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Barb Bancroft, RN, MSN, PNP
Chicago IL
bbancr9271@aol.com
Definition of cancer…
• Cancer is the Latin word for crab. The ancients
used the word to mean a malignancy, most
likely because of the crab‐like tenacity a
malignant tumor sometimes seems to show in
grasping the tissues it invades.
Definition of cancer…
• Cancer is an abnormal growth of cells which tend to
proliferate (grow) in an uncontrolled way and, in
some cases, to metastasize (spread to other parts of
the body).
• Cancer is not one disease. It is a group of more than
100 different and distinctive diseases—breast
cancer, colon cancer, skin cancer, leukemia,
lymphoma, multiple myeloma, bone cancer…and on,
and on, and on…
• Who’s responsible for this abnormal growth of cells?
Who’s responsible for this abnormal
growth of cells?
• YOUR GENES
• Cell growth is a controlled by highly regulated
systems located in your genetic code or DNA
• Normal human cells stop dividing after 50‐70
generations
• Once cells have finished their lifespan they
undergo a process called apoptosis (a‐poh‐
toe‐sis)
• Pre‐programmed cell death
Some examples of apoptosis
• During embyogenesis (when you are
developing in the womb)
• You have a TAIL
• You have “flippers” for arms and legs
Family history and genes
• So, does a family history play a role in the
development of cancer? Yes, especially if you
inherit certain genes…
• But it’s not all family history and genes;
environmental conditions may also contribute
to “changing the genes”…
Normal growth and proliferation
• Biologists estimate that more than 100 million
billion cells must cooperate to keep a human
being healthy over the course of an 80‐year
lifespan
But if, and when, something goes
wrong…
• All cancer cells have serious problems with their
genetic material known as DNA;
• Accumulated damage over time to DNA
• Alterations to the DNA inside cells results in cells
that have “superpowers”; they can grow anywhere
and can continue to divide indefinitely (lose the
process of apoptosis)
It’s a system of “checks and
balances”…
• Some genes say GROW—called “activator”
genes…
• Other genes say STOP growth—called
“suppressor genes”
• Some genes say…”I’m going to keep growing
regardless of any checks and balances…” and
other genes say, “why suppress growth…I’ll
just let the cells continue to grow without any
controls…”—these are called ONCOGENES
The story of Henrietta Lacks
• Immortalization—the ability of limitless
replicative potential—HeLa cells (Henrietta
Lacks)
The story of Henrietta Lacks
• Diagnosed with an aggressive form of cervical
cancer in 1951 at 37 years of age
• Cells were removed from her cervix and found
to be “immortal”—they have NEVER stopped
growing (as of 2011)
• HeLa cells—used by Jonas Salk for polio
vaccine, cancer research, AIDS research,
effects of toxic radiation, gene mapping,
cosmetics, glue
Henrietta Lacks
• Scientists have grown 20 TONS of her cells
over the past 60 years
• 11,000 patents
What cells in your body divide the
most during a lifetime?
• The cells that cover the body and the cells that line
body cavities…known as epithelial cells
• Skin—outside coverings
• Lung—cells lining the tubes (bronchioles) of the lung
are epithelial cells
• Breast—the cells lining the ducts of the breast are
epithelial cells
• Prostate—the cells covering the prostate gland are
epithelial cells
• Colon—the cells lining the entire GI tract are
epithelial cells
So, what are the most common
cancers?
• Epithelial cancers—increased turnover with
increased risk of DNA mutations and loss of control
of growth
• #1 cancer in North America? SKIN
• #2 lung cancer
• #3 prostate in men
• #3 breast cancer in women
• #4 colon cancer
Let’s talk about normal growth and
proliferation…divide as needed to replace lost cells
• Skin cells—how often do you get an entire
new ‘Birthday suit’?
• About every 12 days…more often with excess
sun exposure and diseases such as psoriasis
• The faster the cells have to repair themselves,
the higher the risk of a “loss of control of
growth”…
Respiratory linings
• A new lining of the lung bronchioles every 4 to
5 days; faster with smoking (cigars, cigarettes,
cigarillos, and chewing tobacco)
• asbestos, pollution, radon also contribute
Gastrointestinal epithelium
• Normal renewal of the epithelial lining of
the small intestine every 4 to 6 days;
colonic turnover every 3 to 8 days
• All comes out in the end as
feces…comprosed of? dead cells,
carcasses of bowel bacteria, water and 1
kernel of corn)
Digression #1: Fiber, fiber, fiber…
• Get it in and get it out!
• Fatty foods stay in the GI tract for a longer time…triggering
inflammation and DNA changes
• GI transit time…less than 72 hours
• How can you tell what meal is hitting the toilet bowl? Eat corn
tonight…
• Floaters vs. sinkers
Breast ductal epithelial linings—prolonged
hormone stimulation and proliferation
• Monthly fluctuations of hormones influence the ductal linings
of the breast
• LIFETIME exposure to hormones
• Long period of periods
• It’s NOT just postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy
Do you get cancer overnight?
• Absolutely not…
• Many changes must occur to the cells over a long
period of time…
• Most cancers occur with aging…
• YES, there are young people with cancer, but look at
the breast cancer risk and aging…
• Skin cancer is rare in young kids
• Lung cancer…when did you start smoking?
• Colon cancer—average age is over 60
Age and breast cancer
Age 20 – 1/2044
Age 30 – 1/249
Age 40 – 1/67
Age 50 – 1/36
Age 60 – 1/29
Age 70 – 1/24
Age 80 – 1/11
Age 90 – 1/8
What does aging have to do with it?
• And, as cells get older, they are less likely to
cooperate with others…sound familiar?
PLUS…
• Immune system T cells and Natural Killer cells
lose their ability to recognize and destroy
cancer cells…may make as many as 100 cancer
cells per day and the immune system destroys
them—as long as the immune system is
HEALTHY…the aging immune system…
In addition to aging cells, what else can change
the DNA of cells? Environmental causes?
• Radiation—double‐edged sword (Roentgen,
Hiroshima, multiple CT scans), Madame Curie,
nuclear meltdowns
• Sunlight—double‐edged sword—early
exposure, burns
• Chemicals—asbestos, benzene, b‐napthalene
Pathogens
• Viruses—Hepatitis C Virus (HCV),
Hepatitis B Virus, Epstein‐Barr Virus
(EBV), HumanTLymphotrophic Virus
(HTLV), Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)*,
(CMV and glioblastoma?) Kaposi’s
sarcoma Herpes Virus
• Bacteria (1)—H. pylori (stomach ulcers,
and gastric cancer) (#1 cancer in1900 in
US and Canada)
Human Papilloma Virus vaccine
• Prevention of HPV induced cervical cancer
• HPV‐induced throat cancer
• HPV‐induced rectal cancer
What else?
• Genetics—who’s your momma? Who’s your
daddy? (the younger the family member with
cancer, the higher the risk for a genetic
cancer…MOM with breast cancer at 36 vs.
MOM with breast cancer at 96)
• Screening starts earlier in families of early
onset cancer
• 1st mammogram?
What else?
• Incessant hormonal stimulation—estrogen,
progesterone, testosterone
Does chronic inflammation contribute to DNA
changes and cancer?
• Yes, yes, yes…
• Chronic hepatitis (B or C) (alcoholic hepatitis)
and cancer of the liver
• Chronic ulcerative colitis (inflammation of the
colon)
• Chronic esophagitis (due to GERD)—also
known as Barrett’s esophagus
• Chronic gastritis and stomach cancer
How about BOOZE?
• Controversial
• May play a role in promoting certain cancers but is it the
CAUSE of certain cancers?
• You DON’T want to drink if you have chronic hepatitis—
increases the risk of liver cancer by 100 times
• It is generally agreed that ONE drink a day is NOT harmful for
most people
How about smoking?
• 87% of all lung cancers have been linked to
smoking
• Cancers of the mouth, lips, tongue,
esophagus, stomach, bladder
• Some people are lucky…
How are cancers “named”?
• It all depends on the tissue from which the
cancer has developed
• It all starts back at the very beginning…when
the sperm meets the egg
Sperm + egg = zygote
• 1 stem cell, 2 stem cells, 4 stem cells, 8 stem cells,
16, 32, 64, 128
• Blastocyst
• Digs into the uterine lining and starts the process of
“differentiation” or growing up
• 3 germ layers (first evidence of differentiation)
Differentiation
• Start out as an immature, undifferentiated,
embryonic stem cell and go through various
stages of differentiation to become a mature,
fully differentiated adult cell
Digression: stem cell transplants
• Stem cell transplants—
• We can get the stem cells from embryos
• We can harvest the stem cells from umbilical
cord blood OR,
• abdominal fat tissue (University of Southern
California request for donors)
Let’s go back to your 3 layers
• ECTODERM
• Outer coverings—skin, linings of all body cavities and
the nervous system
• Your skin has different types of epithelial cells—it
has short, squat cells called squamous cells, basal
cells that make up the base of the hair follicles, and
melanocytes that produce melanin for skin coloring
• Other epithelial cells…skin, breast ducts, bronhioles
of the lungs, GI tract epithelial layer
Endoderm‐‐“innards”
• Glands (thyroid, pancreas, mucous glands in
the stomach, mucous glands in the lungs,
mucous glands in the colon)
• The medical term for gland is “adeno”
Mesoderm
• “middle layer”
• Connective tissue
• Bones
• Muscle
• Cartilage
• Bone marrow
• Lymphatic tissue
• And, of course, the ever‐present fat tissue
The dreaded 4 words…“You have a
tumor”…neoplasm
• A neoplasm means “new growth”
• Once this growth is removed, the pathologist
determines whether it is a benign neoplasm
or a malignant neoplasm
• Naming the tumor provides a clue to whether
it is benign or malignant
Nomenclature‐‐is it a benign tumor?
• If the tumor is benign, add “oma” to the tissue
type; Gland—adenoma; a glandular tumor of
the thyroid is a thyroid adenoma; pituitary
adenoma; adenoma of the breast
• Bone—osteoma
• Fatty tumor—lipoma
• Cartilage—chondroma
• Smooth muscle—leiomyoma (a smooth
muscle benign tumor of the uterus is called a
leiomyoma or FIBROID)
Besides nomenclature, what makes a benign
tumor “benign”?
• It grows slowly; the rate of division is slow (few mitotic cells)
• When you look at the cells under a microscope, the cells are
mature and they “stick” together—don’t break off and
“spread” (metastasize)
• The benign tumor cells may function as normal cells and
produce hormones from that tissue, over and above the usual
output (thyroid adenomas producing excessive thyroid
hormone; for example—George Bush, Sr. …)
If the tumor is malignant, which cell
layer did it come from?
• Cancers of the ectodermal tissues are called
carcinomas with the type of cell as a descriptor
• Squamous cell carcinoma of the skin,
• Squamous cell carcinoma of the lung
• Basal cell carcinoma of the skin
• Intraductal carcinoma of the breast
More nomenclature—lung cancer
• Bronchogenic carcinoma (lung cancer) is
subdivided into 2 types
• Small cell carcinoma (oat cell)
• Non‐small cell carcinoma—includes large cell
carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and
adenocarcinoma
Endodermal derivatives (glands)‐‐
carcinomas
• Prefix for gland is “adeno”—
• A malignant glandular tumor is an “adenocarcinoma”
• Adenocarcinoma of the colon
• Adenocarcinoma of the lung
• Adenocarcinoma of the esophagus (commonly seen after
Barrett’s esophagus)
Mesodermal tissues‐‐sarcomas
• Chondrosarcoma (cartilage)
• Osteogenic sarcoma (bone)
• Liposarcoma (fat)
• Rhabdomyosarcoma (skeletal muscle)
• Leiomyosarcoma (smooth muscle)
Nomenclature
• Malignancies are also defined by their level of
differentiation/maturity; the more immature the
tumor appears, the faster it grows
• Well‐differentiated, poorly differentiated
• Well‐differentiated adenocarcinoma of the colon;
poorly differentiated adenocarcinoma of the
pancreas
• The more immature the cancer, the faster it grows,
and the easier it spreads
Nomenclature
• Undifferentiated—looks very primitive
(embryonic) and it may be difficult to
determine where the tissue of origin is
• If the tumor is VERY immature, it takes on the
characteristics of an extremely “early” cell in
the growth of that tissue; these cells are
called “BLAST” cells
• neuroBLASToma, nephroBLASToma, acute
myeloBLASTic leukemia
How about some “misnomers”
• Leukemia (it’s a bone marrow cancer—bone marrow is a
mesodermal derivative so it should be a “sarcoma” but it’s
never called that…
• Is it an acute (very immature cells) or chronic leukemia (more
mature cells)?
• There are two cell lines in the bone marrow
1) lymphoid
2) myeloid
• Acute lymphoblastic leukemia or chronic lymphocytic
leukemia
• Acute myeloblastic leukemia or chronic myelocytic leukemia
How about another “misnomer”?
• LYMPHOMA – sounds benign, but isn’t…it’s
also a mesodermal derivative and should be a
“lymphosarcoma”
• We divide lymphomas into two MAJOR
types…
• Hodgkin’s lymphoma
• Non‐Hodgkin’s lymphoma
What’s the difference between a Hodgkin’s
lymphoma and a non‐Hodgkin’s lymphoma?
• The Reed‐Sternberg cell
• Stage at presentation
• Symptomatic at presentation
• Hodgkin’s – men, young adults
• NHL—younger and older usually (child with the unilaterally
swollen tonsil)
How about a third “misnomer”?
• Melanoma or nonmelanoma skin cancers
• Should be a melanocarcinoma but it has been
shortened to melanoma or “malignant”
melanoma
ABCDEFs…of malignant melanoma
• Asymmetrical
• Border—irregular
• Color variation
• Diameter bigger than a pencil eraser (6 mm)
• Elevation
• Funny feeling
Brain tumors have their own special
nomenclature
• Not referred to as carcinomas
even though the nervous system is
an ectodermal derivative
• Astrocytoma
• Glioblastoma multiforme
• Medulloblastoma
• Ependymomas
• oligodendrogliomas
Grading establishes the aggressiveness of the
tumor
• Grade I‐IV or V—establishes the
aggressiveness of the tumor
• The lower your grade, the better
• Example: Brain tumors—Grade I
astrocytoma vs. Grade IV astrocytoma
(glioblastoma multiforme)
Staging establishes the amount of
tumor in the body
• Staging—Stages I‐IV (usually I‐IV, can be I –V
in some cancers)
• The lower your stage, the less tumor in the
body
• Example: Hodgkin’s disease—Stage I (one
group of lymph nodes)
• Also give the stage a letter—IA (without
symptoms), IB (with symptoms)
Grading and Staging malignant tumors
• TNM system—tumor size, node involvement,
metastases
• Example: Breast cancer T1, N1, M0 vs. T3, N2,
M+
• Tumor size, one lymph node group, no distant
metastases
• Staging—T1, N0, M0 is Stage I, Stage IIA is T0,
N1, M0, Stage IIB is T2, N1, M0 for examples
Other staging classifications
• Clark’s levels for melanoma—depth not width
• Gleeson score for prostate cancer—
aggressiveness with higher numbers
• Duke’s classification for colon cancer
What are tumor “markers”? What do we mean
by hormone receptors?
• PSA testing for prostate glands
• CEA testing for gastrointestinal tumors
• CA‐125 for ovarian cancer
• Estrogen receptors for breast cancer
Breast cancer prognostic factors
• Estrogen receptor positive—more mature,
well‐differentiated breast cancer; treated with
estrogen blockers such as tamoxifen and the
aromatase inhibitors (Femara, Arimidex)
• Estrogen receptor negative
• Progesterone receptor positive
• Progesterone receptor negative
• HER2‐neu
Questions you might have…
• Since I had cancer once, do I have a higher risk
of cancer again? YES, remember it’s “in your
genes”…
• What are your continued risk factors?
• What was your treatment regimen for your
first cancer? Some treatments actually
increase your risk for a second cancer
• RADIATION to the chest area (mantle
radiation) and breast cancer (RR 39)
What is the RR?
• Relative risk
• Starting a study? Your RR is 1
Risk factors for breast cancer—just how
high is the “HRT/ET” risk?
• HRT—1.26 (RR)
• CE Estrogen alone ‐‐ .77
• College grad – 1.28
• Never pregnant/first pregnancy after 30 – 1.37
• Flight attendant – 1.87
• 2 drinks per day – 1.52
• And…
• Waist to hip ratio greater than 0.8 – Relative
Risk=3.3
• Electric blanket use – 4.9
Obesity and breast cancer
• Increases risk of
breast cancer by 112
percent in post‐
menopausal
females, not
premenopausal
females
Weight gain and cancer
• NHL ‐‐ +95%
• Breast (PMF)—112%
• Pancreatic ‐‐ +176%
• Kidney ‐‐ +375%
• Colorectal ‐‐ +46%
• Ovarian ‐‐ +51%
• Uterine ‐‐ +525%
As a point of reference for relative risks—
smoking and lung cancer
• Tobacco smoking and lung cancer—the
relative risk is 26.07
Another question
• What chemotherapy did you receive?
• Alkylating agents (Cytoxan or cyclophosphamide) for
cancer may cause cancer
• CMF, CAF, CEF regimens for breast cancer and
leukemia
• Anthracycline antibiotics such as epirubicin and
adriamycin as well as trastuzumab (Herceptin) for
breast cancer may cause heart failure
One last word to the wise…
• Continue to get your health check‐ups in ALL
body systems!
• It’s not JUST cancer you have to worry about…
• Cancer patients have heart disease, diabetes,
and other chronic diseases
• Get your annual mammograms…guys, get
your prostates checked, colonoscopies…
Bibliography
• Spechler SJ. Latest thinking in Barrett’s esophagus: Heading
off esophageal cancer. Patient Care. Sept 1 2005)
• Kaelin CM, Neugut AI. Implementing the gains in cancer
prevention. Patient Care. Sept 1 2005.
• DeVita VT, Hammond DB, McLeod DG. Follow‐up care for
survivors of breast and prostate cancer. Patient Care Sept 1
2005.
• Baron A, Brassell SA, Shulman LP. Early cancer diagnosis:
Present and future. Patient Care. Sept. 1 2005)
• Harvard Women’s Health Watch. Recognizing and treating
basal cell carcinoma. May 2006.
Thank you..
• Barb Bancroft, RN, MSN, PNP
• www.barbbancroft.com
• BBancr9271@aol.com