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How One Physics Teacher
Changed His Algebraic Thinking
y his own admission, Mike Smith, Worthington tion of it (Hersh 1986), Mike's teaching could
Christian High School's physics teacher, has dra change as his beliefs about mathematics changed.
matically changed his concept of mathematics. From my perspective as a university researcher
Although I was the researcher in this study, the who is quite interested in teacher change, this
story that follows is Mike's story. Because Mike is a metamorphosis became a challenging and impor
professional colleague, I want him to be recognized tant study.
and credited for his contributions to educational
reform (see Shulman [1990]). I prefer to tell his STEPS TO CHANGE
One's view story with full recognition of who he is and where
he works.
The first step came when Mike realized that his
students were becoming knowledgeable about pro
of what Mark Pifer, the school's precalculus and calculus grammable calculators, yet he did not know how to
mathematics teacher, had tried for years to get Mike to use use them. Accordingly, he decided to attend a two
graphing calculators in his classroom. He had also
is affects day technology conference. At that point I asked
86
THE MATHEMATICS TEACHER
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ical, and symbolic representations. In fact, he is as they have worked with pH meters, voltage
now a teacher in week-long professional-development meters, temperature probes, motion detectors, and
institutes that incorporate technology, and he leads more. In one activity that Mike and I designed at
in-service training sessions for both mathematics the week-long institute, we used an effervescent
and science teachers. antacid tablet and a flask partially filled with
water. The activity proceeds as follows. First deter
UNDERSTANDING mine the temperature of the water and then drop in
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS the tablet and cork the flask. Using a pressure sen
Mike's previous use of graphical representations of sor inserted through the cork, collect data of the
functions had been minimal. Drawing graphs was pressure built up in the closed flask, measured in
tedious and seemed to him to be an unnecessary atmospheres, and time, measured in seconds.
added dimension. He did not have a working know Graph the data by plotting pressure values on the
vertical axis and time values on the horizontal axis
ledge of graphs of some functions, such as exponen
tial and trigonometric, nor did he capitalize on to see a linear relationship. Next use warmer water
transformations of those functions (i.e., vertical and and repeat the experiment. Use still warmer water
and conduct the experiment again to give similar
horizontal shifts, reflections, etc.) with their symbol
results.
ic representations. During the CMS institute, Mike
Figure 1 models examples of three experiments
began to understand algebraic concepts he had
using three different water temperatures. The
never understood before, and he began to appreci
graphs of y h y2, and y3 display the data derived from
ate their significance in science. Mike saw the
experiments using water temperatures of 21.0?C,
major change as "I'm seeing the calculator as a tool
30.2?C, and 33.3?C, respectively. The graphs show
to get where I want to go rather than as an obstacle
that a linear relationship occurs until the efferves
to keep me from going to where I want to go."
cent tablet has mostly dissolved, at which point the
CHANGE IN THE CLASSROOM pressure in the flask approaches its maximum value.
Figure 2a shows linear portions of the graphs from
Mike's science courses began to change. They went figure 1. These linear portions are the only por
from predominantly lectures to more hands-on work, tions of the graphs considered for this activity.
and his students began to incorporate calculator
generated graphs into their laboratory write-ups
and into their tests. One of the first incidents after
PRESSURE CftTMJ
Mike returned from the institute occurred in Mike's
marine biology class. Some students asked Mike if
it was true that every seventh wave that came onto
the beach was larger than the others. Mike
answered with the graphing calculator by showing TIME ?SEO
them that waves are sinusoidal and they have dif 10 Mike
ferent frequencies, depending on what causes them. saw the
Fig. 1
He put several sine functions with different fre
quencies together and showed students that a pat
Graphical representations from three experiments calculator
tern was evident in which one of the waves would
involving a corked flask and an effervescent tablet
dissolving in water as a tool
be larger than the others and that the pattern was rather than
a repeating one. According to Mike, prior to that
as an
time he had avoided sine functions in his classes
and had always skipped the sections dealing with
By looking at the graphs, one can see that the obstacle
steepness of the graphs differs, indicating that the
harmonic motion. Now during conference presenta
reaction rates, in atmospheres per second, are dif
tions, he tells others about his previous avoidance
ferent. The reaction rate is greater when warmer
of sinusoids as he demonstrates his firm grasp of water is used.
trigonometric concepts. He generates mathematical
The experiment up to this point gives algebra
models of harmonic motion with sinusoids, and he
students first-hand experience with slopes and
also models damped harmonic motion. He accom
makes nice connections among the data, the graph
plishes the latter by first finding an exponential ical representation, and the verbal links between
equation to model the decay due to damping and the steepness of graphs and reaction rates in
then inserting the exponential expression for the atmospheres per second. Extending the experiment
amplitude in the sinusoid. further, students can fit the data with linear func
tions and then find the equations of the functions.
EXAMPLES OF ACTIVITIES Slopes can be discussed and can be linked to steep
Mike's students have used much algebraic thinking ness of graphs and reaction rates.
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have the calculator find the numbers in the second
(b)
REACTION
Fig 2
Linear portions of the graphs in figure 1
and their regression equations
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The National Council of Teachers of Mathemat
Since 2o 1 approximately equals 1.07 and since
the calculated initial reaction rate of 0.0249 atmos ics (1989) discusses the effect that technology has
pheres per second approximately equals the experi had on the discipline of mathematics: "The new
mental initial reaction rate of 0.0246 atmospheres technology not only has made calculations and
per second, the regression equation of the experi graphing easier, it has changed the very nature of
ment closely resembles the calculated theoretical the problems important to mathematics and the
equation, y = 0.0246(1.07)*. Thus the experiments methods mathematicians use to investigate them"
confirm that the reaction rate in atmospheres per (p. 8). That outcome has certainly proved true in
second doubles for every 10?C increase in water Mike's case. As a result of the use of technology, not Mathematics
only have Mike's classroom practices changed, but
temperature when measuring pressure buildup in a
also his algebraic thinking has changed. Therefore,
allows one
closed flask of water in which an effervescent tablet
Mike changed the kinds of problems that his stu to see trends
is dissolving. Note that this activity incorporates
many mathematical concepts found in advanced
dents tackled and the manner in which his stu
and
dents were assessed. His changes in beliefs have
algebra. By using data that students have collected
permeated his classroom and have been passed on
tendencies
themselves, powerful connections can be made
among the numerical, graphical, and algebraic
to his students, who have reaped the benefits of his and to
new algebraic thinking.
representations. predict and
CHANGE IN MIKE'S
REFERENCES manipulate
ALGEBRAIC THINKING Hersh, Reuben. "Some Proposals for Revising the Phi- 1
losophy of Mathematics." In New Directions in the 1
By doing activities such as the one just described, Philosophy of Mathematics, edited by T. Tymoczko, I
Mike's algebraic thinking advanced in many ways, 9-28. Boston: Birkha?ser Boston, 1986. 88
not the least of which was his concept of what con National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Cur
stitutes mathematics. Mike had done much mathe riculum and Evaluation Standards for School Math
ematics. Reston, Va.: The Council, 1989.
matics, but we had never discussed the term math
Richardson, Virginia. "Significant and Worthwhile
ematics. After he had been using the calculator in
Change in Teaching Practice." Educational
his science classes, I asked Mike what he thought Researcher 19 (October 1990): 10-18.
mathematics was. His answer was recorded in his Schubert, William H., and William C. Ayers, eds.
journal: Teacher Lore: Learning from Our Own Experience.
White Plains, N.Y.: Longman Publishing Group,
I find that my concept of math has really been 1992.
stretched into looking at relationships. Rather than Shulman, Judith H. "Now You See Them, Now You
the math being an algebraic manipulation, it has now Don't: Anonymity versus Visibility in Case Studies
become more of a summation?a relationship of pat of Teachers." Educational Researcher 19 (August
terns or of tendencies and trends as a result of the
September 1990): 11-15. @
various factors that are interacting with whatever
problem it is we're talking about_So then, I'm
starting to see a relationship?what is actually occur
ring in a much broader sense, more than just a solu
tion for a problem. It's now trends and tendencies and
the ability to predict and manipulate, because I'm see
ing a bigger picture. And so, in that respect, the math
is showing me what's really happening?not just a
solution.
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