–melt equilibria.

Contrib Mineral Petrol 115:103–111. doi:10.1007/BF00712982
A1
A2
A1
A1

A1
B

Blackburn EA, Wilson L, Sparks RSJ (1976) Mechanisms and

dynamics of Strombolian activity. J Geol Soc Lond 132:429–440
Sample

Bloomfield K (1975) A late-Quaternary monogenetic volcano field in

P45
P46
P47
P48
P49
P50
P51

central Mexico. Geol Rundsch 64:476–497

Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880
Boudreau AE (1999) PELE; a version of the MELTS software
program for the PC platform. Comput Geosci 25:201–203.
doi:10.1016/S0098-3004(98)00117-4
Carmichael IAE (2002) The andesite aqueduct: perspectives on the
evolution of intermediate magmatism in west-central (105–99°W)
Mexico. Contrib Mineral Petrol 143:641–663. doi:10.1007/
s00410-002-0370-9
Cervantes P, Wallace PJ (2003) Magma degassing and basaltic
eruption styles: a case study of the 2000 yr B.P. eruption of
Xitle Volcano, central Mexico. J Volcanol Geotherm Res
120:249–270. doi:10.1016/S0377-0273(02)00401-8
Fisher RV, Schmincke HU (1984) Pyroclastic rocks. Springer, New
York
Foshag WF, González J (1956) Birth and development of Paricutin
Volcano Mexico. US Geol Surv Bull 965D:355–489
Gaffney ES, Damjanac B, Valentine GA (2007) Localization of
volcanic activity. Earth Planet Sci Lett 263:323–338. doi:10.
1016/j.epsl.2007.09.002
Giordano D, Russell JK, Dingwell DB (2008) Viscosity of magmatic
liquids: A model. Earth Planet. Sci Lett 271:123–134.
doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.03.038
Hammer JE, Rutherford MJ (2002) An experimental study of the
kinetics of decompression-induced crystallization in silicic melt.
J Geophys Res 107:ECV 8-1. doi:10.1029/2001JB000281
Hasenaka T, Carmichael ISE (1985) The cinder cones of Michoacán-
Guanajuato, central Mexico: their age, volume and distribution,
and magma discharge rate. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 25:105–
124. doi:10.1016/0377-0273(85)90007-1
Head J, Wilson L (1989) Basaltic pyroclastic eruptions: influence of
gas-release patterns and volume fluxes on fountain structure, and
the formation of cinder cones, spatter cones, rootless flows, lava
ponds and lava flows. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 37:261–271.
doi:10.1016/0377-0273(89)90083-8
Heiken G (1972) Morphology and petrography of volcanic ashes.
Geol Soc Am Bull 83:1961–1988
Heiken G (1978) Characteristics of tephra form Cinder Cone, Lassen
Volcanic National Park, California. Bull Volcanol 41:119–130
Herrmann W, Berry RF (2002) MINSQ—a least squares spreadsheet
method for calculating mineral proportions from whole rock
major element analyses. Geochem Explor Environ Anal 2:61–
368. doi:10.1144/1467-787302-010
Houghton BF, Hackett WR (1984) Strombolian and phreatomagmatic
deposits of Oakune Craters, Ruapehu, New Zealand: a complex
interaction between external water and rising basaltic magma. J
Volcanol Geotherm Res 21:207–231. doi:10.1016/0377-0273(84)
90023-4
Houghton BF, Schmincke HU (1989) Rothernberg scoria cone, East
Eifel: a complex Strombolian and phreatomagmatic volcano. Bull
Volcanol 52:28–48. doi:10.1007/BF00641385
Houghton BF, Wilson CJN (1989) A vesicularity index for pyroclastic
deposits. Bull Volcanol 51:451–462. doi:10.1007/BF01078811
Inman DL (1952) Measures for describing the size distribution of
sediments. J Sed Petrol 22:125–145
Jarosewich E, Nelen JA, Norberg JA (1980) Reference samples for
electron microprobe analysis. Geostand Newslett 4:43–47
Johnson ER, Wallace PJ, Cashman KV, Delgado Granados H, Kent A
(2008) Magmatic volatile contents and degassing-induced crys-
tallization at Volcán Jorullo, Mexico: implications for melt
evolution and the plumbing systems at monogenetic volcanoes.
Earth Planet Sci Lett 269:478–487. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008. 03.004
Keating GN, Valentine GA, Krier DJ, Perry FV (2008) Shallow
plumbing systems for small-volume basaltic volcanoes. Bull
Volcanol 70:563–582. doi:10.1007/s00445-007-0154-1
Klug C, Cashman KV (1996) Permeability development in vesiculat-
ing magmas: implications for fragmentation. Bull Volcanol
58:87–100. doi:10.1007/s004450050128
879
Lautze N, Houghton BF (2007) Linking variable explosion style and
magma textures during 2002 at Stromboli volcano, Italy. Bull
Volcanol 69:445–460. doi:10.1007/s00445-006-0086-1
Luhr JF, Simkin T (1993) Paricutin, the volcano born in a cornfield.
Geoscience Press, Phoenix
Márquez A, De Ignacio C (2002) Mineralogical and geochemical
constraints for the origin and evolution of magmas in Sierra
Chichinautzin, Central Mexican Volcanic Belt. Lithos 62:35–62.
doi:10.1016/S0024-4937(02)00069-5
Márquez A, Verma SP, Anguita F, Oyarzun R, Brandle JL (1999)
Tectonics and volcanism of Sierra Chichinautzin: extension at the
front of the central Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. J Volcanol
Geotherm Res 93:125–150. doi:10.1016/S0377-0273(99)00085-2
Martin Del Pozzo AL (1982) Monogenetic volcanism in Sierra
Chichinautzin, Mexico. Bull Volcanol 45:9–24
McBirney AR, Taylor HP, Armstrong RL (1987) Paricutin re-
examined: a classic example of crustal assimilation in calc-
alkaline magma. Contrib Mineral Petrol 95:4–20
McGetchin TM, Settle M, Chouet BA (1974) Cinder cone growth
modeled after Northeast Crater, Mount Etna, Sicily. J Geophys
Res 79:3257–3272
Montierth C, Johnston AD, Cashman KV (1995) An empirical glass-
composition-based geothermometer for Mauna Loa lavas. An
Geophys Union Geophys Mon 92:207–217
Mooser F, Nairn AEM, Negendank JFW (1974) Palaeomagnetic
investigations of the Tertiary and Quaternary igneous rocks
(VIII): a paleomagnetic and petrologic study of volcanics of the
Valley of Mexico. Geol Rundsch 63:451–483
Nakamura K (1977) Volcanoes as possible indicators of tectonic stress
orientation—principle and proposal. J Volcanol Geotherm Res
2:1–16
Ordoñez ME (1947) El volcán de Paricutin. Fantasía, Mexico
Pichavant M, MacDonald R (2007) Crystallization of primitive
basaltic magmas at crustal pressures and genesis of the calc-
alkaline igneous suite: experimental evidence from St Vincent,
Lesser Antilles arc. Contrib Mineral Petrol 154:535–558.
doi:0.1007/s00410-007-0208-6
Pineau F, Shilobreeva S, Kadik A, Javoy M (1998) Water solubility
and D/H fractionation in the system basaltic andesite–H2O at
1250°C and between 0.5 and 3 kbars. Chem Geol 147:173–184.
doi:10.1016/S0009-2541(97)00180-0
Pinkerton H, Stevenson RJ (1992) Methods of determining the
rheological properties of magmas at sub-liquidus temperatures.
J Volcanol Geotherm Res 53:47–66. doi:10.1016/0377-0273(92)
90073-M
Pioli L, Erlunda E, Johnson ER, Cashman KV, Wallace PJ, Rosi M,
Delgado H (2008) Explosive dynamics of violent Strombolian
eruptions: the eruption of Paricutin Volcano 1943–1952 (Mexico).
Earth Planet Sci Lett 271:359–368. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.04.026
Polacci M, Corsaro RA, Andronico D (2006) Coupled textural and
compositional characterization of basaltic scoria: insights into the
transition from Strombolian to fire-fountain activity at Mt Etna,
Italy. Geology 3:201–204. doi:10.1130/G22318.1
Porter SC (1972) Distribution, morphology, and size frequency of
cinder cones on Mauna Kea Volcano, Hawaii. Geol Soc Am Bull
83:3607–3612
Putirka KD (2005) Igneous thermometers and barometers based on
plagioclase+liquid equilibria; tests of some existing models and
new calibrations. Am Mineral 90:336–346. doi:10.2138/
am.2005.1449
Putirka KD, Perfit M, Ryerson FJ, Jackson MG (2007) Ambient and
excess mantle temperatures, olivine thermometry, and active vs.
passive upwelling. Chem Geol 241:177–206. doi:10.1016/j.
chemgeo.2007.01.014
Riggs NR, Duffield WA (2008) Record of complex scoria cone
eruptive activity at Red Mountain, Arizona, USA, and implica-
880
tions for monogenetic mafic volcanoes. J Volcanol Geotherm Res
178:763–776. doi:10.1016/j.volgeores.2008.09.004
Sable J, Houghton BF, Del Carlo P, Coltelli M (2006) Changing
conditions of magma ascent and fragmentation during the Etna
122 BC basaltic Plinian eruption: evidence from clast micro-
textures. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 158:333–354. doi:10.1016/j.
jvolgeores.2006.07.006
Schaaf P, Stimac J, Siebe C, Macías JC (2005) Geochemical evidence
for mantle origin and crustal processes in volcanic rocks from
Popocatépetl and surrounding monogenetic volcanoes, Central
Mexico. J Petrol 46:1243–1282. doi:10.1093/petrology/egi015
Self S, Sparks RSJ, Booth B, Walker GPL (1974) The 1973 Heimaey
strombolian scoria deposit, Iceland. Geol Mag 111:539–548
Siebe C (2000) Age and archaeological implications of Xitle volcano,
southwestern Basin of Mexico City. J Volcanol Geotherm Res
104:45–64. doi:10.1016/S0377-0273(00)00199-2
Siebe C, Schaaf P, Urrutia-Fucugauchi J (1999) Mammoth bones
embedded in a late Pleistocene lahar from Popocatépetl Volcano,
near Tocuila, central Mexico. Geol Soc Am Bull 111:1550–1562
Siebe C, Rodríguez-Lara V, Schaaf P, Abrams M (2004a) Radiocarbon
ages of Holocene Pelado, Guespalapa, and Chichinautzin scoria
cones, south of Mexico City: implications for archeology and future
hazards. Bull Volcanol 66:203–225. doi:10.1007/s00445-003-0304-z
Siebe C, Rodríguez-Lara V, Schaaf P, Abrams M (2004b) Geochemistry,
Sr–Nd isotope composition, and tectonic setting of Holocene
Pelado, Guespalapa, and Chichinautzin scoria cones, south of
Mexico City. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 130:197–226. doi:10.1016/
S0377-0273(03)00289-0
Siebe C, Arana-Salinas L, Abrams M (2005) Geology and radiocarbon
ages of Tláloc, Tlacotenco, Cuauhtzin, Hijo del Cuauhtzin,
Teuhtli, and Ocusacayo monogenetic volcanoes in the central part
of the Sierra del Chichinautzin, México. J Volcanol Geotherm Res
141:225–243. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2004.10.009
Siebert L, Carrasco-Núñez G (2002) Late-Pleistocene to precolombian
behind-the-arc mafic volcanism in the eastern Mexican Volcanic
Belt: implications for future hazards. J Volcanol Geotherm Res
115:179–205. doi:10.1016/S0377-0273(01)00316-X
Sieron K, Siebe C (2008) Revised stratigraphy and eruption rates of
Ceboruco stratovolcano and surrounding monogenetic vents
(Nayarit, México) from historical documents and new radiocar-
bon dates. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 176:241–264. doi:10.1016/j.
jvolgeores.2008.04.006
Sugawara T (2000) Thermodynamic analysis of Fe and Mg partition-
ing between plagioclase and silicate liquid. Contrib Mineral
Petrol 138:101–113. doi:10.1007/s004100050011
Taddeucci J, Pompilio M, Scarlato P (2004) Conduit processes during
the July–August 2001 explosive activity of Mt Etna (Italy):
inferences from glass chemistry and crystal size distribution of
ash particles. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 137:33–54. doi:10.1016/j.
jvolgeores.2004.05.011
Bull Volcanol (2009) 71:859–880
Tatsumi Y (1982) Origin of high-magnesian andesites in the Setouchi
volcanic belt, southwest Japan, II. Melting relations at high
pressures. Earth Planet Sci Lett 60:305–317. doi:10.1016/0012-
821X(82)90009-7
Tatsumi Y, Ishizaka K (1982) Origin of high-magnesian andesites in
the Setouchi volcanic belt, southwest Japan, I. Petrological and
chemical characteristics. Earth Planet Sci Lett 60:293–304.
doi:10.1016/0012-821X(82)90008-5
Thomas RME, Sparks RSJ (1992) Cooling of tephra during fallout
from eruption columns. Bull Volcanol 54:542–553. doi:10.1007/
BF00569939
Valentine GA, Krogh KEC (2006) Emplacement of small dikes
and sills beneath a small basaltic volcanic center—the role of
pre-existing structure (Paiute Ridge, southern Nevada, USA).
Earth Planet Sci Lett 246:217–230. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.
04.031
Valentine GA, Keating GN (2007) Eruptive styles and inferences
about plumbing systems at Hidden Cone and Little Black Peak
scoria cone volcanoes (Nevada, U.S.A.). Bull Volcanol 170:105–
113. doi:10.10007/s00445-007-0123-8
Valentine GA, Gregg TKP (2008) Continental basaltic volcanoes—
processes and problems. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 177:857–873.
doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.01.050
Valentine GA, Krier D, Perry FV, Heiken G (2005) Scoria cone
construction mechanisms, Lathrop Wells volcano, southern
Nevada, USA. Geology 33:629–632. doi:10.1130/G21459.1
Valentine GA, Perry FV, Krier D, Keating GN, Kelley RE, Cogbill
AH (2006) Small-volume basaltic volcanoes: eruptive products
and processes, and posteruptive geomorphic evolution in Crater
Flat (Pleistocene), southern Nevada. Geol Soc Am Bull
118:1313–1330. doi:10.1130/B25956.1
Valentine GA, Krier DJ, Perry FV, Heiken G (2007) Eruptive and
geomorphic processes at the Lathrop Wells scoria cone volcano. J
Volcanol Geotherm Res 161:57–80. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.
2006.11.003
Vetere F, Behrens H, Holtz F, Neuville DR (2006) Viscosity of
andesitic melts—new experimental data and a revised calculation
model. Chem Geol 228:233–245. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2005.
10.009
Walker GPL (1973) Lengths of lava flows. Phil Trans R Soc Lond A
274:107–118
Wallace PJ, Carmichael ISE (1999) Quaternary volcanism near the
Valley of Mexico: implications for subduction zone magmatism
and the effects of crustal thickness variations on primitive magma
compositions. Contrib Mineral Petrol 135:291–314. doi:10.1007/
s004100050513
White J, Houghton B (2006) Primary volcaniclastic rocks. Geology
34:377–680. doi:10.1130/G22346.1
Wood CA (1980) Morphometric evolution of cinder cones. J Volcanol
Geotherm Res 7:387–413